Module 11A.10 L3 2016-11-01

Aircraft Maintenance College 66
Module 11A.10
Fuel Systems
(ATA 28)
Level 3
01 - 11 - 2016 EASA Part 66
EASA P66 MOD 11A.10 L3 Training Manual
Aircraft Maintenance College 66
EASA Part 66
Training Manual
For Training Purposes Only
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EASA P66 MOD 11A.10 L3

Aircraft Maintenance College 66 Fuel Systems (ATA 28)
Contact address for

course registrations
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66, following ATA 104 specifications.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. REQUIREMENTS........................................................... 10 5. FUELING.................................................................... 100
1.1 Jet transport aircraft fuel systems................................... 12 5.1 Fueling Procedures...................................................... 104
1.2 Storage system............................................................ 14 5.2 Refueling................................................................... 106
1.3 Fuel feed system........................................................... 14 5.2.1 Refueling Control Panel......................................... 108
1.4 Refuel/defuel and drain system....................................... 14 5.3 Refueling System Operation (B757)............................... 112
1.5 Jettison system............................................................. 15 5.4 Refueling Valve........................................................... 116
1.6 Fuel quantity indication system....................................... 15 5.5 Refuel/Defuel Coupling................................................ 122
1.7 Fuel system valve actuation............................................ 15 5.5.1 Closed................................................................ 124
5.5.2 Fueling mode....................................................... 124
2. FUEL TANKS................................................................ 18 5.5.3 Reverse flow check mode...................................... 124
2.1 Type of fuel tanks......................................................... 22 5.5.4 Defuel mode........................................................ 124
2.1.1 Integral tanks........................................................ 22 5.6 Manifold drain check valve............................................ 124
2.1.2 Bladder Tanks........................................................ 36 5.7 Manifold Vacuum Valve................................................ 126
2.1.3 Rigid Tanks............................................................ 40 5.8 Overfill protection....................................................... 126
2.2 Fuel Tank Ventilation..................................................... 42
2.2.1 Float Valve............................................................ 46 6. DEFUELING................................................................ 128
2.2.2 Burst Protection..................................................... 50 6.1 Pressure Defueling...................................................... 130
2.2.3 Vent Scoop Or NACA Valve....................................... 54 6.2 Suction Defueling........................................................ 132
2.2.4 Flame Arrestor....................................................... 56 6.3 Tank-To-Tank Transfer.................................................. 134
2.3 Tank Draining............................................................... 58
7. FUEL JETTISON.......................................................... 136
3. ENGINE FUEL FEED SYSTEM......................................... 62
3.1 Fuel Pump.................................................................... 66 8. FUEL QUANTITY INDICATION.................................... 142
3.1.1 Pump Operation..................................................... 68 8.1 Capacity Measuring..................................................... 146
3.1.2 Removal Of A Fuel Pump......................................... 70 8.2 Measuring Fuel Quantity.............................................. 150
3.2 Jet Pump..................................................................... 74 8.2.1 Analogue Measurement......................................... 150
3.3 Pressure Switches......................................................... 78 8.2.2 Electronic Compensation....................................... 150
3.4 Air Release Valve.......................................................... 80 8.2.3 Ultrasonic Compensation....................................... 151
3.5 Fire Shutoff Valve.......................................................... 82 8.3 Measuring With Magnetic Level Indicators...................... 154
3.6 Cross-Feed System....................................................... 88 8.4 Indications And Warnings............................................. 164
3.7 Sequence Valves........................................................... 92
4. APU FUEL FEED SYSTEM.............................................. 96
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
9. FUEL SYSTEM EXPLOSION SUPPRESSION (SFAR 88). 168
10. LONGITUDINAL BALANCE FUEL SYSTEMS................ 170

10.1 Introduction............................................................. 170
10.2 Determine The CG..................................................... 174
10.3 System Operation..................................................... 176
11. FUEL CONTAMINATION............................................ 178

11.1 Checking For Fuel System Contaminants...................... 178
11.2 Types Of Contaminants.............................................. 180
11.3 Detection Of Contaminants......................................... 182
11.4 Human Error . .......................................................... 183
11.5 Tests For Detecting Presence Of Water......................... 183
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Aircraft Pressure Refueling................................................ 103 Fuel Capacitance Probes Installation.................................. 149
Aircraft Refueling............................................................. 115 Fuel Control Panel........................................................... 142
Air Release Valve...............................................................81 Fuel Feed System B757......................................................65
APU Fuel Feed...................................................................97 Fuel Jettision.................................................................. 137
APU Fuel Feed System A320...............................................99 Fuel Jettison A330........................................................... 139
Auxiliary Fuel Tank.............................................................40 Fuel Jettison B777........................................................... 138
Baffle check valves are installed in the locations shown in the inte- Fuel Jettison Panel A300................................................... 141
gral tank rib structure of a Boeing 737 airliner. Fuel Jettison Panel B777................................................... 141
Fuel is prevented from flowing outboard during maneuvers.....33 Fuel Measuring Stick........................................................ 155
Bladder Tank Installation....................................................38 Fuel Measuring Stick........................................................ 156
Booster Pump With Sequence Valve.....................................94 Fuel Measuring Stick Layout B777...................................... 159
Burst Protection................................................................52 Fuel Pump Canister............................................................67
Center Tank Bladder Installation..........................................39 Fuel Pump Removal...........................................................71
Close-up Of Sealing In Integral Tank....................................25 Fuel Quantity Indication A320........................................... 144
Combination Of Panels And Other Tank Components...............32 Fuel Quantity Measuring Schematic B757............................ 147
Complete Fuel Feed System A320........................................64 Fuel Sampling For Water................................................... 184
Crossfeed Valve Control Circuit............................................91 Fuel Shut-Off Valve Control Circuit B767...............................85
DC10 Fuel System Schematic..............................................13 Fuel Shutoff Valve Installation.............................................87
Different Sizes Of Tank Units............................................. 148 Fuel Shutoff Valve Layout A340...........................................86
Drain Valve Assembly.........................................................60 Fuel Synoptic Display B777............................................... 145
External Rigid Fuel Tank.....................................................41 Fuel Tank Access Panel.......................................................30
Fire Shutoff Valve..............................................................84 Fuel Tank Access Panel Locations.........................................27
Flame Arrester..................................................................57 Fuel Tank Access Panels.....................................................28
Float Valve.......................................................................48 Fuel Tank Access Panels With Other Tank Equimpment Fitted...32
Float Valve Installation On B767..........................................47 Fuel Tank Capacitance Unit............................................... 148
Float Valve Operation.........................................................49 Fuel Tank Layout B777.......................................................20
Four Crossfeed Valves Configuration.....................................90 Fuel Tank Layout Overview A320.........................................21
Fuel Balancing................................................................. 171 Fuel Tank Layout Overview A330.........................................19
Fuel Booster Pump B777....................................................72 Fuel Tank Leak Assessment.................................................35
Fuel Boost Pump Contol......................................................69 Fuel Tank Quantity Indication Showing Fuel Height Per Tank Unit.
Fuel Boost Pump Internal Workings......................................66 153
Fuel Boost Pump Removal...................................................73 Fuel Tank Seal Plan............................................................24
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fuel Tank Venting System B757...........................................45 Refueling Adapter Operation............................................. 123
Fuel Valve Schematic.........................................................17 Refueling Panel A320....................................................... 109
Fuel Valve Schematic With See And Feel Indicator..................16 Refueling Panel A330....................................................... 111
Fuel Venting System A340..................................................44 Refueling Panel B777....................................................... 107
Hydrokit Sample.............................................................. 187 Refueling Valve B767....................................................... 118
Impact Resistant Door........................................................29 Refuel Panel B757........................................................... 114
Integral Tank Inner View....................................................23 Refuel Valve Installation................................................... 119
Inter-Tank Pressure Relief Valve...........................................50 Refuel Valve Operation..................................................... 121
Inter Tank Transfer System A330....................................... 129 Remote Water Drain Valve..................................................59
Jet Pump..........................................................................75 Scavange Jet Pump............................................................75
Jet Pump And Shutoff Valve................................................77 Sequence Valve Operation A300..........................................95
Jet Pump And Shutoff Valve................................................79 Sequence Valves...............................................................93
Jet Pump Cut-Away............................................................76 Shell Water Detector & Capsules........................................ 185
Leveling Scale Installation A320........................................ 161 Single Crossfeed Valve Configuration....................................89
Leveling Scale Installation B757........................................ 160 Supersonic Transport Fuel Trimming Example...................... 173
Magnetic Level Indicator Operation.................................... 157 Trim Tank Operation A340 Example Transfer From Center Tank To
Magnetic Level Indicator Reference Chart........................... 162 Trim Tank....................................................................... 172
Manifold Drain Check Valve............................................... 125 Types Of Drain Valve..........................................................61
Mean Aerodynamic Chord................................................. 177 Typical Bladder Tank..........................................................37
Measuring Stick Usage..................................................... 163 Typical Loading Graph For Small Aircraft............................. 175
Methods Of Securing Fuel Tank Access Panels........................31 Ultrasonic Tank Unit......................................................... 152
NACA Air Scoop.................................................................54 ultrasonic water detector.................................................. 152
NACA Scoop And Flame Arrester..........................................55 Ultrasonic Water Detector...................................................60
Overfill Protection Float Switch.......................................... 127 Various Types Of Fuel Quantity Displays.............................. 143
Overpressure Protection A330.............................................51 Warnings And Indications A320......................................... 165
Overwing Refueing.......................................................... 102 Warnings And Indications B767......................................... 167
Pressure Defueling A340................................................... 131
Pressure Defueling A340................................................... 133
Pressure Refueling Manifold B777...................................... 101
Pressure Relief Valve..........................................................53
Pressure Relief Valve..........................................................61
Protective Equipment For Working Inside A Fuel Tank.............34
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

APU Auxiliary Power Unit
CG Center Of Gravity
EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
ECAM Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor
FAR Federal Aviation Regulations
GW Gross Weight
MAC Mean Aerodynamic Chord
MLW Maximum Landing Weight
MTOW Maximum Take Off Weight
NACA National Advisory Committee For Aeronautics
SFAR Special Aviation Regulation
STC Supplemental Type Certificate
VTO Volumetric Top Off
X-Feed Cross Feed
ZFW Zero Fuel Weight
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THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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1. REQUIREMENTS
All powered aircraft depend for their operation on Contamination in the fuel may clog strainers and
the continuous flow of uncontaminated fuel under all shut off the flow of fuel to the engines. Water that
operating conditions. The weight of the fuel constitutes condenses in partially filled tanks will stop the engine
a good percentage of the total weight of the aircraft. when it flows into the metering system. Water in
This may range from about 10% of the gross weight turbine-powered aircraft is a special problem, as the
of small personal airplanes, to more than 40% of the more viscous jet fuel will hold water entrained in such
gross weight for some business jet aircraft used on tiny particles that it does not easily settle out. When
long overseas flights. the fuel temperature drops at high altitude, the water
may form ice crystals, which can freeze in the fuel
The weight of the fuel requires that the structure be filters and shut off the flow of fuel to the engine.
strong enough to carry it in all flight conditions. The
fuel tanks must also be located so that the decreasing
weight of the fuel will not cause balance problems as
the fuel is being used.
There have been more aircraft accidents caused by the
improper management of the fuel system than those
caused by failures of any other single system. Engine
failure may be caused running out of fuel, but engines
will also stop if an empty tank is selected when there is
fuel in the other tanks or contaminated fuel blocks the
engine fuel filters.
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1.1 Jet transport aircraft fuel systems

The purpose of the fuel system is it to store a needed
amount of fuel in the tanks and deliver a constant
amount of uncontaminated fuel under pressure to
one or more engines. In larger long range aircraft,
additional tanks can be installed e.g. in the horizontal
stabilizer for center of gravity control.
In general, the fuel system consists of the following
subsystems:
-- Storage system and fuel ventilation
-- Fuel feed system
-- Refueling and defueling system
-- Fuel quantity indication system
-- Fuel jettison (dump) system
-- Longitudinal trim (center of gravity control)
Figure 1 shows a complete fuel system on a DC10
airliner.
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figure 1, DC10 Fuel System Schematic

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1.2 Storage system 1.3 Fuel feed system

The storage system stores the fuel prior to it being Fuel needs to be fed to the engines and although the
used. In general fuel is stored in the wings and center engines are capable of “sucking “ the fuel out of the
fuselage, so it does not upset the aircraft longitudinal tanks, booster pumps in the engine fuel feed system
stability too much. Some aircraft have fuel stored in ensure a positive flow of fuel to the engines at all
the tail section. These are small capacity tanks and times. This ensures the engine does not flame out
can be used to trim the aircraft (that is why they are during rapid acceleration due to fuel starvation.
also called trim tanks). By pumping fuel in or out of
the trim tanks, the center of gravity can be better When the engine is shut down, weather normally or in
controlled. an emergency, the fuel supply to the engine has to be
cut-off, so the system is fitted with one or more fuel
To ensure that no fuel vapors build up in the fuel tanks shut-off valves.
during refueling operation or in flight, the tanks are
ventilated to atmosphere. It also prevents pressure
build-up during refueling and negative pressure during 1.4 Refuel/defuel and drain system
defueling and normal use. The refuel/defuel system allows fuel to be added or
removed from the tanks. On most large aircraft the
tanks are refueled from a single point and have an
automatic shut-off feature to stop the fueling at a
preset level.
Defueling, mainly for maintenance purposes, uses the
same system as refueling, only in reverse. Once all the
fuel has been removed with the defuel system, there
is still some fuel remaining in the tanks that the defuel
system cannot reach. This can then be drained out
with fuel drain valves.
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1.5 Jettison system 1.7 Fuel system valve actuation

Large transport aircraft usually have a maximum Valves nowadays, are driven electrically. The figure 2
landing weight (MLW) which is lower than its maximum below shows a typical actuator. Pay special attention
take off weight (MTOW), so in case of an emergency to the “see and feel” indicator. This feature makes it
after take off and the aircraft needs to return to the possible to determine the valve position when visible
airport, the weight needs to be reduced first. access to the actuator is limited. Depending on the
importance of safety, some actuators are equipped
The only logical way to do this is dump fuel, so a fuel with two electric motors. In this case, they are
jettison system allows the crew to do that quickly. supplied from different electrical sources.
Not all aircraft have a fuel jettison system, but large Another type of “see and feel” indicator can be seen in
aircraft like the Boeing 777 do. The system will only figure 3 and as also commonly used on larger aircraft.
allow the crew to dump some of the fuel. The indicator not only shows the position of the valve,
it also allows the valve to be manually operated. First
1.6 Fuel quantity indication system removing the electrical plug, the valve can be freely
Fuel quantity indication is very important, not only for operated by hand.
the crew but also for the engineers. The crew will use The valve actuators operate on 28V DC.
this information to calculate the aircraft weight and
monitor it during the flight to calculate fuel burn.
The fuel indications system can be a fully mechanical
system, a fully electronic system or a combination of
both.
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figure 2, Fuel Valve Schematic With See And Feel Indicator
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figure 3, Fuel Valve Schematic
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2. FUEL TANKS
The fuel that an airplane needs is stored in tanks Fuel tanks are manufactured from materials that will
located in the wings, in the fuselage and on larger not react chemically with any aviation fuel and have
aircraft also in the horizontal stabilizer as shown in a number of common features. Usually sumps and
figure 4. drains are provided at the lowest point in the tank, and
the top of each tank is vented to the atmosphere. All
Some types of aircraft have an auxiliary tank installed except the smallest of tanks are fitted with baffles to
in front and/or the rear of the center wing tank. For resist fuel surging caused by changes in the attitude
most aircraft, the number of engines determines of the aircraft. An expansion space is provided in fuel
the number of main tanks present in an airplane. In tanks to allow for an increase in fuel volume due to
general, an airplane with two engines will have two expansion.
main tanks; an airplane with three engines will have
three main tanks, etc. Each engine is supplied with Some fuel tanks are equipped with dump valves that
fuel from its own main tank. The auxiliary power unit make it possible to jettison fuel during flight in order to
(APU) is generally supplied with fuel from a main tank. reduce the weight of the aircraft to its specified landing
If auxiliary tanks are filled with fuel, the rule generally weight. In aircraft equipped with dump valves, the
applies that these should be emptied as quickly as operating control is located within reach of the pilot,
possible by pumping the fuel to the main tanks. co-pilot or flight engineer. Dump valves are designed
and installed to afford safe, rapid discharge of fuel.
The location, size, shape, and construction of fuel
tanks vary with the type and intended use of the
aircraft.
In general, there are 3 types of fuel tank in use today:
-- Integral tanks
-- Bladder tanks
-- Removable tanks
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figure 4, Fuel Tank Layout Overview A330
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figure 5, Fuel Tank Layout B777
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figure 6, Fuel Tank Layout Overview A320
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2.1 Type of fuel tanks At the lowest part of the tank, a sump allows the any
contaminates to settle at the bottom and can then be
2.1.1 Integral tanks easily removed by using the sump drain valves. Because
The primary wing structure is used for aircraft integral water is heavier than water, this will also accumulate in
tanks. They are normally located between the front and the sumps. Daily sump draining ensures the fuel is free of
rear wing spars and between the upper and lower wing water.
skin. Solid „tank end‟ ribs close the ends of each tank, The main advantage of integral tanks is that they are
while all the other ribs act as fuel baffles to minimize fuel easily maintained but the do suffer from leaks, which can
slosh. Often a center tank traverses the fuselage between be difficult to repair. These can show up as stains on the
the two inner wing root ribs. wing or fuselage to a puddle of fuel on the floor
All fuel tanks are made fuel tight by close metal-to- (figure 7).
metal fitting of all parts forms the basic seal, with A visible fuel leak is no guarantee that the cause of the
sealing compounds and sealing fasteners on all joints to leak is at the same location. The source of the fuel leak
complete the fluid tight seal. may be somewhere further up the wing and the fuel has
The center tank will have a secondary external barrier run down the inner structure until it found a way out.
coating to prevent fuel vapor entering the pressurized During construction, a “seal plan” is established to ensure
section of the fuselage. Some of the wing ribs contain a the fuel says in the sealed area. Figure 8 shows the
series of free-swinging, fuel-actuated baffle check valves, process.
to prevent fuel flowing away from the electric boost
pumps and starving the pumps of fuel. First the areas are cleaned; next a layer of fuel
resistant sealant is applied to the contact surfaces. The
Multiple access panels, usually on the underside of the components are then riveted together and the excess
wing, provide access to each tank. The outer portion sealant removed. A fillet seal is the applied, which not
of the wing provides fuel overflow by means of a surge only seals the tank it also helps transfer structural loads
tank, which also affords venting into the system. The from one member to the next. Before the filler seal is
fuel tanks hold all the necessary equipment for refueling/ fully dry, one or two layers of sealant are applied using a
de-fueling and engine fuel feed. Equipment used for fuel brush, with a final quick drying barrier seal at the end.
quantity indicating is also contained within the fuel tank
structure. The same basic technique is used when repairing a tank
for a fuel leak. 01 - 11 - 2016
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figure 7, Integral Tank Inner View
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figure 8, Fuel Tank Seal Plan
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figure 9, Close-up Of Sealing In Integral Tank
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Tank access The wing main tanks and the outboard parts of the
For maintenance purposes, panels are provided to get center tank have an access panel between each baffle
access to fuel lines, components, sensors etc. Most of rib, so any part of the fuel tank can be reached quite
them are usually on the lower side of the tank, some easily. The center part of center tank usually has only
on the upper side. The methods of sealing differ from one access panel at the front and to get access to the
type of aircraft. But the most common sealing methods components, you need to crawl inside the tank and
are (figure 13): through the baffle ribs (figure 17).
-- O-Rings Before a panel on the lower wing surface can be
-- Gaskets opened, the fuel has to be removed from that tank.
There are several different types of panels fitted to the Once opened the tank must ventilated to remove the
wing, which are not interchangeable, so care must be fuel vapors. Using an explosion meter, the atmosphere
taken to makes sure the panels are identified properly inside the tank must be checked and only when
during removal. Screw length and type sometimes also there is no danger of explosion, can work begin.
is different from panel to panel. The panels can be Nevertheless, respiratory gear and protective clothing
secured in a number of ways, depending on the aircraft is still required to work in the fuel tank (figure 18).
type and manufacturer (see figure 14). Some are To simplify installation of components like overpressure
secured with sealed captive nuts, others are screwed protectors or NACA air intakes, such components are
directly in the panel. In both cases, the length of the often attached to an access panel
screw is critical because if the screw is too long it will (figure 15 & figure 16).
damage the sealed nut or panel and cause a fuel leak.
Applying the correct torque value to the screws is
equally as important to prevent damage or leaks.
Above the landing gear, reinforced panels are installed,
also called impact resistant panels. In the event of a
tire burst, they prevent flying debris puncturing the
tank (figure 12).
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figure 10, Fuel Tank Access Panel Locations
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figure 11, Fuel Tank Access Panels
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figure 12, Impact Resistant Door
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figure 13, Fuel Tank Access Panel
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figure 14, Methods Of Securing Fuel Tank Access Panels
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figure 15, Combination Of Panels And Other Tank Components figure 16, Fuel Tank Access Panels With Other Tank Equimpment Fitted
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figure 17, Baffle check valves are installed in the locations shown in the integral tank rib structure of a Boeing 737 airliner.
Fuel is prevented from flowing outboard during maneuvers
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figure 18, Protective Equipment For Working Inside A Fuel Tank
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figure 19, Fuel Tank Leak Assessment
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2.1.2 Bladder Tanks HYCATROL

The bladder tank or “cell” is an excellent substitute for Green in color available in 0.5mm and 1mm thickness.
a welded or rigid fuel tank and has been successfully FLEXELITE
used for both small and large aircraft. Red or black in color also available in 2 thicknesses:
They are made of fuel resistant polymer and are 0.5mm for tanks below 100 gallons (454 l) and
designed to fit snugly inside the specially constructed 1.14mm above 454 l.
compartments in the airframe. Not uses on modern MARLITE
day large transport aircraft, they are very common on Blue in color mostly used in operational temperatures
small aircraft and helicopters. Military aircraft are also of +100 to -60 degrees C. Has a high dimensional
frequently equipped with bladder fuel tanks because stability so this tank does not need any stabilization
they are available as self-sealing tanks. processes, which is required with other types of
The tanks are usually fitted in the wing structure and bladder tanks. Only available in 0.5mm thickness.
are made slightly bigger than the cavity they are The fuel bay is prepared by covering all sharp edges of
placed in. This insures that the wing and not the tanks the metal structure with a chafe-resisting tape.
take the stress loads when they are full of fuel.
The bladder is put into the cavity prepared for it,
There are 3 commonly used materials in the by folding it and inserting it through an inspection
construction of bladder tanks. opening. Then it is snapped or clipped in place, or, in
some instances, it is laced to the structure. An opening
in the bladder is then secured to the inspection
opening and it is covered with an inspection plate.
These tanks should never be allowed to stand empty
for a extended period of time. If it is necessary, the
inside of the bladder should be treated according to
the maintenance manual.
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figure 20, Typical Bladder Tank
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figure 21, Bladder Tank Installation
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figure 22, Center Tank Bladder Installation
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2.1.3 Rigid Tanks

Rigid tanks don’t have the problems associated with
bladder tanks, but they are usually heavier.
The tanks are constructed from aluminium alloy and
sealed during manufacture. Composite rigid tanks
are also becoming more and more popular, specially
because they are very light, very strong and can be
made into any shape.
Larger size tanks will have baffles fitted to stop the
fuel from slushing around during flight, upsetting the
balance of the aircraft. The baffles have cut-outs to
allow normal fuel movement within the tank.
The tank is normally designed to fit in a specific
location in the airframe and is type specific, meaning
it will not fit in another type of aircraft. The area will
have enough clearance to allow for attachments, pipe
connections,…
Rigid tanks are not commonly used in civil aircraft, but
the external version is widely used on military aircraft.
They are used to extend the range and are in some
cases jettisoned when empty.
Civil aircraft have never adopted the external tank
system, however the early Boeing 747 was available
with external tanks, although operators did not use it
and was subsequently removed.
figure 23, Auxiliary Fuel Tank
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figure 24, External Rigid Fuel Tank
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2.2 Fuel Tank Ventilation On large aircraft the venting system is much more
complicated. Figure 25 & figure 26 show typical
The purpose of the ventilation system is to prevent
venting systems on a large transport aircraft.
structural damage to the fuel tanks by under-pressure
or over-pressure. Regulation by EASA/FAR 23 says: The venting system here has 3 purposes:
“each fuel tank must have an expansion space of not
less than 2% of the tank capacity, unless the tank vent -- Balance the air pressure within the fuel tanks with
discharges clear of the airplane”. ambient air
-- Allow thermal expansion of the fuel or fuel/air
This means that inflow and outflow of air is and always mixture in the tanks
must be possible: -- Protect the tanks from excessive internal pressure
(positive and negative)
-- When using the fuel
-- When refueling and defueling Top hat stringers ( U-shaped ) connect the individual
tanks with the surge tanks. The system is divided up
As fuel is pumped into of out of the tanks, air has to be
into 2 halves where each surge tank connects to its
allowed in or out. Failure to do so could cause the tank
onside fuel tank and the center tank.
to rupture during refueling or a vacuum to occur when
the engines are running, starving them of fuel. The top hat stringers have holes with a float valve,
through which the air moves in and out. If the fuel
During the venting, highly explosive fuel vapors are
reaches the level of the float valve, it will seal off the
being moved from the tanks to atmosphere or when
stringer and prevent fuel entering it and the surge
air moves into the tank, contamination may occur.
tank.
This has to be kept in consideration when fueling or
defueling an aircraft.
Small aircraft have a simple venting system made of a
small pipe open to atmosphere. A ball valve prevents
any fuel leaks in the event of an inverted flight.
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During refueling, the fuel pushes the air out of the tank
into the stringers via the open float valves and into
the surge tank. From there it exits out to atmosphere
along the NACA valve via a flame arrester. If the fuel
vapors where to ignite outside the aircraft, the flame
arrester stops the flame from entering the fuel tank.
The fuel systems is designed in such a way that under
normal circumstances, no fuel should enter the surge
tank, however if for some reason too much fuel is put
in the tanks (overflow), the excess fuel enters the
surge tank. When the fuel level drops, the fuel in the
surge tanks is fed back into the main tanks.
The capacity of the surge tank is limited (usually
around 100 liters), so if they are overfilled, fuel will be
dumped on the ground via the NACA valve.
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figure 25, Fuel Venting System A340
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figure 26, Fuel Tank Venting System B757
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2.2.1 Float Valve

The float valves have a float that senses the fuel
level in the tank. There are typically 2 float valves in
each tank, one at the outboard side and one inboard,
although other configurations are possible.
In normal flight, the valve near the wing tip is open
(the float is down). If an maneuver occurs, such as a
roll, the fuel goes to the lower wing tip. Then the float
valve senses the fuel level and closes itself. The other
valve installed near the wing root opens. This keeps
the tank ventilated and the tank pressure differential,
at a permitted limit. Fuel drain check valves in the top
hat sections ensure that fuel is removed from the vent
lines back to the tank, should they ever get filled with
fuel.
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figure 27, Float Valve Installation On B767
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figure 28, Float Valve
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figure 29, Float Valve Operation
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2.2.2 Burst Protection

In case the vent scoop (NACA valve) gets blocked, a
back up pressure relief system is installed called the
bust protection or overpressure protection.
Airbus commonly uses pressure relief valves and disks
in each vent surge tank. They open or break when
the pressure difference (positive or negative) between
atmospheric pressure and tank pressure becomes too
large. Figure 30 shows a relief valve which allows fuel
from one tank to another and a burst disk where the
fuel or the air goes overboard if the disk ruptures.
Where burst disks are used to relief overboard, the
disk is usually marked with a cross for better viewing
from ground.
Another kind of burst protection, used on Boeing
aircraft is the pressure relief valve (figure 33). It is
located in surge tank and is visible from the ground.
The valve is painted red to improve visibility. If the
valve opens due to over- or underpressure, the surge
tank will be vented to atmosphere. Once the valve is
open, it will remain open and will be clearly noticeable
from the ground.
The maintenance staff can then reset the valve by
pulling the reset handle. Of course, the valve opened
for a reason, so before the aircraft can depart, an
investigation as to the cause must be carried out.
figure 30, Inter-Tank Pressure Relief Valve
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figure 31, Overpressure Protection A330
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figure 32, Burst Protection
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figure 33, Pressure Relief Valve
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2.2.3 Vent Scoop Or NACA Valve

A NACA valve compared to a ram air scoop, keeps
the tanks at near ambient pressure, so there is no
pressure build up in the tank when the aircraft is
in flight. The makes it the ideal system for tank
ventilation.
The scoop is connected to a vent tube, which is open
near the top of the surge tank. This means that the
surge tank must be almost full before fuel will enter
the vent tube and overboard through the scoop
(fig 34).
figure 34, NACA Air Scoop
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figure 35, NACA Scoop And Flame Arrester
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2.2.4 Flame Arrestor

The surge tank flame arrestor is between the vent
scoop and the vent tube. It is a passive device with
stainless steel honeycomb core, that acts as a heat
sink to cool any flame below its ignition point. This
prevents an external flame from going into the surge
tank.
An ice protection device is sometimes installed in the
flame arrestor assembly to prevent ice from clogging
up the unit.
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figure 36, Flame Arrester
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2.3 Tank Draining

Draining of sediment and fuel residue from the tank
is done via a tank drain valve. It is also necessary to
drain tanks because water freezes at temperatures
below 0°C. The tank drain valve can be found on the
underside of each wing at the lowest part of each
tank. Since water has a higher density than fuel,
it will accumulate at the lowest point of the tank.
Where drain valves are not placed on the lowest point,
indirect drain valves are used. To drain water properly
from the tank, a vacuum apparatus must sometimes
be used.
To properly drain any existing water from a fuel tank
it is a rule, to let the water settle for a certain time.
As described before, it will accumulate at the lowest
points of the tanks.
Drain valves are usually equipped with a check valve.
This means if the valve assembly is leaking, it can
be removed from the valve body for repair without
empting the tank (fig 39 and 40).
Two types of drain valves can be found in modern day
aircraft (fig 41):
-- D irect draining
-- Remote (indirect) draining
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figure 37, Remote Water Drain Valve
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figure 38, Ultrasonic Water Detector figure 39, Drain Valve Assembly
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figure 40, Pressure Relief Valve figure 41, Types Of Drain Valve
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3. ENGINE FUEL FEED SYSTEM

The fuel feed or supply means the fuel that is
transported to the engines and the auxiliary power unit
(APU). The feed system includes among others, the
following parts:
-- Fuel pumps
-- Check valves
-- Fire shut-off valves
-- Crossfeed system consisting of crossfeed
manifolds and crossfeed valves
Fuel pumps or also called booster pumps are located in
every main tank to be able to pump fuel from the tank
to the engines under all circumstances. To prevent the
return flow of fuel or power from one pump to another,
the necessary check valves have been installed in the
system. Fuel moves from the tank by means of the
fuel pumps, lines and via the fire shut-off valve to the
corresponding engine or auxiliary power unit. The fuel
is pumped from the auxiliary tanks via transfer pump
to the main tanks and from there to the engines.
In the case of full tanks, the fuel from the main tanks
must first be consumed before they are re-filled from
the auxiliary tanks.
A cross feed system allows fuel to be used from the
opposite tank to supply an engine.
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figure 42, Complete Fuel Feed System A320
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figure 43, Fuel Feed System B757
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3.1 Fuel Pump

The purpose of the low pressure fuel pump, also called
booster pump, is to feed the fuel from the tanks to the
engine pump. This is done to support the engine pump
and to prevent cavitation. The fuel pump consists
usually of a three-phase alternating current motor and
a centrifugal pump. The example in figure 44 operates
on 28 VDC.
The pump is usually installed in a pump housing or
canister and can be either horizontally or vertically
mounted. For quick replacement during ground time,
the pump can be removed without having to drain
the tanks. The housing closes automatically when the
pump is removed, although some systems have to be
manually closed before removing the pump. In each
tank, there are usually at least two fuel pumps. Each
fuel pump must be capable of supplying one or more
engines with sufficient fuel during the various phases
of the flight.
In case of total pump failure, a bypass system allows
the engines to suck up the fuel themselves.
figure 44, Fuel Boost Pump Internal Workings
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figure 45, Fuel Pump Canister
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3.1.1 Pump Operation

When the pump is selected ON, the three-phase 115v
AC/400hz motor turns the helical impeller at high
speed (up to 10000 RPM). Fuel enters the pump and is
pushed out via the outlet by the impeller. The pumps
are designed for high flow rates rather than high
pressures, which vary from pump type to pump type,
but usually the pressure ranges from 15psi to around
30psi. The flow rates can be as high as 30.000 pound
per hour.
Pump operation is monitored by a fuel pressure
switch, which operates a warning light on the flight
deck. Whenever the pressure is below a set value, the
“PRESS”-light comes on informing the crew of incorrect
pump operation.
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figure 46, Fuel Boost Pump Contol
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3.1.2 Removal Of A Fuel Pump An example of the removal procedure could look as
Fuel pumps can be usually removed without empting follows:
the tank. On some modern aircraft, not even opening 1. Disconnect the electrical connector (17).
or entering the tank is necessary. Others provide 2. Put blanking caps on the disconnected electrical
access to the pump via a tank access panel from the connectors.
upper side of the wing. 3. Cut, remove and discard the lockwire on the drain
Removal of a pump sometimes requires the use of plug (18).
a special tool. A check valve closes during removal 4. Fully loosen the screws (20).
and prevents the fuel from entering in to the canister. 5. Put the container below the pump (16).
6. Attach the special tool to the pump flange.
7. Hold the handle of the tool and pull down, until the
movement is stopped by the dowels in the canister
(Step 1).
8. Loosen the drain plug (18) and let the fuel drain
into the container.
9. When all the fuel has drained, tighten the drain
plug (18).
10. Hold the pump (16) and turn it counter clockwise
(Step 2).
11. Hold the pump (16) and remove it from the
canister (Step 3).
Some pump designs come with an extraction handle
fitted as standard and therefor no special tools are
required.
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figure 47, Fuel Pump Removal
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figure 48, Fuel Booster Pump B777
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figure 49, Fuel Boost Pump Removal
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3.2 Jet Pump Jet pumps are also used to scavenge the fuel from the
lowest parts of the tanks, which are beyond the reach
Jet pumps are used where electrically driven fuel
of the booster pumps. This ensures that all the fuel can
pumps are not essential. You could find them for
be used by the engines and as a bonus; they remove
example in vent surge tanks or center tanks where no
any water and contaminants from the bottom of the
direct fuel feed to the engine takes place.
tanks before they accumulate. The water is mixed with
One way of removing fuel from the vent surge tanks is fuel and sent to the engines, which then simply burn it
with jet pumps. If fuel flows over into the vent surge off.
tanks, jet pumps driven by the main fuel pumps bring
the fuel back in its tank.
The same principle is used to empty center tanks. The
fuel flow of the wing tanks booster pumps is used to
drive the jet pump located in the center tank.
To switch “on” and “off’ the jet pump, a shut off valve
is operated in front of the jet pump. In many cases,
the jet pumps don’t have a shut-off valve and operate
when the booster pumps do.
The jet pump works on the venturi principle and has
two fuel inlets, the motive-flow inlet (from the booster
pump) and the suction inlet (from fuel tank). When
the jet pump is in operation the flow of fuel through
the motive-flow nozzle causes a secondary flow (from
the fuel tank). The mixed flow becomes stable in the
mixing tube and slows down in the diffuser before it
goes into the connected tank.
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figure 50, Jet Pump figure 51, Scavange Jet Pump
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figure 52, Jet Pump Cut-Away
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figure 53, Jet Pump And Shutoff Valve
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3.3 Pressure Switches Additionally to the pump pressure switches, the

pressure in the fuel feed line will also be monitored
Pressure switches are installed to monitor the output
and displayed to the flight crew. This can be done by
pressure of each fuel pump. For quick replacement
using a pressure switch or a pressure sensor. As seen
without entering the tank they are often placed outside
before, a pressure switch can have two conditions;
of the fuel tank. A pressure pipe connects the pressure
circuit open or closed. Whereas a pressure sensor has
switch to the fuel pump. If the outlet pressure from a
a variable output depending of the pressure.
pump decreases below a given threshold the pressure
switch sends a signal to the flight deck where a The location where the pressure is measured depends
warning to the flight crew is generated. on the type of aircraft. Usually they can be found on
the engine itself.
The primary components of the pressure switch are the
body and the adapter. The body contains:
-- A flexible diaphragm
-- A switch mechanism
-- An electrical microswitch
The flexible diaphragm isolates the switch mechanism
and the microswitch from the fuel. When the fuel
pressure increases to a given value, the flexible
diaphragm moves to operate the switch mechanism,
which opens the contacts of the microswitch. When
the fuel pressure decreases the flexible diaphragm
moves in the opposite direction to operate the switch
mechanism and close the contacts of the microswitch
(fig 54).
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figure 54, Jet Pump And Shutoff Valve
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3.4 Air Release Valve

The air release valve releases air trapped in the engine
fuel feed line. It is installed at the highest point of the
fuel line.
When the booster pumps are switched on, the fuel
pushes the air out of the release valve. The valve
closes when all air is expelled, so no fuel can escape
via the valve.
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figure 55, Air Release Valve
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3.5 Fire Shutoff Valve The fire shut-off valve of the auxiliary power unit (APU)
is generally operated electrically. This is because the
The function of the fire shut-off, also called low
APU is electrically switched off by means of its own
pressure shut-off valve or spar valve is to be able to
monitoring system.
cut-off the fuel supply line to the engines in case of an
external fire, engine maintenance or any defect which On aircraft with electrical shutoff valves, the operation
makes it necessary to isolate the engine. There is one is usually also controlled by the engine start switches.
spar valve for each engine. (figure 57). Two independent circuits control the valve
movement.
Commonly located at the top of the pylon, outside of
the front wing spar, the valve is controlled by the fire
handles either mechanically or electrically depending
on the aircraft. If valves are electrically driven,
typically two actuators are installed for redundancy.
They are supplied from different power sources.
The electrical spar valves are made up of 2 major
components:
-- The actuator
-- The valve body
The actuator is located outside of the tanks and
connected via a drive shaft to the valve body, which
is inside the fuel tanks. This makes replacement a lot
easier and quicker, because if a valve fails it is most
likely to be the valve actuator. Replacement of the
actuator does not require opening or draining the fuel
tanks.
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Control circuit operation:

1. Engines not running – no fire
The fire handle is in NORMAL postion
The fuel control switch is in CUT-OFF
The fuel shut-off valve is closed
2. Engines running – no fire
Fire handle is in NORMAL postion
The engine fuel control switch is in RUN
The fuel shut-off valve is OPEN
3. Engines running – fire handle pulled
Fire handle is in FIRE position
Engine fuel control switch is in RUN
Fuel shutoff valve is CLOSED
Engine shuts down
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figure 56, Fire Shutoff Valve
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figure 57, Fuel Shut-Off Valve Control Circuit B767
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figure 58, Fuel Shutoff Valve Layout A340
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figure 59, Fuel Shutoff Valve Installation
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3.6 Cross-Feed System The cross-feed valve is in many ways identical to

the electrical engine shut-off valve as it also has 2
In principle, each engine is fed from its own tank. If
independent motors, driving a ball valve inside the
the fuel supply of a main tank to its engine stagnates,
tank. Also here, the motor assembly can be replaced
opening the crossfeed valves causes the crossfeed
independently of the valve body.
system to be put under pressure. Via this system
the fuel is transported from another main tank to the There are aircraft, which have 2 crossfeed valves in
engine concerned. A number of crossfeed manifolds parallel, each one operated by a switch on the fuel
and crossfeed valves have been installed for the control panel on the flight deck. However, it very
functioning of this system. Of course, systems differ common to only have one valve fitted.
from type to type.
Four-engined aircraft may have as much as 4 cross
In general, the flight crew will use the cross-feed feed valves (fig 61), what makes the cross feed
system to balance the fuel in flight. Most aircraft can operation slightly more difficult. For example:
not transfer fuel from one tank to another in flight, so
the only way to balance the fuel load between left and To crossfeed engine nr 1 from the right inner tank aft
right tanks is to supply all engines from the fuel tank section, you to open X-feed valve 4 and X-feed valve 1.
with the highest load until the level drops to the tanks
with the lowest load. The cross-feed system is then
switched off and the engines fed by there respective
fuel tanks.
The cross-feed system is also used on the ground
during fuel transfer operations. To pump fuel from one
wing to another, the cross feed valve is opened.
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figure 60, Single Crossfeed Valve Configuration
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figure 61, Four Crossfeed Valves Configuration
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figure 62, Crossfeed Valve Control Circuit
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3.7 Sequence Valves

Sequence valves are fitted to give an automatic
transfer from one tank to another; the following
example is for an aircraft with pumps in the center
tank, inner tank and outer tank. The sequence valve
limits the fuel pressure of the outer tank pumps from
38 psi to 17.5 psi. The check valve closes so the outer
pumps, although they are running, do not supply fuel.
This is to give priority to the inner tank fuel pumps for
structural reasons. Many aircraft need fuel in the outer
tanks for stability. When the inner tanks are empty, the
engines will be automatically supplied from the outer
tanks. The outer fuel pumps run continuously.
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figure 63, Sequence Valves
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figure 64, Booster Pump With Sequence Valve
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figure 65, Sequence Valve Operation A300
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4. APU FUEL FEED SYSTEM

The fuel feed to the APU is normally taken from the On some aircraft types, starting the APU with power
left engine feed but may be taken from the right on the aircraft, will automatically start one of the
engine feed when the cross feed valve is open. The main booster pumps (on Boeing, the left forward
tank booster pumps can supply fuel to the APU at booster pump is started). This ensures that the fuel
the required pressure. For starting the APU without feed manifold is pressurized so that the APU can run.
electrical power available for the tank pumps, a If the fuel feed manifold does not pressurize (main
separate pump is provided that can be operated from booster pump does not work), the APU DC pump will
the aircraft batteries. automatically run to supply the APU.
The supply of fuel to the APU can be shut off by the Pulling the APU fire handle will immediately close the
APU fuel shut-off valve. The valve will open as soon as APU shut-off valve.
the APU is selected to start and remains open as long
as the APU runs.
The feed pipe emerges from the top of the tank and
passes through the pressurized fuselage in a drained
and vented shroud that extends to the APU fire wall.
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figure 66, APU Fuel Feed
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figure 67, APU Fuel Feed System A320
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5. FUELING
The refuel/defuel system controls the flow of fuel into Further, there are two procedures to defuel an aircraft:
or out of the aircraft. A refuel or defuel is controlled
from a refuel control panel often located near the -- The pressure defuel (the aircraft fuel-pumps
pressure coupling or at the fuselage where operation supply the fuel pressure for the defuel)
is convenient. Refuel/defuel couplings provide the -- The suction defuel (the external defuel source
interface between the refuel/defuel system and the supplies the suction to remove the fuel)
external fuel source. Aircraft with a large tank capacity Depending of the architecture of the aircraft fuel
can have two refuel/defuel hoses connected to it to system, these two procedures can often be used at the
keep turnaround times as short as possible. same time to increase the defuel rate.
When the aircraft is being refueled, the fuelling hose The pressure fuelling system consists of:
is attached to the refueling coupling. All the necessary
pressure coupling
manifold valves and tank valves are opened. The valve
on the fuelling hose is opened and fuel flows into the -- A fueling panel
tanks. When a tank is full, or when it reaches the level -- Fueling manifolds
preset on the fuel control panel, the valve for that tank -- Fueling shut-off valves
shuts off. When all the tanks have the correct amount -- A fuel quantity system
of fuel in them, the system automatically shuts off. For -- A high level sensing system
alternative refueling, overwing fuel ports are provided.
We can say that two different procedures to refuel an
aircraft are available:
-- The pressure refuel (automatic or manual)
-- The overwing refuel (open line refueling)
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figure 68, Pressure Refueling Manifold B777
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figure 69, Overwing Refueing
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figure 70, Aircraft Pressure Refueling
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5.1 Fueling Procedures Static electrical charges are generated in various

degrees whenever one body passes through or against
Aviation fuels are both highly flammable and volatile,
another. A greater generation of static electricity may
and special care must be exercised when transferring
be expected when handling turbine fuels than when
them into or out of an aircraft. Be sure that the proper
handling aviation gasoline. A basic reason for this
type of fire extinguisher is available at the aircraft and
is related to the higher viscosity of this class fuel.
that it has been properly serviced and has not been
The high-speed fuelling rates and the flow through
used, even partially, since it was last serviced.
the ultrafine filter/separators required can create
Never service an aircraft with fuel inside a hangar or extremely high static electrical charges.
in any other closed area. If fuel is stored in containers
To minimize this hazard, it is necessary to “bleed
other than the fuel service truck or the aircraft fuel
off’ static electrical charges before they build up to a
tanks, be sure that the containers are closed, not
high enough potential to create a static spark. This
only to prevent the entry of contaminants, but also to
can be accomplished by bonding and grounding all
prevent the release of fuel vapors.
components of the fuelling system together with static
In any fuel is spilled, wipe it up immediately; or, if too wires and allowing sufficient time for the charge to
much has been spilled to wipe up, use an approved dissipate before performing any act, which may draw
procedure and materials for dealing with fuel spills. a spark. The bleeding off of an electrical charge is not
There are new absorbent materials available to contain always an instantaneous act as is commonly believed.
and clean up hazardous materials. It may take several seconds to bleed off all the charge
from some fuels.
Matches, cigarette lighters, smoking, open flames,
and even backfires from malfunctioning vehicles
are obvious sources of ignition that need no further
mention. One source of ignition, however, is not so
visible or obvious, It is the sparks created by static
electricity.
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Fuelling Procedures 1. Make sure of the grade and quantity required.

From time to time the aircraft mechanic may be called 2. Make sure the fuel truck contains the correct grade
upon to fuel or defuel aircraft or, because of their and quantity required.
expertise, to assist in the training of ground service 3. Check the fuel truck tank sumps for water before
personnel. The steps outlined below represent general fuelling. Drain if necessary.
procedures, which should be carried out when fuelling 4. Approach the aircraft carefully. Try to position the
any aircraft. fuel truck so that it can be quickly driven or pulled
away in case of emergency. Avoid backing up to
the aircraft; if absolutely necessary, have someone
guide you from a position near the rear of the fuel
truck. Set the brake.
5. Bond and ground the aircraft and equipment in
the proper sequence – fuel truck to ground, then
fuel truck to aircraft. Before opening aircraft
overwing fuel filler cap, connect the nozzle ground
to the aircraft. Keep a constant contact between
an overwing nozzle and the filler neck spout while
filling. Grounding of underwing nozzles is not
required. After fuelling, reverse the steps above.
6. Nozzles should never be propped open while
fuelling aircraft or otherwise left unattended.
Nozzles must never be dropped or dragged across
the pavement. Nozzle dust caps should be installed
immediately after fuelling.
7. Leaving a filler cap off an aircraft fuel tank can be
very dangerous. Never open a cap until you are
actually ready to fuel that specific tank, then lock
it and close the flap immediately after fuelling.
Before leaving the wing, recheck each filler cap.
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5.2 Refueling Modern large aircraft utilize pressure refueling, which

has replaced open line refueling on most aircraft with
As any liquid flows through a pipeline, it will produce
high fuel capacities. It would take hours to fill a Boeing
Static Electricity. If this static electricity was allowed
747 through a normal hose and nozzle system. With
to discharge in the presence of aviation fuel vapor,
pressure refueling, a large diameter hose is rigidly
an explosion would result, with possible catastrophic
connected to a coupling in the aircraft and fuel under
results. To therefore minimize the explosion risks,
pressure of about 40 psi is pumped into the aircraft
the following guidelines must be followed. Safety
tanks. To assist this operation, most aircraft can have
Precautions:
the total fuel load pre-set at the point of connection so
-- No smoking within 15m. that the aircraft stops the refueling at the correct time.
-- No metal studded or tipped footwear. Figure 71 shows the layout of a typical, Boeing 777
-- Correct bonding of Aircraft and Bowser. refueling panel.
-- Correct positioning of Bowser.
-- No vehicles or Ground Equipment under the
aircraft.
-- Maintenance activity kept to a minimum.
-- No replenishment of liquid oxygen.
-- No transmitting of Radar
-- Aircraft & Bowser not to be left unattended.
-- Check and remedy fuel spillage or leakage.
-- Appropriate Fire fighting readily available.
-- The electrical state of the Aircraft must not
change while connected to the Bowser.
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figure 71, Refueling Panel B777
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5.2.1 Refueling Control Panel In figure 72 an A320 refueling panel is shown. On it

The refueling panel controls the refueling and defueling are:
operation. The system can operate on the aircraft -- Left – Center – Right fuel quantity indicators
battery for then whole fueling procedure. This removes -- Blue high level lights
the need to power up the whole aircraft, just for -- Refuel valve switches
refueling. -- Mode select switch (refuel – off – defuel)
There are so many different types of refueling panel -- Refuel valve open light
as there are types of aircraft, but no matter which one -- High level test switch
you look at, the basic operation is the same. -- Battery power switch
-- Refuel preselect
All panels will have the following: Figure 73 shows an A330 refueling panel and many of
-- Quantity indicators the same components as on the A320 can be found.
-- Refuel valve control switches
-- Defuel valve control switch(es)
-- Battery power switch
-- High level indication or overfill warning
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figure 72, Refueling Panel A320
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figure 73, Refueling Panel A330
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5.3 Refueling System Operation (B757) 1. Manually

By selecting the refueling switch to CLOSE on the
The B757 is fitted with 2 main tanks and a center tank.
refueling panel, the refueling valve will move to the
Each main tank supplies its respective engine, while
close position and stop the fueling for that tank. The
the center tank can supply both engines. To refuel the
tanks with the valve still open will continue to fuel.
B757, a supply duct connecting all 3 tanks is installed.
This duct, called the refuel/defuel manifold has 2 2. Automatic at full tanks
pressure refueling receptacles fitted at one end. When the fuel quantity processor senses that the tank
is at it maximum (pre-programmed) fuel level, it will
In each main tank there is one fueling shut-off valve
send a CLOSE command to the respective refueling
installed and 2 fueling valves in the center tank. The
valve which will move to the close position and stop
fueling valves are controlled by individual switches on
the fueling for that tank. The position of the refueling
the refueling panel. The valves can also be commanded
switch has no effect on this operation.
closed by the fuel quantity processor. When the fueling
valves are open, fuel is allowed into that tank. 3. Automatic emergency shut-down (overfill)
In each surge tanks is a overfill fuel sensor. When the
To fuel the aircraft, the refueling receptacles are
fuel quantity processor fails to stop the fueling when
connected to the fuel source (truck or ground supply).
the tanks are full, the fueling will continue until the fuel
On the refueling panel, the appropriate refueling
overflows into the surge tank. As soon as the overfill
valves are opened by selecting the switches to OPEN.
sensor detects fuel, it will immediately stop the entire
When fuel pressure is applied to the refuel manifold,
fuel operation.
the valves which were selected open, will move to the
open position. Fuel can now enter the tanks. 4. Pre-selected shut-down
The fuel quantity processor can stop the fueling for
There are 4 ways the fueling can be stopped:
each tank, based on the preselected level entered into
the processor via the refueling panel. When the level
in a fuel tank reaches the preset, the fuel quantity
processor sends a CLOSE signal to the refueling valve
and stops the fueling for that tank.
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The B757 doesn’t have a high level sensing system,

in stead it measures the fuel quantity in the tanks
and compares it to the maximum fuel capacity
pre-programmed in the fuel quantity processor to
determine when the tank is full.
As a backup it has the overfill sensor to stop the
fueling if the processor fails.
In aircraft that has a high level sensing system, a fuel
sensor mounted at the maximum fuel level will signal
the refueling valves to close. In most cases, there is
also a overfill protection just in case the high level
sensor fails.
If there is an overfill condition and the overfill sensors
fail to close the valves, the fuel will eventually spill out
of the NACA valve onto the ground.
If fuel needs to be added to the tanks and the aircraft
cannot be electrically powered or the electrical control
system does not work, it is still possible to fuel the
aircraft by manually opening each refueling valve. Keep
in mind that there is absolutely no overfill protection.
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figure 74, Refuel Panel B757
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figure 75, Aircraft Refueling
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5.4 Refueling Valve If the refuel switch on the refueling panel is placed
in the OPEN position, the solenoid is energized and
The refueling valve controls the flow of fuel into a fuel
opens the control port. The fuel pressure on the right
tank during refueling operations. There are different
side now bleeds to the outlet. The pressure on the left
types of refueling valves in use, but they all basically
side is then higher than on the right, so the diaphragm
work on the same principle.
moves to the right and pushes the poppet valve open.
The refueling valve in figure 76 is the one used Fuel in now able to flow into the tank.
on Boeing 757 and 767. The valve has 2 main
When the solenoid gets a CLOSE signal, the control
components; the actuator and the valve body. This
port is closed, which stops the pressure on right
allows the actuator to be replaced independently of the
bleeding off. Pressure on both sides of the diaphragm
valve body and can be done with fuel in the tank.
are again the same and is pushed back by the spring
The valve is electrically commanded and fuel pressure and the fuel pressure on the poppet valve. The poppet
operated. The electrical command comes from the valve closes and stops the fueling.
refuel switch on the refueling panel. The fuel quantity
The refuel valve is equipped with a manual override, to
processor and the overfill protection can only send a
open the valve by hand in case of an electrical failure.
CLOSE signal to the valve.
A manual override knob is fitted to the valve actuator
When the valve is in closed position, the solenoid is and by rotating this knob for a number of turns, the
not energized and the control port is closed. When poppet valve is pushed open and fueling is possible.
the refueling truck applies fuel pressure, it can not
pass into the tank because the poppet valve is closed.
Some the fuel pressure is diverted to the control port
and because this is closed, it cannot bleed out into
the outlet. The fuel also goes to both sides of the
diaphragm and because the pressure is the same on
both sides it remains it the same position and the
poppet valve stays closed.
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NOTE: To prevent damage to the valve, it is

recommended by most manufacturers to:
Apply fuel pressure first and then select the
valve open electrically or manually open the
valve first and then apply fuel pressure.
NOTE: There is a limit on the number of turns when
opening the valve manually. This must be
respected at all times.
NOTE: If the valve was opened manually, it must be
closed manually.
To facilitate removal of the actuator and to prevent
fuel spillage, a removal check valve closes and cuts
off the control fuel pressure as soon as the actuator is
removed.
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figure 76, Refueling Valve B767
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figure 77, Refuel Valve Installation
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figure 78, Refuel Valve Operation
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5.5 Refuel/Defuel Coupling

Most large aircraft have 2 identical refuel/defuel
coupling or fueling adapters to fuel the aircraft from a
single position. They are usually located somewhere
along the lower wing surface. On Boeing aircraft, they
are left and right of the refueling panel. Some aircraft
have a set of couplings on each wing, although there
is only one refueling panel. Either side can be used
to refuel the aircraft, but not both at the same time.
Because there is only one refueling panel, the nozzles
located next to it are generally used.
The couplings have a check valve to prevent backflow
through the unused coupling by way of a sliding piston
and a poppet valve.
The coupling has 4 modes of operation:
-- Closed
-- Fueling mode
-- Reverse flow check mode
-- Defuel mode
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figure 79, Refueling Adapter Operation
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5.5.1 Closed 5.6 Manifold drain check valve

Both the sliding piston and the poppet valve are closed To decrease the quantity of unusable fuel in the
when the refueling nozzle is not connected. fuel system, there are drain valves on the fueling
manifold. The fueling manifold drain check valves
5.5.2 Fueling mode drain the trapped fuel into the fuel tank as space
The poppet valve opens mechanically when the fueling becomes available. The fueling manifold depressurizes
nozzle is connected. The sliding piston opens by fuel automatically through the manifold drain check valves
pressure from the refueling truck. This lets fuel into whenever fueling source pressure is removed.
the refuel manifold.
5.5.3 Reverse flow check mode

Reverse flow of fuel means that the fuel is going in the
opposite direction, i.e. from the tanks to the fuel truck.
The poppet valve is mechanically opened by the
nozzle, but the sliding piston will close due to lack of
fuel pressure from the truck. This prevents backflow of
fuel going into the fuel truck.
5.5.4 Defuel mode

By turning the slot to DEFUEL, two pins lock the
poppet valve and the sliding piston together, so when
the nozzle is connected, it pushes both the poppet
valve and the sliding piston open. Fuel can now pass
from the tanks to the fuel truck.
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figure 80, Manifold Drain Check Valve
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5.7 Manifold Vacuum Valve The system is totally independent of the processor and
uses a fuel level sensor in the surge tank and a control
This valve lets air from the surge tank enter the fueling
card in the avionics compartment. If the level sensor
manifold to replace the fuel that drains into the tank.
becomes wet (fuel level reaches the sensor), it will
send a signal to the control card, which will command
the refueling valves to close. This stops and locks out
the complete refueling operation. To continue fueling,
the system must be reset by pushing the reset button
on the refueling panel.
In the event of a failure in the overfill system that
locks out the refueling, pressing and holding the reset
switch makes refueling possible, however, the backup
overfill will be inoperative. Releasing the switch stops
5.8 Overfill protection the fueling.
The overfill protection is a backup to the fuel quantity To test the overfill system, a test button can be pushed
processor. If will prevent fuel tank overfill and spillage. during the refueling. All the refuel valves will close and
the refueling stops. A reset is needed to start fueling
The fuel quantity processor will protect against again.
overfill by monitoring the fuel quantity and closes the
valves when the level reaches the pre-programmed NOTE: Because the test closes all the refuel valves at
maximum. This is sometimes called “Volumetric Top- once, it is recommended to do this test with
off” or VTO. reduced fuel pressure or one valve at a time to
prevent damage to the components.
If for any reason, the processor does not stop the
fueling, the overfill protection will do so.
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figure 81, Overfill Protection Float Switch
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6. DEFUELING
The defueling system moves fuel from the tanks to the
fueling station or from one tank to another (tank-to-
tank transfer). These operations are available on the
ground only.
There are 2 possible ways to get fuel out of the
aircraft:
-- U sing aircraft fuel pumps (pressure defuel)
-- Using suction (suction defuel)
The key part of the defueling system is the electrically
operated defuel valve. At least one valve is fitted,
although two are not uncommon.
The defuel valve connects the refuel manifold to the
engine feed manifold, so if a fuel truck is connected to
the refueling nozzles, it can collect the fuel.
NOTE: Some aircraft have the capability to transfer
fuel in flight from the center tank to the wing
tanks or outer tank to inner tank on the same
wing (inter tank transfer)
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figure 82, Inter Tank Transfer System A330
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6.1 Pressure Defueling

Before defueling can start, the refueling couplings have
to be set to DEFUEL and the nozzles connected.
The defuel valve is opened with the defuel switch on
the refueling panel. By turning on the booster pumps
in a specific tank, the fuel is pumped out to the
refueling truck. The tank where the pumps are off will
not have any fuel removed from it. So this procedure
can be used to empty one or more specific tanks or all
of them.
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figure 83, Pressure Defueling A340
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6.2 Suction Defueling

Suction defueling works almost the same as pressure
defueling, except that the booster pumps are not used.
The fueling truck will use its pumps to suck the fuel out
of the tanks via the engine bypass valves. As there are
no engine bypass valves in the center tank, it cannot
be suction defueled.
Aircraft fitted with trim tanks in the tail will need to
have the fuel transferred to the main tanks to empty
them.
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figure 84, Pressure Defueling A340
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6.3 Tank-To-Tank Transfer Fuel now flows into the right main tank. The transfer
can be stopped any time by doing one of the following:
This again uses the same principle as pressure
defueling, however in this case there is no fueling -- Close the refuel valve
truck connected to the aircraft, so fuel stays on board. -- Turn off the booster pumps
Additionally to the procedure for pressure defueling, -- Close the cross-feed valve
the refueling valve needs to be operated as well. -- Close the refueling valve
Depending on in which tank the fuel needs to go and
This procedure can be used to transfer fuel from any
which tank needs to be emptied, the appropriate
tank to any tank. If the aircraft is equipped with an
pumps and valves must be operated.
automatic refueling system, the desired fuel level
For example: fuel must be transferred from the left can be preselected on the refueling panel. When the
main tank to the right main tank. level reaches the preselected value, the fuel quantity
processor will close the refueling valve.
-- Open the refuel valve: this connects the engine
feed to the refuel manifold
-- Turn on the booster pumps in the left main tank
pressurizes the left engine feed manifold
-- Open the cross-feed valve fuel needs to cross
over from one wing to the other
-- Open the refueling valve in the right main tank
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7. FUEL JETTISON
Fuel jettison or fuel dumping systems are fitted to The outlet of the jettison pipe is normally at the end
a number of large commercial aircraft to allow the of the flap track fairing and fitted with an anti corona
jettisoning of fuel in an emergency thus reducing device to avoid vaporization of the fuel. A normal
weight to prevent structural damage when landing. transfer rate will be in the region of 30-350 liters per
As stated before, not all aircraft have fuel jettison minute.
capability and if they do, it is not possible to dump all
the fuel. The jettison operation is controlled from a jettison
panel located either on a flight engineers station (older
Fuel jettison systems are often fitted in combination aircraft) or from an overhead panel on a two crew
with a center tank, because of the extra fuel weight. configuration. Normally the panel is protected by a
The system illustrated in figure 86 is from a wide- quick release cover to prevent inadvertent operation of
bodied twin fitted with multi tanks and booster pumps. the jettison system.
The jettison pipe is branched off the feed pipe between
the inner tank fuel pump and the inner tank shut off
valve. A check valve is installed to separate the outer
tanks during jettisoning. The function of this check
valve is to prevent the dumping of the outer tanks fuel.
The jettison pipe runs inside the wing tanks through
the ribs into the outer tanks, where the jettison valves
are installed. These valves are fitted to the bottom of
the tank.
Because of electrical emergency situations, the valve
will be driven by two 28 VDC electric motors. The
motors are mounted from the outside and are attached
to the bottom of the tank through a gearbox and in
many instances are interchangeable with the cross
feed valves.
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figure 85, Fuel Jettision
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figure 86, Fuel Jettison B777
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figure 87, Fuel Jettison A330
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In the following example (fig 88), two switches are To dump fuel on the B777, the crew presses the ARM
provided to operate the jettison valve. The position button and select the “fuel to remain”. At the same
of the right and left-hand jettison valve is monitored time, the fuel jettison pumps start up. If the crew
by two magnetic indicators, showing green cross-line wants to dump fuel from the center tank, they will turn
when the valve is closed and in-line when the valve on the center booster pumps. To start the dumping
is open. As is common with this type of indicator, operation, the left and right nozzle valves are opened.
it will show amber cross-line to indicate transit or When the fuel level reaches the “fuel to remain”, the
malfunction. nozzle valves are closed automatically.
The jettison panel in figure 89 is the modern version of NOTE: If there is fuel in the center tank the center
the previous one. Here the crew can select the “fuel to tank pumps should be on, because the center
remain”. The jettison system will shut-down when the tank fuel must be used first.
selected fuel is reached.
Some aircraft, like the Boeing 777, have dedicated
jettison pumps to dump the fuel, others just use the
fuel booster pumps (Airbus A330).
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figure 88, Fuel Jettison Panel A300 figure 89, Fuel Jettison Panel B777
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8. FUEL QUANTITY INDICATION

The Fuel Quantity Indication System measures the
amount of fuel in each individual tank electrically by
means of a probe (capacitor), also called tank unit.
The amount of fuel can be read on the flight deck and
on the fuelling panel. In each tank, several probes
are arranged to achieve accurate data. If one or more
probes deliver incorrect data, the system is usually still
operative but in a degraded mode. This means that
the indication can still be available to the crew but is
inaccurate
If during refueling an indication error occurs, the
manual measuring method with the dipsticks is used
as a cross check.
There are several ways to display fuel quantity, ranging
from the simple analogue indicator, to the high tech
digital displays common in new generation airliners.
Fuel quantity is also displayed on then refueling panel.
figure 90, Fuel Control Panel
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figure 91, Various Types Of Fuel Quantity Displays
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figure 92, Fuel Quantity Indication A320
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figure 93, Fuel Synoptic Display B777
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8.1 Capacity Measuring Each tanks has numerous tank units fitted to average
out the fuel quantity. Medium size aircraft can have
The capacitor-type fuel quantity system is an electronic
around 30 units, while large airliners have 60 or more.
fuel measuring device that accurately determines the
This allows for the aircraft being in an attitude where
weight of the fuel in the tanks.
fuel moves to one end of the tank. If the tanks are
The measuring element (probe) in a tank consists of half full and the aircraft banks, the tank units at one
two concentrically mounted tubes in open connection end will indicate a full tank while the units at the other
to the tank. These tubes form the plates of a capacitor. end indicate an empty tank. When averaged, the value
shows half full.
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on three
factors: The size of the tanks, the shape, dihedral angle, etc.…
determines the amount of tank units fitted.
-- T he area of the plates
-- The distance between the plates All the tank units are connected via low voltage cables
-- The dielectric constant of the material between for safety reasons. The cables are then bundled
the plates together and passed through a single exit point to
minimize the chance of fuel leaks.
The only variable factor in a tank is the dielectric
constant, which depends on the ratio of fuel and
air. A change in fuel level will result in a change of
capacitance.
The value of the capacitance is computed to a reading
on the indicator.
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figure 94, Fuel Quantity Measuring Schematic B757
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figure 95, Fuel Tank Capacitance Unit figure 96, Different Sizes Of Tank Units
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figure 97, Fuel Capacitance Probes Installation
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8.2 Measuring Fuel Quantity 8.2.2 Electronic Compensation

Because fuel density is the critical factor for measuring Digital quantity indication is now very common on
the fuel quantity, any variation has a big impact on the modern aircraft because they are more accurate that
indication. To reduce the effect, there are several ways analogue systems. The achieve this accuracy, the
to do this. density compensation is even more critical. To improve
the tank compensator signal, a densitometer is used.
8.2.1 Analogue Measurement
The densitometer measures the fuel density more
A compensator is a small capacitive unit that sits at accurately. Again located at the bottom of the tank, it
the bottom of the tank near the sump. This ensures will always be immersed in fuel.
that, unless the tank is totally drained, it will always
be immersed in fuel. Any change in capacity measured There are different ways of measuring fuel density.
by this unit will be due to a change in density and not One uses a radioactive isotope, the other measures by
in fuel level. The signal from the compensator is then causing a spool to vibrate at its resonance frequency
used to “trim” the main tank units to allow for small and looking at any vibration changes. The initiation
changes in fuel density. By compensating the fuel for signal and return signal is sent to the fuel quantity
density, the indication can be presented in fuel weight processor.
(kgs, lbs) and not volume, which is more useful to the Fuel is allowed into the spool housing. The denser the
crew when they have to calculate the total weight of fuel the slower the spool will vibrate. The sensing coil
the aircraft. picks this up and sends the information to the fuel
quantity processor, which compares the two signals
and calculates the fuel density.
The densitometer is very accurate. If the density of the
fuel reaches 1.0, it can be assumed that there is water
in the fuel tank (water has a density of 1, fuel normally
around 0.8). Some aircraft use this information to
display a warning on the flight deck to inform the crew
that there is water in the tank.
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8.2.3 Ultrasonic Compensation Using densitometers, the fuel volume is converted into
This system uses ultrasonic fuel probes to measure fuel weight.
the fuel level. It uses a signal conditioning unit to The same ultrasonic principle can be used for water
operate tank units and process the signals. The probes detectors. It uses the same type of transducer but
are made up of a piezoelectric transducer and a still without a still tube or with a short still tube, but
tube. The still tube acts as a guide for the acoustic mounted upside down. The unit is placed at the lowest
signal, shields against external noise and minimizes point of the tank. If there is no water in the tank,
fuel turbulence. It also has a reference target at a set the soundwave will be reflected by the surface of the
height along the tube. The speed of sound depends on fuel. If however, there is water in the sump, it will
the density of the medium it passes through, so fuel reflect the soundwave when it reaches the border of
will have a different speed of sound compared to water. water and fuel. The transducer picks up the reflected
The transducer sends a ultrasonic pulse into the fuel signal, which is then processed and used for flight deck
inside the still tube. The soundwave travels up the indication.
tube until it meets the target and is partially reflected The Boeing 777 uses this type of fuel quantity
back to the transducer. The signal conditioning unit measurement. In figure 100 the maintenance
processes the signal, after which it is sent to the fuel display for fuel is shown. Besides total fuel and fuel
quantity processor. This serves as the reference signal. temperature, it also shows:
The soundwave also travels further up the tube until -- F uel height measured by each tank unit
it reaches the surface of the fuel, where it again is -- Speed of sound (vos) for each tank unit
reflected back to the transducer. This second signal is -- Water detected in the tank.
also processed and sent to the quantity processor. With
these two signals, the processor can easily calculate Another interesting value is the VTO set value for each
fuel height. tank. This is the fuel weight at which the fuel quantity
processor will stop the fueling.
The fuel height signals from all the tank units in a tank
are used to calculate fuel volume.
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figure 98, Ultrasonic Tank Unit figure 99, ultrasonic water detector
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figure 100, Fuel Tank Quantity Indication Showing Fuel Height Per Tank Unit
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8.3 Measuring With Magnetic Level When the dipstick is unlocked, it is pulled down to
Indicators the point at which the magnets stick to each other.
Because one magnet floats on the fuel and the other is
Sometimes referred to as dipsticks, the provide a attached to the end of the stick, the level of the fuel in
manual way of determining the amount of fuel on the tank is determined. A scale on the stick indicates
board. this in various units, such as kilograms, inches or
It is used manually and no electricity is needed to gallons.
operate the stick. It is operated from the outside Certain requirements must be met when using the
of the aircraft, at the lower side of the wings and dipstick. The position of the airplane (aircraft level)
fuselage tanks. The fuel dipstick is less accurate in must be known, the airplane may not move (due to
comparison to the capacity measuring element and is influence of wind) and fuelling must be stopped. To
an alternative method for measuring the amount of determine the position of the airplane, a spirit level
fuel usually for cross checking. is located in the airplane (the exact location depends
Operation on the type of airplane). With the help of calibration
The dipstick is located in a housing in the tank and tables (that can be found in Maintenance Manuals) the
can move up and down freely. A permanent magnet is reading on the stick can be corrected. The contents of
installed at the top of the stick (stick armature). The the tank can be determined by this information.
stick housing is surrounded by a ring-shaped float that
contains a magnet. The dipstick is unlocked by means
of pressing and twisting the stick (stick head and
socket) with a screwdriver.
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figure 101, Fuel Measuring Stick
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figure 102, Fuel Measuring Stick
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figure 103, Magnetic Level Indicator Operation
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Example Which Stick to use?

To use the magnetic level indicators, there are a
number of things that must be known. Usually, it is not necessary to “pull” each stick since
there are several located in each tank. But how to now,
The aircraft attitude must be recorded and must be which stick do you have to use for exact measuring.
within a certain range (normally +/-2 degrees in roll
and pitch). This information can be found using a As we know, the wing arrangement of commercial
plumb weight, which is suspended in the wheel well jetliners has normally a positive dihedral. This means
above a leveling scale (fig 104). Other aircraft may use that the wing tip is higher than the wing root relative
a spirit level. to the horizontal plane. If airplanes have negative
dihedral, termed anhedral, the wing tip is lower than
Next, the number of magnetic level indicator has to be the wing root.
known. The maintenance manual has a diagram with
the numbers of the indicators. When refueling the aircraft, the fuel collects at the
lowest point and moves upward and outward on a
The level indicator can then be pulled to read the positive dihedral wing. Therefore, the “float” of the
value. sticks are in different positions; some at the bottom
of the tank (not usable), some in a floating state (OK
Assume the values are: for measuring) and others at the tank upper wall (not
Main fuel tank usable). To find the correct stick, you should at least
Dipstick nr 7 approximately know how much fuel is in the tank pull
Aircraft pitch attitude -1.8 degrees each stick and find the one in the floating state (fig
Roll attitude -1.25 108).
Value read on the dipstick: 8150
Using the table in figure 107:
The fuel in the main tank is 6499 kgs
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figure 104, Fuel Measuring Stick Layout B777
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figure 105, Leveling Scale Installation B757
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figure 106, Leveling Scale Installation A320
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figure 107, Magnetic Level Indicator Reference Chart
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figure 108, Measuring Stick Usage
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8.4 Indications And Warnings

Provision is made to display fuel tank quantity, boost
pump low pressure, crossfeed valve and fuel/fire shut
off valve position, on the flight deck overhead panel.
Though the layout will vary from aircraft type to type,
generally it will be similar to the examples shown.
Additionally, aural and visual warnings on the glare
shield will result if the fuel system develops a fault.
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figure 109, Warnings And Indications A320
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figure 110, Warnings And Indications B767
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9. FUEL SYSTEM EXPLOSION SUPPRESSION (SFAR 88)

In May 2001, the Federal Aviation Administration
released a comprehensive Special Federal Aviation
Regulation (SFAR No. 88) requiring all the airframe
manufacturers and Supplemental Type Certificate
(STC) holders to conduct a safety review of all fuel
system components. Included were requirements to
prepare special maintenance inspections that operators
of transport aircraft would use to determine the
continued safety and airworthiness of the fuel system
on their respective aircraft.
As part of this regulation aircraft manufactures were
tasked to improve the intrinsic safety of cabling and
electrical components, within fuel tanks, or to move
cabling out of tanks altogether.
Additionally, as an explosion suppressant measure,
fuel tank pressurization systems were modified to
use nitrogen, or other inert gasses, to pressurize fuel
tanks, rather than engine bleed air. Systems using
nitrogen may have systems to separate nitrogen, from
the atmosphere, installed rather than carrying nitrogen
cylinders on board.
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10. LONGITUDINAL BALANCE FUEL SYSTEMS
10.1 Introduction
The center of gravity (CG) of an aircraft is the point
where all of the weight of the aircraft is considered
to be located. Where the weight is placed in the
airplane is a factor that has a tremendous effect on
how well the airplane will fly. This is because the CG
of the airplane must be maintained within certain
limits prescribed by the manufacturer, in order for
the aircraft to be flown safely. If the CG gets too far
forward or too far backward the aircraft will be out of
balance and difficult, if not impossible, to control.
What we are interested in is CG control during flight.
To operate an aircraft as economical as possible, the
center of gravity should be held in a range where the
horizontal stabilizer is as streamline as possible. This
means that the stabilizer trim settings should be close
to zero in cruise. This is done by transferring fuel.
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figure 111, Fuel Balancing
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figure 112, Trim Tank Operation A340 Example Transfer From Center Tank To Trim Tank
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figure 113, Supersonic Transport Fuel Trimming Example
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10.2 Determine The CG

To control the center of gravity, the system must
know where the centre of gravity is before the engines
are started. The aircraft’s CG is determined by the
manufacturer upon delivery and is used as the base for
the loading sheets.
There are several parameters that change the center of
gravity:
-- P assenger loading
-- Cargo loading
-- Refueling
The resulting center of gravity out of these parameters
is called the zero fuel weight center of gravity (ZFW-
CG) is calculated by the flight crew prior to flight.
This data will be entered into the flight management
computers and is used as the base reference.
Because the fuel weight is the only parameter that
changes the centre of gravity in flight, the fuel system
management and CG control uses the tank quantity for
calculation.
Remember that the center of gravity location is
referred as a percentage of the mean aerodynamic
chord (MAC). The target center of gravity must always
be in the forward of the certified aft limit of the
aircraft.
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figure 114, Typical Loading Graph For Small Aircraft
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10.3 System Operation

Fuel control and monitoring computers and center
of gravity control computers control the forward and
aft CG by fuel transfer from and to the trim tank to
improve aircraft performances.
This depends on:
-- Z ero fuel weight.
-- Zero fuel weight center of gravity (aircraft
loading).
-- Fuel quantity in each tank.
-- Fuel flow signals.
The actual CG position and the gross weight (GW) is
displayed in the cockpit. The CG is indicated in % MAC,
the GW in tons. CG control is started after take-off.
The computer activates the corresponding valves and
pumps and transfers fuel forward or aft (according to
the burnt fuel) in order to maintain the CG within a
tolerance of MAC of the target CG.
In case of a CG control system failure, the computer
switches automatically (depending on the failure) to
either an alternate mode or to a fault mode, which
consist of emptying the trim tank.
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figure 115, Mean Aerodynamic Chord
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11. FUEL CONTAMINATION

Everyone concerned with the handling and dispensing 11.1 Checking For Fuel System
of aviation fuels should realize that the safety of an Contaminants
aircraft may depend upon their skill, knowledge and
ability to deliver the correct grade of clean dry fuel into Draining a sample of fuel from the main strainers of an
the aircraft. It is one of the prime factors contributing aircraft has, in the past, been considered an acceptable
to flight safety. method of assuring that the fuel in the system is clean.
This practice is, in most cases, no longer considered
Fuels, fuelling methods, and equipment are continually adequate.
being developed and improved to meet the ever-
increasing demands of modern aircraft and the aviation Quality control of aviation fuel has always been of
industry. However, one thing never changes - the particular concern, since the failure of an aircraft
vital importance of supplying the correct grade of powerplant during flight can be disastrous. Despite
uncontaminated fuel to the aircraft. The possibility of this, effective equipment and techniques for handling
human error can never be eliminated, but it can be aviation gasoline have been relatively simple. The
minimized through careful design of fuelling facilities, introduction of turbine-powered aircraft has made the
good operating procedure, and adequate training of need for fuel cleanliness much more important, and at
personnel. the same time more difficult to maintain.
The combustion process in the jet engine is one which
must be carefully controlled. This requires complicated
precision fuel control systems which are much more
sensitive to fuel quality, and in particular, cleanliness,
than those for piston engines. Besides this, the
quantity of fuel which passes through these systems
for each hour of flight is considerably greater than with
the piston engines; hence, any slight contamination in
the fuel accumulates at a much faster rate.
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Along with the introduction of the more critical jet

engine has come the utilization of a fuel which is
harder to keep free of contamination. For example, a
particle of dirt or rust, or a drop of water, settles out
of aviation gasoline four times faster than it does in
turbine fuels.
To better understand what is required to maintain
fuel quality, it is first necessary to have a basic
knowledge of aviation fuels, the common forms of fuel
contaminants, how they get into the fuel, and how
they can be detected and removed.
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11.2 Types Of Contaminants Surfactants are usually more soluble in water than in
fuel and reduce the interfacial tension between water
The more common forms of aviation fuel contaminants
and fuel, thereby stabilizing suspended water droplets
are solids, water, surfactants, micro-organisms
and contaminants in the fuel. This ability to suspend
(or fungus), and miscellaneous ones including the
water and dirt in fuel may disarm filter/separator
intermixing of grades or types of fuel. Surfactants and
action and permit these contaminants to get into the
micro-organisms, contaminants which are virtually
aircraft. This property has resulted in surfactants
unknown in aviation gasoline’s, have become critical
becoming one of the major contaminants in aviation
with the advent of turbine fuels.
turbine fuels, and can cause fuel gauge problems.
Solid Particles
Surfactants, in large concentrated quantities, usually
Solid contaminants may be thought of as being those
appear as a tan to dark brown liquid with a sudsy-like
which will not dissolve in fuel. Most common are
water/fuel interface.
iron rust and scale, sand, and dirt. Also included,
however, are such items as metal particles, dust, Water
lint, particles of filter media, rubber, valve lubricants Although it has always been present in aviation fuel,
and even sludge produced by bacterial action. Solid water is now considered to be a major source of
contaminants can be collected by the fuel at every contamination. The ability of turbine fuel to entrain
stage of its movement from the refinery to the aircraft. water, and the possibility of ice crystals interrupting
fuel flow makes water in the fuel a major hazard to
Surfactants
flight safety.
The term “surfactants” is a contraction of the words
SURFace ACTive AgeNTS. These are soap or detergent
like materials that occur naturally in fuel or may be
introduced by refining processes, by inclusion of
certain additives into the fuel, or may be washed off
internal surfaces by the passing of the fuel through
pipelines or by storage in a tank or vessel which had
previously handled other products.
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Micro-Organisms or Fungicides The best approach to microbial contamination is

There are over 100 different species of micro- prevention. And the most important preventive step is
organisms which can live in the free water which keeping the amount of water in the fuel storage tank
accumulates in sumps and on the bottom of storage as low as possible.
and aircraft tanks. Many of these micro-organisms
are airborne, while others are found in the soil. Thus, Biocides can be used when micro organisms reach
fuel is constantly exposed to inoculation with this type problem levels. But biocides have their limits. A biocide
contaminant. The conditions most favorable to their may not work if a heavy biofilm has accumulated on
growth are warm temperatures and the presence of the surface of the tank or other equipment, because
iron oxides (rust) and mineral salts in the water. then it doesn’t reach the organisms living deep within
the biofilm. In such cases, the tank must be drained
The principle effects of micro-organisms are: and mechanically cleaned.
-- F ormation of a sludge or slime which can foul And even if the biocide effectively stops biogrowth,
filter/ separators and aircraft fuelling mechanisms it still may be necessary to remove the accumulated
-- Emulsification of the fuel biomass to avoid filter plugging. Since biocides are
-- Creation of corrosive compounds and offensive toxic, any water bottoms that contain biocides must be
odors. disposed of appropriately.
Severe corrosion of aircraft tanks has been attributed
to micro-organisms and considerable expense has been
incurred removing microbial growths and repairing or
replacing corroded aluminium panels in wing tanks.
Microbial contamination in avgas is much less common
than with jet fuel, although it does occur. Presumably,
the lower occurrence in avgas is due to the toxicity of
tetraethyl lead.
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11.3 Detection Of Contaminants The “white bucket” test is particularly helpful in

detecting the presence of concentrations of surfactants
Because solid contaminants generally appear in
in turbine fuel. All that is required is a clean white
relatively small numbers and sizes in relation to the
porcelain bucket and water which has been in contact
volume of fuel, their detection can be difficult. Aviation
with the fuel in tank bottoms, filter/separators or other
gasoline is generally considered “clean” if a one-quart
points where surfactants are likely to accumulate.
sample is clear of any sediment when viewed in a
Surfactants, if present, will appear as a brown sudsy
clean and dry glass container. It may be helpful to swirl
water layer on the bottom of the bucket or at the fuel-
the container so that a vortex is created. The solid
water interface.
contaminants, if present, will tend to collect at the
bottom beneath the vortex. Evidence of microbial growth or debris may appear as
black sludge or slime, or even a vegetative-like mat
Turbine fuels must of necessity be several orders of
growth. Growths also appear as dark brown spots on
magnitude cleaner than aviation gasoline. While the
some filter/separator socks.
above visual test is adequate for operational checks, it
is necessary, from time to time, to check the operation
efficiency and cleanliness level of a turbine fuel system
with a tool which is more critical than a clear bottle.
The aviation industry has adopted the Millipore test for
this purpose.
The Millipore is a filter-type test capable of detecting
microscopic solid contaminants down to 0.8 of a
micron in size, which is approximately 1/120 the
diameter of a human hair. An evaluation guide is
provided, containing the instructions for conducting
these tests, along with the means of evaluating the
results.
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11.4 Human Error 11.5 Tests For Detecting Presence Of Water

Miscellaneous contaminants can include either Samples should be taken according to the regulations
soluble or insoluble materials or both. Fuel can be of the airport fuel companies and the aircraft operator.
contaminated by mixing it with other grades or types The following tests are used all over the world:
of fuels, by picking up compounds from concentrations
in rust and sludge deposits, by additives, or by any Clear and Bright
other of a number of soluble materials. When this term is applied to a fuel test sample taken
in a clear glass jar, it means that the fuel is completely
The greatest single danger to aircraft safety from free of visible solid contamination and water (including
contaminated fuels cannot be attributed to solids, any resting on the bottom or sides of the container).
exotic micro-organisms, surfactants, or even water. The sample must also possess an inherent brilliance
It is contamination resulting from human error. It is and sparkle in the presence of light. (Cloudy or hazy
the placing of the wrong grade or type of fuel into an fuel is caused, usually, by free and dispersed water
aircraft, the mixing of grades, or any other type of but it can also occur because of finely divided dirt
human error that allows off specification fuels to be particles.)
placed aboard the aircraft.
Shell Water Detector (SWD)
Any fuel which is suspected to be off-specification This test consists of a small yellow capsule, fitted to
because of contaminants or mixing with other fuels a syringe, which is then exposed to a 5ml fuel sample
should not be placed aboard an aircraft. If in doubt, drawn through the syringe. The color of the centre of
immediately arrange for laboratory and other tests to the capsule changes according to water content, and
definitely establish whether the fuel may be used for changes to green when there is a positive indication of
aviation purposes. water contamination (around 3oppm). Capsules may
only be used once.
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figure 116, Fuel Sampling For Water
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Hydrokit Let’s go through a test using the Hydrokit:

A “Go No-Go” type of water detector. The test consists
of exposing a pre-measured fuel sample to a reactive -- T ake a sample from the delivery vehicle as
powder, which is color sensitive to free water in example a fuel truck. The sample must be taken
concentrations of about 30 ppm or more. The powder from the lowest point where a sample/drain valve
changes from white to pink if the fuel contains about is provided.
30 ppm or more of free water after two minutes of -- Let the sample become stable.
contact with the fuel. • If the sample moves into two layers, it contains
water. Continue to drain from the water drain valve
until it has no water.
• If the sample stays in one layer, it can be all fuel or
all water. To find if the sample is fuel or water, do
the test that follows:
-- U
se the Hydrokit to fill the test tube containing
the reactive powder.
• If the powder stays white, the sample is fuel and the
test is complete.
• If the white powder changes color to purple, the
sample is water. Continue to take samples and test
until all the water has been removed.
If you have a “no specific” hydrokit available, put the
reactive powder direct into the sample.
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Alternative Procedure
If you do not have a hydrokit available, add water to
the sample. If the sample moves into two layers, the
sample taken is all fuel and the test is complete. If
the sample stays in one layer, the sample is water.
Continue to take samples and test until all the water
has been removed.
To discard the samples, refer to the local regulations.
figure 118, Hydrokit Sample

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Aircraft Maintenance College 66

EASA P66 MOD 11A.10 L3

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EASA P66 MOD 11A.10 L3

4. APU FUEL FEED SYSTEM.............................................. 96

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10. LONGITUDINAL BALANCE FUEL SYSTEMS................ 170

11. FUEL CONTAMINATION............................................ 178

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

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1.1 Jet transport aircraft fuel systems

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figure 1, DC10 Fuel System Schematic

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1.2 Storage system 1.3 Fuel feed system

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1.5 Jettison system 1.7 Fuel system valve actuation

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figure 2, Fuel Valve Schematic With See And Feel Indicator

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figure 3, Fuel Valve Schematic

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figure 4, Fuel Tank Layout Overview A330

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figure 5, Fuel Tank Layout B777

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figure 6, Fuel Tank Layout Overview A320

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figure 7, Integral Tank Inner View

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figure 8, Fuel Tank Seal Plan

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figure 9, Close-up Of Sealing In Integral Tank

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figure 10, Fuel Tank Access Panel Locations

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figure 11, Fuel Tank Access Panels

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figure 12, Impact Resistant Door

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figure 13, Fuel Tank Access Panel

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figure 14, Methods Of Securing Fuel Tank Access Panels

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figure 18, Protective Equipment For Working Inside A Fuel Tank

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figure 19, Fuel Tank Leak Assessment

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2.1.2 Bladder Tanks HYCATROL

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figure 20, Typical Bladder Tank