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EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS
Fire Safety
Fire can cause death and serious injury through smoke inhalation and severe burns. Fire can also be
catastrophic to a business resulting in significant financial losses through not having insurance or adequate
coverage (Confederation of Tourism and Hospitality [CTH], 2009).
Fire Basics
Fire is defined as the active principle of burning, characterized by the heat and light
of combustion (The Fire Code of the Philippines, 2019). Three (3) components are Figure 1
needed to ignite and sustain a fire. These are illustrated in Figure 1. Combustion Triangle
Fuel refers to any combustible material and can be in gas, liquid, or solid form.
Together with oxygen, it forms an ignitable mixture. When heat is added to this
mixture, fire erupts. When one of these components is missing, the danger of
ignition no longer persists (Helmerking, 2020).
Causes of Fire
It is important to understand what causes fire first to prevent it. Fires can be
caused by the following (Helmerking, 2020):
• Natural causes, like lightning Source:
https://images.app.goo.gl/S2pgattXCPpXyf2n7
• Caused by animals, like rats chewing on electric cables
• Self-ignition, caused by chemical reactions
• Technical causes, like defective equipment
• Negligence, like a lit cigarette thrown in a bin filled with combustible materials
• Arson (an intentional act of setting fire to a property)
Stages of Fire
A fire can be subdivided into stages. Fire begins in the ignition stage, where all three (3) components of fire
are joined together. At this stage, the fire is called the incipient fire (Helmerking, 2020). Incipient fires can be
extinguished with a fire extinguisher or smothering it with a fire blanket. As the incipient fire becomes the
heat source, nearby fuel will begin igniting. The fire enters the growth stage as it spreads and grows (National
Fire Protection Association [NFPA], n.d.). The entire area will be on fire on the fully developed stage, and the
temperature can reach over 1,000°C. The fire in this stage is called developed or full fire. During the transition
between growth and fully developed stages, the object around the fire reaches ignition temperature. With
sufficient oxygen, these objects ignite with no direct contact with flames. This phase is called the flashover
(Helmerking, 2020). When available fuel runs out and oxygen is depleted, the fire becomes less intense and
enters the decay or burnout stage (NFPA, n.d.).
When oxygen is too low in an enclosed space, an incipient fire cannot become a full fire. However, the
temperature can still increase, triggering slow, flameless combustion. This fire is called a smoldering fire. It
can be observed in burning coals or lit cigarettes. If the space remains closed, the fire will die from a lack of
oxygen (Helmerking, 2020). But, a backdraft may occur if oxygen is suddenly re-introduced into the room
(from opening a door or windowpane breaking). It is an explosion-like spread of fire where hot, unburned fuel
and flammable gasses from the smoldering fire rapidly ignite and burn (NFPA, n.d.).
Fire Classifications
Fires are classified based on the type of fuel it consumes. The fire classifications are shown below (The Fire
Code of the Philippines, 2019):
• Class A: Fires involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, paper, straw, textiles, rubber,
and plastics.
• Class B: Fires involving flammable liquids such as petrol, diesel, paint, and gases such as methane and
propane.

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• Class C: Fires involving electrically energized equipment such as computers, radios, and toasters.
• Class D: Fires involving combustible metals such as magnesium, aluminum, lithium, sodium,
potassium, and other similar materials.
• Class K: Fires in cooking appliances that involve combustible cooking media such as cooking oil, fat,
grease, etc.
These classifications are used in the Philippines and the United States of America. Fire classifications in Europe,
Australia, and other countries are classified differently.
Fire Protection Equipment
As part of the requirements of the Fire Code of the Philippines, establishments must have features that will
protect people from fire. Some of the basic fire protection facilities and equipment are:
• Fire detection, alarm, and communication system – These notify building occupants of the fire and
other emergencies. These can be initiated manually or have automatic detection (Fire Code of the
Philippines, 2019).
• Sprinkler Systems – These consist of pipes along a ceiling containing water under pressure. During
fires, a seal in the sprinkler head ruptures so that a steady stream of water flows, suppressing the fire
(Purpura, 2013).
• Standpipe Systems – These are piping and hose connections installed in a building providing reliable
water for the manual suppression of fires (Mahoney, 2021).
• Portable Fire Extinguishers – These are apparatuses used to put out a small fire by directing onto it a
substance that cools the burning material, deprives the flame of oxygen, or interferes with the
chemical reactions occurring in the flame (Britannica, 2017).
Putting Out Fires
Fire needs all components of the combustion triangle. Therefore, fire is extinguished by depraving one (1) or
more of these components. The four (4) ways of putting out fire are (NFPA, n.d.):
• Cooling – It involves decreasing the temperature of the burning material.
• Smothering – It involves limiting the oxygen supply to the burning material.
• Starvation – It involves the removal of a fuel source.
• Break the combustion process – It involves interrupting the chemical chain reaction that ignites the
fire.
Figure 2
Using a Fire Extinguisher Sample Fire Extinguisher
It is important to know the classes of fire because not all of them can be Label
extinguished by water or the same fire extinguisher. Portable fire extinguishers are
designed by the class of fire they are intended for, indicated on their label, as seen
in Figure 2 (The University of Texas at Austin, n.d.).
Use a portable fire extinguisher when the fire is confined to a small area, such as a
wastebasket, and is not growing. Make sure that everyone has exited the building,
the Bureau of Fire Protection has been called or is being called, and the room is
not filled with smoke (NFPA, n.d.).
To operate a fire extinguisher, remember the word PASS (NFPA, n.d.):
• Pull the pin. Hold the extinguisher with the nozzle pointing away from you
and release the locking mechanism.
• Aim low. Point the nozzle at the base of the fire.
• Squeeze the lever slowly and evenly.
• Sweep the nozzle from side to side. Source:
https://images.app.goo.gl/Y5wzjZgoEiKwx
vmA7

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Earthquakes
An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through the Earth’s
rocks (Bolt, 2022). Many regions around the world are prone to earthquakes. The Pacific Ring of Fire is the
most active earthquake zone, composed of the countries surrounding the rim of the Pacific Ocean (Kesper,
2015).
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends the following during an earthquake:
• DROP – Drop down to the ground, on hands and knees. It reduces the risks of falling as the ground
shakes. Crawl away from objects, tall furniture, and shelves that may fall.
• COVER – Cover the head and neck and find shelter under a sturdy table or desk. If there is no shelter
nearby, get down next to low-lying furniture and protect the head and neck with arms and hands.
• HOLD – Hold on to the shelter until the shaking stops.
To reduce the risks of being injured, CDC also advises the following actions:
• Stay in place during an earthquake. Running outside or to other rooms increases the risk of falling or
getting knocked down by falling and/or flying objects.
• If possible, quickly move away from large furniture, hanging objects, bookcases, cabinets with doors
that swing open, and light fixtures.
• When inside the kitchen, quickly turn off the gas to prevent fires.
• Only leave the building once the shaking stops. Use the appropriate evacuation routes.
• Do not use elevators when evacuating. Use the stairs.
• Drop, cover, and hold if inside a stadium, theater, or any crowded place. Protect your head and neck
with arms or in any way possible. Do not leave until the shaking stops.
• If near the shore, drop, cover, and hold. If shaking lasts 20 seconds or more, evacuate to high ground
or move inland immediately.
Security Issues in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry
Workplace Violence
The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) defines workplace violence as any act or threat
of physical violence, harassment, intimidation, or other threatening disruptive behavior at work. It ranges from
threats and verbal abuse to physical assaults and even homicide (OSHA, n.d.). Workplace violence can be
categorized based on who the perpetrator is and their relation to the organization (Kelloway et al., 2021), as
well as prevention strategies as recommended by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(2004):
Type I/Criminal Intent – This is committed by someone with no legitimate relationship to the organization,
often while committing another criminal act (e.g., robbery). It can be prevented using the following strategies:
• Environmental interventions – Examples of these are ensuring the interior and exterior of the building
are well-lit, surveillance systems are installed, and signages are posted.
• Behavioral interventions include training staff on appropriate robbery response, use of safety
equipment, and dealing with aggressive, drunk, or otherwise problem persons.
• Administrative interventions include adjusting operating hours, precautions during opening and
closing, and maintaining a good relationship with local law enforcement.
Type II/Customer or Client – It is committed by clients or customers of the organization (e.g., irate customers).
It can be prevented with the following strategies:
• Adequate staffing and skill mix – Low responsiveness and quality of service can result in frustration
and agitation in customers.
• Training in violence de-escalation techniques and improving interpersonal communication skills.

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Type III/Worker-on-Worker – It is committed by other employees of the organization (e.g., disgruntled former
employees). It can be prevented with the following strategies:
• Evaluate prospective employees – Conduct background screens for criminal history and check former
employer references.
• Training in policies – Conduct new-worker orientation and inform all prohibited behaviors among
workers and company policies regarding workplace violence.
• Observe changes in behavior – Report and address changes in worker’s behavior.
Type IV/Personal Relationship – It is committed by the spouse or partner of the victim in the workplace (e.g.,
abusive partner). It is prevented with the following strategies:
• Provide workers with company policies regarding procedures on what to do if a coworker is suspected
to be involved in interpersonal violence, either as a victim or perpetrator.
• Create a culture of support for victims of violence that includes assurances that no penalties will exist
for coming forward, complete confidentiality will be observed, and safety and security will be
provided. Likewise, workers must also be informed of the consequences of being perpetrators of
workplace violence.
Terrorism
Terrorism is intentional violence involving targeted attacks designed to scare, intimidate, or ‘terrorize’ for a
political purpose. These are usually directed at people, events, or institutions and at a large audience whom
terrorists aim to intimidate, shock, or threaten (The International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 2015).
The biggest defense arm of any hospitality and tourism organization is its staff. Staff must be trained to be
observant of their surroundings. Instruct staff to report any suspicious activity to the security team. It includes
when a person (Selig & Wolfe, 2016):
• Acts nervously and is overly concerned with privacy;
• Denies hotel staff access to a room or refuses room cleaning during an extended stay;
• Insists on cash payment;
• Attempts to gain access to restricted areas or talks their way into private areas; or
• Conducts property surveillance, like taking photos of the property, noting the different entrances, and
observing cameras around the property.
Staff must take note of suspicious items brought in by guests, such as the following (Selig & Wolfe, 2016):
• Large amounts of unusual substances like acetone, peroxide, drain cleaner, fertilizers;
• Luggage emanating fumes or odors or contains disassembled electronics like wires, circuit boards, and
batteries; and
• Plans, drawings, schematics, and maps.
Human Trafficking
Human trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of people through force,
fraud, or deception to exploit them for profit. Men, women, and children of all ages and backgrounds can
become victims of this crime, which occurs in every region of the world (United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime [UNODC], n.d.).
Traffickers often take advantage of the privacy and anonymity accessible through the hospitality industry.
Hotels and motels can be especially attractive locations for all forms of trafficking. However, human trafficking
also occurs at sporting events, theme parks, cruise ships, and many other areas in the tourism industry (US
Department of Homeland Security [DHS], 2022).
According to the US Department of Homeland Security, a person may be a victim of human trafficking if they:
• Appear to be deprived of food, water, sleep, basic hygiene, medical care, or other necessities.

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• Act fearful, anxious, depressed, submissive, tense, nervous/paranoid, or disassociated/ “checked out.”
• Have bruises or other signs of physical trauma.
• Defer to another person to speak for them.
• Appear to be coached on what to say, or their responses seem rehearsed.
• Have a difficult time providing logical answers to basic questions.
• Appear to be traveling with few or no personal items, such as luggage or other bags.
• Seem to be with a “boyfriend,” “girlfriend,” or romantic partner who is noticeably older.
• Dress inappropriately for their age or in out-of-season clothing.
• Appear to have no control over their money and/or identification (ID).
• Talk about getting paid very little or not at all for the work they do.
• Appear not to have freedom of movement.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) recommends considering following the steps below when a
possible human trafficking victim is identified during a flight:
1. Check without being noticed whether there are any trafficking signals.
2. Assess whether the person tries to establish eye contact or avoids looking at you.
3. Try to initiate an informal conversation by asking questions such as:
o Where are you flying from?
o Why are you traveling?
o Are you visiting relatives?
o Where are you staying?
o Who will be meeting you?
o What are your plans?
4. If available, note seat number and passenger name record (PNR) information.
5. If the victim is accompanied, note if the companion is nervous, prevents the child/person from
answering questions, or is rude or evasive.
6. Assess the situation with other cabin crew members and your supervisor.
7. Contact the captain-in-command and inform him/her of suspicions.
8. Be cautious and do not try to act on behalf of law enforcement. It is a safety and security issue that
professionals must manage.
9. Continue assessing the situation and report additional details to the captain-in-command.
Do not attempt to confront a suspected trafficker directly or alert potential victims of any suspicions (DHS,
2022). Check the organization’s protocols for reporting suspected human trafficking instances.
Emergency Planning
An emergency is any sudden set of circumstances demanding immediate action. It can be naturally occurring,
like storms and epidemics, and it can be caused by humans, like fires and riots. The chances of any of these
emergencies may be low, but they can happen (Kelloway et al., 2021). A disaster may be prevented or
mitigated by implementing an emergency response plan. An emergency response plan is an integrated set of
policies and procedures that allows organizations to prepare for, respond to, and recover from emergency
incidents (Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety [CCOHS], 2020).
Cornerstones of an Emergency Plan
An emergency plan has four (4) essential qualities. These are (CCOHS, 2020):
• Prevention – It ensures that emergencies are eliminated or minimized (e.g., regular workplace
inspection and equipment maintenance).
• Preparedness – It ensures that people in the organization are prepared to respond effectively to an
emergency (e.g., conducting drills and employee training).

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• Response – It ensures that resources are available and used when responding to an emergency (e.g.,
using fire alarms and proper evacuation procedures).
• Recovery – It allows the organization to return to usual operations with as little disruption as possible
(e.g., assisting employees in dealing with their fears and stress and managing insurance claims).
Developing an Emergency Response Plan
There are six (6) key steps in developing an emergency response plan. These are discussed below (CCOHS,
2020):
1. Establish the Planning Team. Effective emergency planning requires a team approach. Combining the
various skill sets from all levels and functional areas of the organization can be beneficial as it provides
a broader perspective in emergency planning.
2. Assess the Risks and Company Capabilities. Risk assessments are conducted to identify the severity
of a possible emergency and its impacts on the organization. The organization’s capability to respond
to an emergency and available resources are also assessed. Resources include facilities, equipment,
supplies, staff expertise, employee experience, and their level of training.
3. Develop the Plan. The emergency response plan shall be written beginning with the most likely
emergency scenario, expanding to cover all other emergencies. It will also be based on the current
resources as determined in the previous step. The emergency response plan shall include the
following:
o The emergency response team shall manage and lead during emergencies.
o Alarm activation refers to the procedures to activate the alarm system to alert employees of an
emergency.
o Reporting refers to the procedures for contacting emergency services.
o Resource mobilization refers to the procedures for assembling the resources determined in step
2.
o Response procedures refer to the procedures for responding to each possible emergency.
o Media plan refers to the communication plan for dealing with the media and the public.
o Business recovery plans refer to the procedures that will ensure the resumption of critical business
functions and operations after an emergency.
o Cleanup and restoration plan refers to cleanup, restoration, repair, replacement, and salvage
procedures.
4. Implement the Plan. It includes training personnel and conducting drills and exercises as specified in
the emergency plan.
5. Evaluate its Effectiveness. A thorough evaluation of the exercise will ensure that the emergency plan
is successfully implemented and completed.
6. Improve the Plan Continuously. Pieces of feedback from step 5 and findings from investigations after
an actual emergency are applied to the emergency plan to prevent future incidents.

References:
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2017, June 5). fire extinguisher. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/fire-extinguisher
Bolt, B. A. (2022, October 18). Earthquake. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/earthquake-geology
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (2020) Emergency response planning guide.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.) Stay safe during an earthquake. Retrieved October 27, 2022, from
https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/earthquakes/during.html
Confederation of Tourism and Hospitality (2009) Food hygiene, health, and safety: Study guide. BPP Learning Media.
Fire Code of The Philippines – Revised Implementing Rules and Regulations. Bureau of Fire Protection. (2019)
https://bfp.gov.ph/revised-irr-of-ra-9514-the-fire-code-of-the-philippines/#.Y1ilvnZBzIU

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Helmerking, D. (2020). Basics: fire safety. Birkhauser.

International Air Transport Association (2018) Guidance on human trafficking.
Kelloway, E. K., Francis, L., Gatien, B., and Belcourt, M. (2021) Management of occupational health and safety (8th ed.). Nelson
Education Ltd.
Kesper, A. (2015). Basic disaster and earthquake preparedness advise for hotels and other tourism businesses. Retrieved October 26,
2022, from https://sustain.pata.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Earthquakes-Article_FINAL.pdf
National Fire Protection Association (n.d.) Reporter’s guide: All about fire. Retrieved October 25, 2022, from
https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Publications-and-media/Press-Room/Reporters-Guide-to-Fire-and-NFPA/All-
about-fire
National Fire Protection Association. (n.d.). Fire extinguishers. Retrieved October 26, 2022, from https://www.nfpa.org/Public-
Education/Staying-safe/Safety-equipment/Fire-extinguishers
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (September 2006). Workplace violence prevention strategies and research needs.
Retrieved October 27, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2006-144/pdfs/2006-144.pdf
Mahoney, S. (November 19, 2021). Standpipe System Design and Calculations. In National Fire Protection Association. Retrieved
October 25, 2022, from https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Publications-and-media/Blogs-
Landing-Page/NFPA-Today/Blog-Posts/2021/11/19/Standpipe-System-Design-and-Calculations
Occupational Health and Safety Administration. (n.d.). Workplace violence. Retrieved October 27, 2022, from
https://www.osha.gov/workplace-violence
Purpur, P.P. (2013). Security and loss prevention (6th ed.) Butterworth-Heinemann
Reese, C. D. (2015). Occupational health and safety management: A practical approach (3rd ed.). CRC Press
Selig, E. and Wolfe, F. (2016). Hospitality attacks: Tips for guest safety and protection. Hospitality Financial and Technology
Professionals
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (n.d.). Human trafficking. Retrieved October 28, 2022, from
https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/human-trafficking.html
The University of Texas at Austin – Fire Prevention Services (n.d.) ABCs of fire extinguishers. Retrieved October 26, 2022, from
https://fireprevention.utexas.edu/firesafety/abcs-fire-extinguishers
Vertigans, S. (2015). Terrorism. In J.D. Wright (ed.). International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (2nd ed., pp 237-
243). Elsevier.

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