The Development of Reading Comprehension

Alder and Van Doren (1972) Four Levels of Reading Comprehension

1. The first or elementary level involved understanding the literal meaning of the words and sentences.

2. The second level was termed “intellectual reading” or “systematic skimming –when reading at this
level, one has set amount of time to complete an assigned amount of reading.

3. Analytic Reading - It is the best and most complete reading that is possible given unlimited time. It
requires a deeper more complete understanding of the contents of the book.

4. Comparative Reading – The comparative reader has read many books and is relate different books and
topics to one another.

The Reading Stages (Chall, 1938)

  Stage 0: Prereading – birth age 6

o        children master many prerequisites for reading at this stage:
o       Identifies a few letters of the alphabet, prints name, read a few words, has knowledge
about books
-         Stage 1: Initial reading – age 6-7
o       Children acquire phonological recoding skill – ability to translate letters into sounds
and to blend the sounds together to form words - /m/-/a/-/t/ = mat
o       Finish learning letters and sounds, begin reading simple texts
-         Stage 2: Confirmation Fluency  - age 7-8
o       Begin to read fluently, focus is on identifying individual words more quickly,
become automatic in reading familiar texts
o       Reading is not focused on gaining new information or learning from reading, but is
used to gain control of reading – read fluently and quickly decode words
-         Stage 3: Reading to Learning New Information– age 8-14
o       Reads to learn - children become capable of obtaining new information from print
-  use reading as a tool to acquire new knowledge
o       Growing importance of word meaning, prior knowledge, and strategic knowledge
o       Children have a singular viewpoint when reading
o       Example: child goes to the zoo and sees a Siberian Tiger
-         Stage 4: Multiple Viewpoints – age 14-18
o       Reads material from multiple viewpoints
o       Improve their ability to think critically about what they read with a deeper
understanding of the information
o       Example: understanding subjects such as history or politics
-         Stage 5: Construction and Reconstruction – age 18+
o       Forms knowledge from reading on a higher level of abstraction
o       Able to construct their own viewpoint of what they have read and critically analyze
the viewpoints of others
o       Example: able to read information on the development of object permanence and
construct their own views on this subject
Developing Habitual Reading in Kids

Although technology has brought with it the gift of convenience in helping people do their work
easier and faster, it has also noted disadvantages to some people. since information can be had from tv,
internet, radio, and cellphone, getting information from a book is considered boring and old.

Importance of Reading as follows

1. A book is actually the tool for exposing readers especially children a different people, personalities and
attitudes. Emotional intelligence can be developed through reading

2. Reading can improve children’s vocabulary in which they can freely express themselves without
difficulty.

3. Reading can serve as inspirations to readers.

4. Reading will improve children’s analytical thinking which will make them smarter, work faster, and
become more helpful.

Do’s and Don’ts of Read-Aloud (Trelease,1982)

Dos

 Begin reading to children as soon as possible. The younger you start them, the easier and better it
is.
 Use Mother Goose rhymes and songs to stimulate an infant's language and listening. Simple black
and white illustrations at first, and then boldly colored picture books arouse children's curiosity
and visual sense.
 With infants through toddlers, it is critically important to include in your readings those books
that contain repetitions; as they mature, add predictable books.
 During repeat readings of a predictable book, occasionally stop at one of the key words or phrases
and allow the listener to provide the word.
 Read as often as you and the child (or students) have time for.
 Set aside at least one traditional time each day for a story.

Don'ts

 Don't read stories that you don't enjoy yourself. Your dislike will show in the reading, and that
defeats your purpose.
 Don't continue reading a book once it is obvious that it was a poor choice. Admit the mistake and
choose another. Make sure, however, that you've given the book a fair chance to get rolling;
some, like Tuck Everlasting, start slower than others. (You can avoid the problem by prereading
at least part of the book yourself.
 If you are a teacher, don't feel you have to tie every book to class work. Don't confine the broad
spectrum of literature to the narrow limits of the curriculum.
 Don't overwhelm your listener. Consider the intellectual, social, and emotional level of your
audience in making a read-aloud selection. Never read above a child's emotional level.
 Aphasia

It is a language disorder that results from damage to the portions of the brain that responsible for
language. People who have aphasia may have difficulty speaking and finding the "right" words to
complete their thoughts. They may also have problems understanding conversation, reading and
comprehending written words, writing words, and using numbers.

What Causes Aphasia?

Aphasia is usually caused by a stroke or brain injury with damage to one or more parts of the brain that
deal with language. According to the National Aphasia Association, about 25% to 40% of people who
survive a stroke get aphasia.

 Aphasia may also be caused by a brain tumor, brain infection, or dementia such as Alzheimer's disease.
In some cases, aphasia is a symptom of epilepsy or other neurological disorder.
What Are the Symptoms of Aphasia?
The main symptoms of aphasia include:
 Trouble speaking
 Struggling with finding the appropriate term or word
 Using strange or inappropriate words in conversation
Some people with aphasia have problems understanding what others are saying. The problems occur
particularly when the person is tired or in a crowded or loud environment. Aphasia does not affect
thinking skills. But the person may have problems understanding written material and difficulties with
handwriting. Some people have trouble using numbers or even doing simple calculations.
How Is Aphasia Diagnosed?
Usually, a doctor first diagnoses aphasia when treating a patient for a stroke, brain injury, or tumor. Using
a series of neurological tests, the doctor may ask the person questions. The doctor may also issue specific
commands and ask the person to name different items or objects. The results of these tests help the doctor
determine if the person has aphasia. They also help determine the severity of the aphasia.
How Is Aphasia Treated?
A person with aphasia who has had a stroke may benefit from sessions with a speech-language
pathologist. The therapist will meet regularly with the person to increase his or her ability to speak and
communicate. The therapist will also teach the person ways to communicate that don't involve speech.
This will help the person compensate for language difficulties.
Here are some tips from the National Stroke Association for someone with aphasia:
 Use props to help get the message across.
 Draw words or pictures on paper when trying to communicate.
 Speak slowly and stay calm when talking.
Carry a card to let strangers know you have aphasia and what aphasia means.
Prevention
Following are some precautions that should be taken to avoid aphasia, by decreasing the risk of stroke,
the main cause of aphasia:

 Exercising regularly
 Eating a healthy diet
 Keeping alcohol consumption low and avoiding tobacco use
 Controlling blood pressure

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a learning disorder characterized by difficulty reading due to problems identifying speech sounds
and learning how they relate to letters and words. Also called specific reading disability, dyslexia is a common
learning disability in children.

Dyslexia occurs in children with normal vision and intelligence. Sometimes dyslexia goes undiagnosed for
years and isn't recognized until adulthood.

There's no cure for dyslexia. It's a lifelong condition caused by inherited traits that affect how your brain works.
However, most children with dyslexia can succeed in school with tutoring or a specialized education program.
Emotional support also plays an important role.

Symptoms
Dyslexia symptoms can be difficult to recognize before your child enters school, but some early clues may
indicate a problem. Once your child reaches school age, your child's teacher may be the first to notice a
problem. The condition often becomes apparent as a child starts learning to read.

Before school
Signs and symptoms that a young child may be at risk of dyslexia include:

 Late talking
 Learning new words slowly
 Difficulty learning nursery rhymes
 Difficulty playing rhyming games
School age
Once your child is in school, dyslexia signs and symptoms may become more apparent, including:

 Reading well below the expected level for your child's age
 Problems processing and understanding what he or she hears
 Difficulty comprehending rapid instructions
 Problems remembering the sequence of things
 Difficulty seeing (and occasionally hearing) similarities and differences in letters and words
 Inability to sound out the pronunciation of an unfamiliar word
 Difficulty spelling
Teens and adults
Dyslexia symptoms in teens and adults are similar to those in children. Though early intervention is beneficial
for dyslexia treatment, it's never too late to seek help. Some common dyslexia symptoms in teens and adults
include:

 Difficulty reading, including reading aloud

 Trouble understanding jokes or expressions that have a meaning not easily understood from the specific
words (idioms), such as "piece of cake" meaning "easy"
 Difficulty with time management
 Difficulty summarizing a story
 Trouble learning a foreign language
 Difficulty memorizing
 Difficulty doing math problems

Causes
Dyslexia has been linked to certain genes that control how the brain develops. It appears to be an inherited
condition — it tends to run in families.

These inherited traits appear to affect parts of the brain concerned with language, interfering with the ability to
convert written letters and words into speech.

Risk factors
Dyslexia risk factors include:

 A family history of dyslexia

 Individual differences in the parts of the brain that enable reading

Tests and diagnosis

There's no one test that can diagnose dyslexia. Your child's doctor will consider a number of factors, such as:

 Your child's development, educational issues and medical history. Your doctor will likely ask you
questions about these areas. The doctor will likely also want to know about any conditions that run in your
child's family, including whether any family members have a learning disability.
 Your child's home life. The doctor may ask for a description of your family and home life, including who
lives at home and whether there are any problems at home.
 Questionnaires. Your child's doctor may have your child, family members or teachers answer written
questions. Your child may be asked to take tests to identify reading and language abilities.
 Testing reading and other academic skills. Your child may take a set of educational tests and have the
process and quality of reading skills analyzed by a reading expert.