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IEEE ICTMOD 2021 1570767826
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Machine Learning for the predictive maintenance of a
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8   jaw crusher in the mining industry
2021 IEEE International Conference on Technology Management, Operations and Decisions (ICTMOD) | 978-1-6654-1654-2/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/ICTMOD52902.2021.9739338

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14   MariyaGuerroum Mourad Zegrari Abdelhafid Ait Elmahjoub Mouna Berquedich
LISSIE Ecole Nationale LISSIE Ecole Nationale LISSIE Ecole Nationale Green Tech Institute
15   Supérieure des Arts et des Supérieure des Arts et des Supérieure des Arts et des Mohammed VI Polytechnique
16   Métiers, Faculté des Sciences Métiers, Faculté des Sciences Métiers, Faculté des Sciences University
17   Ben M'Sik Ben M'Sik Ben M'Sik Benguerir, Morocco
18   Hassan II University Hassan II University Hassan II University mouna.berquedich@um6p.ma
19   Casablanca, Morocco Casablanca, Morocco Casablanca, Morocco
20   mariya.guerroum1@gmail.com zegrari.ensam@gmail.com aitelmahjoub@gmail.com
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22   Malek Masmoudi
University of Sharjah, College of
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Engineering,
24   Sharjah, UAE
25   mmasmoudi@sharjah.ac.ae
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30   Abstract— Diagnosis and prognosis are both crucial and profitability of the cost strategy. As indicated previously,
31   interlinked steps in the context of predictive maintenance of implementing PdM in the maintenance system in the context of
32   rotating machines. Risk management correlated with machine Industry 4.0 is very interesting. The literature presents the
33   Reliability within time intervention. In this paper, the most procedure for the PdM approach in four stages: collection,
popular machine learning algorithms are tested and compared to analysis, decision, and action [5]. PdM steps are illustrated in
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serve Predictive maintenance purposes. The use case of this paper Fig. 1.
35   is an industrial jaw crusher from the mining industry production
36   process. Azure machine learning studio platform made it possible First, jaw crusher machine data is captured, collected, and
37   to simulate the proposed approaches. The relevance of Machine processed. In the second step, the diagnosis detects defaults
38   Learning models for predicting components' health states is since the prognosis prevents possible defaults. At this point,
39   proved while achieving high accuracies. different models and approaches come into play, such as
40   machine learning algorithms. Then, for decision-making
Keywords—risk management, machine learning, predictive purposes, the information is transformed into knowledge. The
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maintenance, rotating machines paper's contribution in the diagnosis using ML technics state of
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43   the art to serve the ore mining context is stressed. Finally, the
I. INTRODUCTION
44   maintenance action is scheduled based on the decisions. In the
As the name suggests, predictive maintenance (PdM) is a following, disciplinary fields such as Data Science and Artificial
45   method of predicting the remaining life of an asset or equipment Intelligence are introduced to present in detail the techniques of
46   component. It is a daughter branch of condition-based each step.
47   maintenance (CBM), considered as a specialization of
48   preventive maintenance[1]. Even in some works, CBM refers to II. PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
49   PdM [2]. Technically, PdM comes to exploit and complement Predictive maintenance acquires a four steps strategy: data
50   the technologies and the stages of CBM (conditional monitoring: classification, data processing, diagnosis, and prognosis.
51   continuous data acquisition and diagnosis) to add a layer of
52   prognosis and a mechanism to help decision making. When
53   CBM acts considering the diagnosis of a failure, PdM, based on
54   deterioration development trends, predicts potential faults in
55   time and determines the right time for an intervention [3], [4]. In
56   this case, the maintenance action takes place well before the
irreversible state to maximize the use of the assets before
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reaching the end of their life cycles. This method enables
60   increasing the life of the machines and managing the
61   Fig. 1. Predictive maintenance procedure steps
62   978-1-6654-1654-2/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE
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The main steps followed for Machine Learning (ML), shown
in Fig. 2, are aligned with the adopted strategy for implementing
conditional preventive maintenance. The used data in the
rotating machine's case are generally vibrations, temperature,
acoustic emissions, current, etc. After the signals' information
extraction and analysis (Data Mining), the ML model recognizes
the system health state [6]. As for the model construction stage,
the system manipulates data for the first time to learn how to
manage it depending on the technique and the type of algorithm
chosen. Learning, as with humans, is the stage where the model
trains and gets used to how it will process the data to achieve
maximum accuracy. In ML, there is the mode of supervised and
unsupervised learning. Depending on the type of learning, the
algorithms differ. In addition, there are other training techniques
like the supervised type, depending on the programmer's
interference in training the model.
A. Diagnosis
Diagnosis handles data through three steps: detection of the
fault, localization, and determination of the location of this fault,
and finally identification by specifying the nature of the default
that has occurred in the equipment [7]. Traditionally, the process
of interpretation relating information from the machine to its
health condition defines diagnosis [6].
B. Prognostic
A random variable linked to the age of the component, the
service environment, and the monitored state of health
(condition monitoring) models the Remaining Useful Life
(RUL), which is monitored continuously or occasionally [8].
The RUL is closely related to the notion of risk on equipment
that occurs before failure signals are detected [9]. The
probability density function is represented by (1) where 𝑋𝑡 is
the random variable of RUL at time t, and 𝑌𝑡 is the history of the
operational profile and the information of the health status
monitoring until t. 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑥𝑡 )returns on the probability density
function of life at 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑡 , whilst R (t) denotes the survival
function at time t.
𝑓(𝑡+𝑥𝑡 )
𝑓(𝑥𝑡 |𝑌𝑡 ) = 𝑓(𝑥𝑡 ) =
𝑅(𝑡)
The selection features of the data chosen with the
classification algorithm are the approach based on the Beam
Search algorithm to increase the precision, and a filtering
method based on the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test [10].
Planning inspections relies on prognosis. Both types of
monitoring in the CBM context, periodic inspections, and
continuous monitoring have limitations. The healthy machine
working time estimating before collecting the following
condition information while predicting the conditional
monitoring interval. Thus, optimizing the collection of essential
information for the analysis aims for better quality and
profitability. Several models for determining condition
monitoring intervals have been discussed by [7] .
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III. MACHINE LEARNING FOR PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
The most used methods in the predictive maintenance
context are Random Forest or Random Forest (RF), Artificial
Neural Network ANN, and SVM.
Supervised learning is a learning model performed when the
algorithm uses, as input, labeled data subdivided into two
categories: training data and test & validation data. In the other
hand, unsupervised learning is a mode where the system decides
the outcome autonomously. The recognition of the model is then
its reference. Clustering or grouping algorithms use the principle
of non-learning by processing and grouping data according to
their degree of resemblance. The new values are analyzed and
ranked with the similar data previously examined. Additionally,
Deep Learning is a type of advanced machine learning, where
model learning is automated, predicts without using supervised
Learning. Artificial neural networks are the most well-known
application area in the field of Deep Learning. Deep Learning
deals with applications such as facial recognition, voice, and
word processing.
A. Random Forest
As the most widely used ML method in recently reviewed
work, Random Forest (RF) is an algorithm that relies on
supervised learning for regression and classification problems.
The result of each tree represents a vote to formulate the final
prediction as it is the most popular class. [11] proposed the first
application of this algorithm. The bootstrap is a method of a
random selection of data sets with a replacement of a few values.
N random subsamples are formed containing a specific
percentage of the input data sets of the model. Decision trees are
built for the n random subsets. The results are conveyed to the
end nodes of the respective trees [12]. The algorithm becomes
more and more precise as the number of decision trees increases.
The average of the tree results is calculated to incorporate the RF
model result. This step is called "Bootstrap aggregation" or
"bagging" [11]. Fig 3 represents the three major steps of RF.
Fig. 2. Machine learning technique execution stages
()
Fig. 3. Random Forest algorithm steps
 Several published works in the predictive maintenance C. Support vector Machine
context used the RF model [13] . [10] have proposed a generic SVM is not only a statistical approach but is also considered
method to predict interventions on components of marketed a precise Data Mining and Machine Learning technique within
vehicles. This algorithm is tested for the classification of air the framework of classification and regression applications.
compressor faults. This data is used to predict the Remaining SVM falls under the category of supervised machine learning
Useful Life (RUL) to decide when to maintain. The input data methods. Used for fault classification applications in n groups,
are not necessarily data linked directly to the air compressors. the SVM-based diagnostic model treats cases of automotive
Therefore, the authors had to choose features to filter and select gearboxes [23], filament ions [24], bearings in railways [25], the
the data set for defects classification. On the other hand, [14] geometry of railways, or even standard forecasting problems
presented an Analytical Approach to Big Data for the field of [26]. The advantage of the SVM is the precision in the groups'
renewable energies, more precisely, wind turbines. An RF separation by selecting the optimal points of delimitation of the
algorithm was used to generate predictive models every ten groups of values, as illustrated in Fig.4.
minutes based on status data and operational data. The proposed
"Data Mining" approach is an improvement of [15] work while
proving a greater precision of 5.5%. Moreover, [16] developed
predictive maintenance architecture on the Cloud, based on an
RF model for the machine states prediction. A combination of
sensors, PLCs, and various communication protocols data
analysis showed 95% accuracy results. Another application of
RF algorithms in the context of Big Data is proposed by [17] as
part of a real-time fault prediction system for hard disks in data
centers. The data analyzed for real-time forecasting comes from
machine log files rather than using traditional statistical
prediction methods. The accuracy of this method was able to
reach a percentage of 85% in real-time [17]). Furthermore, RF
algorithms detected the presence of faults in refrigeration
systems with an accuracy of 89% [18]. In addition, RF and
Park's Vector combined could characterize stator short circuit
faults in asynchronous squirrel-cage machines [19].
B. Artificial neural networks
Artificial neural networks are computer classification and Fig. 4. Representation of the classification by the SVM algorithm
prediction models that emulate the functioning of biological
neurons in a human brain. An input layer, hidden layers, and an IV. CASE STUDY
output layer are the preconized organization of Processing units
or neurons. Information is conveyed through "connections" or A. System Description
communication channels with a particularly associated weight The studied system is a jaw crusher treating the waste after
by the neural synapses’ simulation. Indeed, this passage exploits the screening process (class> 90 mm). This equipment reduces
the local data by the link between two neurons of two different the blocks to a dimension less than 250 mm. After that, the sterile
canapes. A so-called activation function is associated with a is transported by the waste disposal conveyor. The location of
calculated threshold value and weight the output value of the this machine is at the extracted phosphate physical treatment
neuron. Depending on this value, a greater or lesser number of facilities line. Table I below represents the jaw crusher list of
neurons are connected and activated [20]. components implemented in a mining production line.
Neural networks can be supervised or unsupervised. The diagram illustrated in Fig.5 shows a view of the
Supervised networks allow weight parameters to be adjusted and transmission chain from the electric motors to the crusher mobile
the number of layers hidden in the network to be fixed. ML by jaw connecting rods.
ANN are applied on nonlinear systems with large data
variability. Techniques like "dropout" are implemented to obtain TABLE I. JAW CRUSHER COMPONENTS’ LISTE
better results and avoid the overfitting problem [20]. Another Component Designation
project to deploy an ANN model was carried out by [21]for real- Comp1 Left electric motor
time fault identification of an anode production system. The data
Comp2 Right electric motor
processed within the framework of this study come from various
Comp3 Front bearing on left engine side
sensors implemented in the field. The authors applied other
algorithms on the same dataset to compare the performance of Comp4 Front bearing on right engine side
models based on Decision Trees, RF, Bernoulli Naive Bayes Comp5 Right bearing of the central axis
(NB-G), and Gaussian Naive Bayes (NB-B). Long Short-Term Comp6 Left bearing of the central axis
Memory LSTMs, a particular case of recurrent neural networks,
have interested the work of [22] on mobile machines. The
information from various sensors implemented on the machines
is managed in a Big Data environment.

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 TABLE II. CLASSIFICATION OF COMBINED DEFECTS AT JAW CRUSHER

Combination Defaults
class Structure Alignemnt Greasing Bearing Fixation
1 X 0 0 0 0
2 X X 0 0 0
3 X 0 X 0 0
4 X 0 0 X X
5 X X X 0 0
6 X X X X 0
7 0 X 0 0 0
8 0 X X X 0
9 0 0 X 0 0
None 0 0 0 0 0
The accuracy parameter measures the adequacy of a
classification model as a proportion of actual results over the
Fig. 5. Kinematic diagram of the jaw crusher total number of cases. Besides, precision corresponds to the
proportion of actual results over all positive results.
The collected data from the wireless sensors implemented on
the 6 components are the overall vibratory displacement values 𝑇𝑃
in mm / s, acceleration in g and, temperature with a frequency of Precision = ()
𝑇𝑃+𝐹𝑃
4 hours. The data is saved in the cloud and is exported in CSV
format. 14673 registrations are recorded over 20 months. Then Also, recall is the fraction of the total amount of relevant
this data is cleaned and processed through the elimination of instances that were recovered.
records made in the machine shutdown state. 8486 records
resulted from this cleanup operation. And before proceeding Recall =
𝑇𝑃
()
with the ML model creation, weekly fault diagnostic reports are 𝑇𝑃+𝐹𝑁
used to interpret the collected sensor data. Fig.6 shows the data
flow of the proposed solution. As well as that, F1 score is calculated as the weighted
average of precision and recall between 0 and 1, with the ideal
At the crusher level, generally, the most occurring faults are F1 score value being 1.
structure defects, misalignments, lubrication lacks, bearing
problems, and fixation issues. The crusher's various 𝑓1 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 2
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛∙𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙
()
component’s fault classes are extracted from sensors Data and 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛+𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙
diagnosis reports jointure. It is remarkable that in the history of
the crusher, combinations of faults can be detected during its In addition, AUC measures the area under the plotted curve
operation. Combination classes are listed in TABLE II. with true positives on the y axis and false positives on the x axis.
This metric is useful because it provides a unique number that
B. Evaluation parameters allows effective comparison. We also cite the confusion matrix
The appropriate ML method choice must suit the application to highlight the performance of a Machine Learning algorithm
(type of data, volume of data, prediction interval, historical by summarizing the model's prediction results against real data
availability). After reviewing the most widely used ML during the post-training test phase. The confusion matrix
algorithms for signal-based predictive maintenance, one must contains the numbers of the estimated elements (true positives,
highlight the precision calculation to test the algorithm and judge true negatives, false positives, and false negatives).
its performance. The model can be evaluated by several
Consequently, these criteria are applied on the three ML
parameters like accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score, and the
techniques: RF, ANN, and SVM.
Area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUC)
[27]. C. Machine learning models
The model is then built on the Microsoft Azure machine
learning platform. Fig.7 shows schematically the model
structure. All the collected data using the proposed architecture
were split using the 50-50% ratio train & test set. The simulation
results are grouped in TABLE III. The results are accurate in
predicting the condition of the crusher's different components.

TABLE III. ML MODELS RESULTS

Algorithms
Metrics
RF ANN SVM
Overall accuracy 0.927174 0.811454 0.640349
Average accuracy 0.985435 0.962291 0.92807
Micro-averaged precision 0.927174 0.811454 0.640349
Fig. 6. Data flow Micro-averaged recall 0.927174 0.811454 0.640349
Macro-averaged recall 0.801683 0.459407 0.279335

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Fig. 7. ML model on the Microsoft Azure machine learning platform
V. DISCUSSION
Among the causes of the errors in the data, one can stress the
human factor seen in the manual entry and the lack of the
sensors' precision. There are several cleaning methods.
Examining data manually or well managed with a word
processing algorithm [28] are options for processing event-type
data. Isolation faults sensor is also a possible solution because of
the operating conditions [29]. At the operational level, events are
often discarded for reasons such as manual entry and the
influence of human error or non-direct contribution to improving
the condition and decreasing failure rate. It is relevant to
consider event-type data as feedback for improving performance
indicators [7]. In addition, the data-gathering could be automated
in the information system or the CMMS. Following these facts,
identifying the method of raw data collection and their type
(historical or in real-time) may influence the predictive
maintenance process.
The principle of RF could avoid the most "Overfitting"
inconvenience and running the time of training the algorithm. In
addition, the RF model has shown its efficiency and accuracy for
large data sets, especially in the processing of big data. Another
advantage of RF is the estimation of missing data ensured while
keeping the precision preserved. It is for this reason that the
results obtained for this study are 92.7% accurate.
Among the advantages of ANNs, we can find that; no
expertise is required due to the use of history; robustness of the
model despite the use of “uncertain” or inconsistent data; once
the model has been trained and built, no modification is
necessary for real-time operation. ANNs have drawbacks such
as being a black-box model. It is impossible to know the distance
traveled to reach a result. Some results may contradict the rules
or instructions imposed. Creating an ANN model takes a long
time while learning requires a huge set of data. Also, expert
knowledge is required for the choice of a number of sofas for
deep learning applications. The model performed by the ANN
algorithm was less accurate in predicting classes 9 (7.2%), class
4, class 5 (10.9%), class 7 (23.8%), and 8.
The disadvantages of SVM are the difficulty in choosing the
right function of the kernel, the training time which is
proportional to the number of samples, the difficulty of
understanding and interpreting the final model, and finally the
integration of the logic business in the model making process
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(Carvalho et al., 2019). SVM was able to predict classes 2 and 3
with greater than 80% accuracy.
VI. CONCLUSION
Nowadays, ML algorithms are more likely to be applied in
the area of predictive maintenance. In this paper, Azure Machine
Learning Studio is used as a platform to simulate RF, ANN, and
SVM algorithms. The models process jaw crusher rotating
components diagnostic data in mining facilities. The RF
algorithm has proven suitability in mining applications for
failure prediction with superior accuracy (92.4%) compared to
ANN (81%) and SVM (64%). RF has a capacity for managing
large databases while avoiding over-fitting. Above all, it is
possible to support a large set of input data and preserve the data
selectivity for classification. RF determines the generalization
error while estimating missing data even when much of it is not
available. In the literature, there is no specific model for all field
applications. The results and performance of machine learning
systems generally depend on the nature of the data and the
intended purpose. Such an approach implementation will be a
colossal step towards switching to Industry 5.0 of the mining
industry. The perspective is to develop a system that fits in the
harsh environment of the mining industry while featuring ML
algorithms. So, in future work, combining fault diagnosis using
the RF model with RUL estimation is a goal to reach by
identifying the machine faults signatures based on sensors data
set.
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