Republic of the Philippines

SULTAN KUDARAT STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
ACCESS, EJC Montilla, Tacurong City

BIO 4 MICROBIOLOGY AND

PARASITOLOGY MODULE
1st Semester AY 2022-2023

RIZALYN B. CUDERA, MS
Author
 CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

Overview

Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms (microbes), which are defined as any
living organism that is either a single cell (unicellular), a cell cluster, or has no cells at all
(acellular). This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists; and prokaryotes, viruses and
prions, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied. Microbiology typically
includes the study of the parasites, or parasitology. Generally, these two disciplines often intersect
which is why many colleges offer a paired such as “Microbiology and Parasitology.”

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Discuss the basic concepts of Microbiology.

2. Familiarize the structures and functions of microscope.

Lesson 1: Brief History of Microbiology

Pre Discussion

Microbiology is one of the interesting fields in Biology with a long rich history, initially
centered in the causes of infectious diseases but now including practical applications of science.
Many individuals have made significant contributions to the development of Microbiology.
Historians are unsure who made the first observations of microorganisms, but the microscope
was available during the mid‐1600s, and an English scientist named Robert Hooke made key
observations. In the 1670s and the decades thereafter, a Dutch merchant named Anton van
Leeuwenhoek made careful observations of microscopic organisms, which he
called animalcules. Until his death in 1723, van Leeuwenhoek revealed the microscopic world to
scientists of the day and is regarded as one of the first to provide accurate descriptions of
protozoa, fungi, and bacteria.
What to expect?

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Recognize some scientists and their contributions in microbiology.

2. Define microbiology and other fields like Bacteriology, Parasitology, Immunology
and Virology.
3. Determine the importance of microbes.
4. List five major groups and the characteristics of microbes.

Lesson Outline

The possibility that microbes exist was discussed for many centuries before their actual
discovery in the 17th century. As early as 6th century BCE, the existence of invisible
microorganisms was postulated. A Roman scholar, Marcus Terentius Varro was the first person
to suggest that diseases might be spread by yet unseen organisms. In his published books, he
warns the readers of the presence of the miniature creatures breeding on swamps, which float in
the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases.
Specifically, Avicenna, hypothesized that tuberculosis and other diseases might be contagious.
In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable
seed-like entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact or even without contact
over long distances. However, all these claims were speculative and were not based on scientific
evidence because of the lack of microscope.

Key Figures in the History of Microbiology

Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703) was a “polymath’ who made many

scientific discoveries in the 17th century, including making one of the
first microscopes and also using a copy of one of Leeuwenhoek’s
microscopes to see and draw details of the structure of plant cells and
some microbes.

Figure 1.1.1. Robert

Hooke (1635-1703).
 Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) made the first useful
microscopes in the 19th century. Early microscopes are difficult to
make and use. They were essentially a lens held in a metal clip, which
is made from a tiny drop of molten glass. Leeuwenhoek used such a
microscope to see the first microscopic cells.

Figure 1.1.2. Antony van

Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723).

Ilya Metchnikoff (1845-1916) was the

first to realize that animals such as
humans had a defense system against
infection, which is known as the immune
system.

Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), searched for the

“magic bullet” against infectious disease and
synthesized the first successful (but very Figure 1.1.3. Ilya
Figure 1.1.4. Paul Metchnikoff (1845-1916)
Ehrlich (1854-1915) toxic) drug against a disease – syphilis. It
father of natural
made the first magic was an arsenic derivative he called immunity.
bullet.
salvarsan.

Gerhardt Domagk (1895-1964) developed the first useful drug

against a variety of bacterial infections, the first sulfa drug –prontosil.
Ironically, he died of an infection.

Figure 1.1.5. Gerhardt Domagk (1895-

1964) developed first drug against variety
of bacterial infection.
 Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)
and Selman Waksman (1888-1973)
discovered the first relatively safe and
effective antibiotics by isolating
microorganisms. Fleming discovered
penicillin while Waksman discovered
Figure 1.1.6. Alexander streptomycin and several other
Fleming (1881-1955)
discovered the antibiotics.
Figure 1.1.7. Selman
penicillin. Waksman (1888-1973)
discovered the
streptomycin.
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) was a chemist, who made many
great discoveries and performed a crucial experiment using a
swan necked flask that proved that new life did not just
spontaneously arise from substances like rotting meat. For
centuries before Pasteur, many people believed in
Spontaneous Generation- the belief that life is generated
spontaneously from dead organic matter.
Figure 1.1.8. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
performed a crucial experiment using a
swan necked flask.

Robert Koch (1843-1910) and his colleagues made many

important discoveries in Microbiology. Koch initiated the use
of the seaweed polysaccharide gel called agar as a stable
material for the formation of a gel on which separated and
pure (single species) colonies of bacteria and fungi could be
grown. He also stated and used his Koch’s postulates

Figure 1.1.9. Robert Koch required to prove that a given organism caused a given
(1843-1910) initiated the use disease.
of the seaweed poly-
saccharide gel called agar.
Fields of Microbiology

Microbiology is one of the major branches of Biology together with Botany and Zoology.
Microbiology can also be divided into two (2) subdivisions namely the basic and taxonomic
divisions.

Taxonomic division of Microbiology - deals with the specific groups of microbes and it includes
the following:

a. Virology- is the study of viruses and virus-like agents, including, but not limited to, their
taxonomy, disease-producing properties, cultivation, and genetics. Virology is often
considered a part of microbiology or pathology. Viruses have traditionally been viewed in
a rather negative context as agents responsible for diseases that must be controlled or
eliminated. However, viruses also have certain beneficial properties that can be exploited
for useful purposes, as is evident in both gene therapy and vaccinology.
b.

b. Bacteriology - is a branch of Microbiology that is concerned with the study of bacteria.

It's a field in which Bacteriologists study and learns more about the various characteristics
(structure, genetics, biochemistry and ecology etc.) of bacteria as well as the mechanism
through which they cause diseases in humans and animals.

c. Mycology – is the branch of Biology concerned with the study of fungi, including
their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a
source for traditional medicine, food, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection.

d. Phycology – is a branch of Biology that is concerned with the scientific study of algae.
Algae are a group of photosynthetic eukaryotes except for the blue-green algae, which
are prokaryotic. They are closely related to plants because of their morphological and
physiological features. They have a thallus body with structures similar to the higher
plants’ roots, stems, and leaves. But they don’t possess a vascular system. They also
have chlorophyll pigments that make them photosynthetic. Their accessory pigments are
used as one of the bases for their taxonomic classification.

e. Protozoology –is the study of protozoa, the "animal-like"

(i.e., motile and heterotrophic) protists. The Protozoa are a subkingdom of Protista. They
 are free-living organisms that are found in almost every habitat. All humans have
protozoan found living on their body, and many people may be infected with one or more
throughout their life.

f. Parasitology is a branch of science that is concerned with parasites and parasitism.

Parasitism is a form of symbiosis in which one organism (called parasite) benefits at the
expense of another organism usually of different species (called host). The association
may also lead to the injury of the host. An example of parasitism is the association between
the parasitic tapeworms and the vertebrate hosts.

Basic Division of Microbiology – deals with the basic process associated with microbes and it
includes the following:

a. Genetics- Microbial genetics is a subject area within Microbiology. Microbial genetics

studies microorganisms like bacteria and viruses for different purposes. Genetic studies
of microorganisms involve exploration of genotype or inherited composition of an organism
as well as expression system. It also includes Genetic Engineering that uses recombinant
DNA technology. The process involves creating recombinant DNA molecules through
manipulating a DNA sequence. Cloning is also an example of genetic engineering.

b. Ecology- Microbial ecology is the study of the interactions of microorganisms with their
environment. It includes the study of symbioses, biogeochemical cycles and the
interaction of microbes with anthropogenic effects such as pollution and climate change.

c. Taxonomy- Microbial Taxonomy is a means by which microorganisms can be grouped

together. Organisms having similarities with respect to the criteria used are in the same
group and are separated from the other groups of microorganisms that have different
characteristics.

d. Immunology- Immunology is the study of the immune system in a diversity of

organisms. Microbiology and Immunology go hand in hand, as microbes that cause
disease trigger an immune response and manipulate the immune system during infection.

e. Pathology- Pathology refers to the study of disease in general. It focuses on exploring

the pathogens or the disease-causing organisms such as bacteria, viruses and parasites.
 f. Molecular Biology- include the Genetics and Biochemistry of bacterial and fungal
pathogens and their interaction with host cells, the mode of action of antibiotics and drug
resistance, the intracellular organization of bacteria, mechanisms of transcriptional
regulation, mechanisms of virus entry, gene expression, replication and assembly.

Biological Importance of Microbes

Microbes play an amazing job particularly in maintaining human health. The following
describes the beneficial functions of microbes.

Microbes play defense. Microbes are found inside and outside the human body making us
healthy. They are capable of protecting us from pathogens by occupying spots where microbes
could get access to and thrive. Our skin is filled with thousands or millions of bacteria, often
considered as our first line of defense against illness and injury.

Microbes boost the immune system. Microbes are also important to the body’s immune system.
Without microbes, we will have a weakened immune function. Bacteria can also boost our immune
system. Researchers from Loyola University in 2010 reported that a rod-shaped bacteria
(Bacillus) found in the digestive tract, bind to immune system cells and stimulate them to divide
and reproduce. This suggests that those with weakened immune systems could be treated by
introducing these bacterial spores into the system. These microbes could potentially even help
the body fight cancerous tumors.

Microbes protect us from auto-immune diseases. Type 1 Diabetes is an auto-immune disease

that slowly cause body wasting and one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Recent
research into Type 1 Diabetes reveals that a disturbance in the microbial community could trigger
the disease, in which the body kills cells that produce insulin. In a 2009 study, researchers at
Cornell University showed that introducing a benign strain of E. coli into diabetic mice set off a
domino effect that led them to produce insulin. The work suggests that, someday, microbial yogurt
could replace insulin shots for people with the disease.

Microbes keep us slim. Microbes play an important role in our body shape by helping us digest
and ferment foods, as well as by producing chemicals that shape our metabolic rates.
Disturbances in our microbial community may be one of the factors leading to an increase in
obesity.
Microbes detoxify and may even fight off stress. Just as humans’ breath in oxygen and release
carbon dioxide, microbes also take in toxins and spare us their dangerous effects. A recent study
also shows that people feeling intense stress have much less diverse bacterial communities in
the gut, suggesting that there is a not-yet-understood interplay between microbes and stress
responses.

Microbes keep babies healthy. Babies born via caesarean section have very different
microbiomes than those born the old-fashioned way. During the birthing process, babies are
colonized with the microbes of their mother, especially substances that aid in the digestion of milk.
Babies born via C-section are more likely to develop allergies and asthma than children born
vaginally.

Beneficial Uses of Microbes

A. Research and Biotechnology

Many of the breakthroughs in Molecular Biology were made from microbial studies.
Molecular biologists research how living organisms function and apply this knowledge in
biotechnology to develop new applications or produce new products. Enzymes produced by
microbes are used as tools to help biologists perform research. The Taq polymerase from
Thermus aquaticus enabled the development of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), used to
amplify specific sections of DNA used extensively in research, clinical diagnostics and forensics.
The restriction endonucleases that bacteria produce to defend themselves against
bacteriophages are very useful in cloning because they cut DNA at specific sequences.

Medicine

Biotechnology research has led to the discovery and development of many

important pharmaceuticals for the treatment of a variety of human diseases and disorders. For
example, genetically engineered microbes produce vast quantities of the human hormone insulin,
which regulates blood sugar levels and is used to treat diabetes. The human papillomavirus (HPV)
vaccine manufactured in genetically engineered Saccharomyces is used to treat cancer. Many
of the antimicrobials used to treat infectious diseases were first discovered as natural products
of microbes that kill or inhibit the growth of other microbes.
Food Industry

Microbes were also exploited in food production. Lactic acid bacteria, for example, are
used to produce cheese, yoghurt, kefir and kimchi. The budding yeast Saccharomyces is used to
make bread, beer, cider and wine. Acetic acid bacteria are used in traditional manufacturing of
vinegar.

Agriculture

Microbes are also important in the agricultural sector. Though some microbes cause
diseases in crop plants and livestock, there are still beneficial microbes that increases food
production. Microbes are used as biocontrol agents or organic pesticides like the endospores of
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Other microbes are used as biofertilisers to improve
crop yield particularly the nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Azotobacter.

Environment

Metabolic processes among microbes enabled them to degrade or detoxify pollutants,

such as petroleum or pesticides, and can be used in bioremediation. The photosynthetic
microbes such as cyanobacteria can be considered as alternatives to fossil fuels.

Emerging of Infectious Diseases - the case of COVID 19

An infectious disease is a disease in which pathogens invade a susceptible host, such as

human or animal. Infectious diseases are not only disappearing but seem to be reemerging and
increasing. One of the diseases affecting humanity in the 21st century is the COVID 19. The new
strain of coronavirus likely originated in bats or pangolins. The first transmission to humans was
in Wuhan, China. Since then, the virus has mostly spread through person-to-person contact.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a dramatic loss of human life worldwide and presents
an unprecedented challenge to public health, food systems and the world of work. The economic
and social disruption caused by the pandemic is devastating: tens of millions of people are at risk
of falling into extreme poverty. Globally, as of October 5, 2021, there have been 235,175,106
confirmed cases of COVID-19, including 4,806,841 deaths, reported to WHO.

Most people infected with the virus will experience mild to moderate respiratory illness and
recover without requiring special treatment. However, some will become seriously ill and require
medical attention. Older people and those with underlying medical conditions like cardiovascular
disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, or cancer are more likely to develop serious
illness. The best way to prevent and slow down transmission is by staying at least 1 metre apart
from others, wearing a properly fitted mask, hand washing, disinfecting and getting vaccinated.

Four Major Groups of Microbes

The use of microscope and the advances in DNA sequencing techniques has led to the
discoveries of new species of microbe at a faster rate than ever. Current estimates suggest there
could be at least 1 billion different species of microbe on Earth, possibly more. Microbial diversity
is truly staggering, yet all these microbes can be grouped into the following: Viruses, Bacteria,
Fungi, and Protists.

Classifications of Microbes

Characteristic Virus

Because they can't reproduce by

themselves (without a host), viruses are
not considered living. Nor do viruses have
cells: they're very small, much smaller than
Type of Cell
the cells of living things, and are basically
just packages of nucleic acid and protein.

Figure 1.1.10. Corona virus

Viruses actually do not have a proper cell wall on their own but they possess a
Cell wall type protective layer around the body called capsid. Capsid functions as a protective
layer and shells the viral genome from nucleases.

In the lytic cycle, the virus attaches to the host cell and injects its DNA. Using the
host's cellular metabolism, the viral DNA begins to replicate and form proteins. Then
Reproduction
fully formed viruses assemble. These viruses break, or lyse, the cell and spread to
other cells to continue the cycle.

Viruses are not made out of cells. A single virus particle is known as a virion and is
No. Of cell
made up of a set of genes bundled within a protective protein shell called a capsid.
 Viruses just steal energy from the cells they infect. Viruses only need energy when
Nutrition they make copies of themselves, and they don't need any energy at all when they
are outside of a cell.

Characteristic Bacteria

Bacteria are prokaryotes, their cell has

no nucleus. There cells exist in three (3)
basic shapes such as spherical (coccus),

Type of Cell rod (bacillus), and spiral.

Figure 1.1.11. Basic shapes of Bacterial
Cell

Most bacteria (about 90%) have a peptidoglycan cell wall and they typically have one
Cell wall type
of two types: a gram-positive cell wall or a gram- negative cell wall.

Bacteria reproduce by binary fission, a single cell, divides into two identical daughter
Reproduction cells. The bacterial cell then elongates and splits into two daughter cells each with
identical DNA to the parent cell.

Bacteria are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological
No. Of cell
cell.

Bacteria can obtain energy and nutrients by performing photosynthesis, decomposing

dead organisms and wastes, or breaking down chemical compounds. Bacteria can
Nutrition
obtain energy and nutrients by establishing close relationships with other organisms,
including mutualistic and parasitic relationships.
Characteristic Protists

A Protist has a eukaryotic cell that contains a

membrane bound nucleus with other
specialized organelles.
Type of Cell

Figure 1.1.13. Photo of Protist

The exact composition of the cell wall varies with the species of protist. Some protists
Cell wall type have cell walls that are made of cellulose, but others have cell walls made of sugars
other than glucose, modified sugars, or proteins.

Protists can reproduce asexually through binary fission, one nucleus divides;
multiple fission, many nuclei divide; and budding. During both types of fission the
Reproduction
organism replicates its nucleus and divides to form new organisms. Budding occurs
when a new organism grows from the body of its parent.

No. Of cell Protists are primarily microscopic and unicellular, or made up of a single cell.

The major modes of nutrition among protists are autotrophy (photosynthesis) and
Nutrition
heterotrophy (the taking in of nutrients).
 Characteristic Fungi
Fungal cells are of two basic
morphological types: true hyphae
(multicellular filamentous fungi) or the
yeasts (unicellular fungi), which make
pseudohyphae. A fungal cell has a true
Type of Cell
nucleus, internal cell structures, and a
cell wall.

Figure 1.1.14. Photo of Fungal Cell

Fungal cells have cell walls that are composed of chitin, glucans, mannans, and
Cell wall type
glycoproteins.

Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores.

Fragments of hyphae can grow new colonies. The most common mode of asexual
Reproduction
reproduction is through the formation of asexual spores, which are produced by one
parent only (through mitosis) and are genetically identical to that parent.

Fungi can be made up of a single cell as in the case of yeasts, or multiple cells, as
in the case of mushrooms. The bodies of multicellular fungi are made of cells that
No. of cell
band together in rows that resemble the branches of trees. Each individual branched
structure is called a hypha.

Fungi obtain nutrients from dead, organic matter, or called saprophytes. Fungi
produce some kind of digestive enzymes for breaking down complex food into a
Nutrition
simple form of food. Such, simple form of food is utilized by fungi. This is defined as
the saprophytic mode of nutrition.

Summary

Microbiology is a field of Biology that studies microscopic organisms namely bacteria,

viruses, protist, and fungi with the aid of microscope. Studies on microbes and their importance
was advanced through the works of various scientists such as Anton van Leeuwenhoek who
made careful observations of microscopic organisms. Other scientist focused on developing
treatment for diseases caused by microbes such as Alexander Fleming and Selman Waksman
(antibiotics), Gerhardt Domagk (sulfa drug), and Paul Ehrlich (salvarsan).

Microbiology is a broad field and is divided into taxonomic and basic branch. Taxonomic
subdivisions include the following: Virology (viruses), Bacteriology (bacteria), Parasitology
(parasites), Mycology (fungi), Phycology (algae), Protozoology (protozoans). Basic divisions
include the following: Genetics (microbial genes), Ecology (microbial interactions with their
environment, Taxonomy (naming microbes), Immunology (impact of microbes to our immune
system), Pathology (disease), Molecular Biology (genetics and biochemistry of microbes).

Microbes are biologically important for the human’s defense and immunity. They also
protects us from diseases and stresses. Microbes are also significant in research and
biotechnology, medicine, food industry, agriculture and environment. Recently, the world was
shaken by the surge of Covid19, a corona virus affecting millions of lives.

Assessment

A. Multiple Choice Questions. Answer the following questions as a group. Identify the correct
answer. For the wrong answers kindly make an explanation on the contribution of the other
scientists.

1. Father of Medical Microbiology is

a. Pasteur
b. Jenner
c. Koch
d. A.L.Hock

2. Antiseptic methods were first introduced by

a. Lord Lister
b. Iwanowski
c. Beijernick
d. Edward Jenner

3. Father of microbiology is
a. Louis Pasteur
b. Lister
c. A.V. Leeuwenhoek
d. Robert Koch
 4. Small pox vaccine was first discovered by
a. Robert Koch
b. Louis Pasteur
c. Lister
d. Edward Jenner
5. “I found floating therin earthly particles, some green streaks, spirally wound serpent-
wise, and orderly arranged, the whole circumstance of each of these streaks was about
the thickness of a hair on one’s head”…. These words are of
a. Leeuwenhoek
b. A. Jenner
c. Pasteur
d. Koch
6. Who demonstrated that open tubes of broth remained free of bacteria when air was
free of dust.
a. Abbc Spallanzani
b. John Tyndall
c. Francisco Redi
d. Pasteur
7. Term vaccine was coined by
a. Robert Koch
b. Pasteur
c. Needham
d. None of these
8. Modern concepts of chemotherapy was proposed by
a. Paul Ehrlich
b. Joseph Lister
c. Elie Metchnikoff
d. None of these

B. Poster Making Task. You are assigned by your instructor to investigate the different
groups of organisms that are considered as microbes namely bacteria, viruses, protists,
and fungi. Identify three (3) members in your group and the microbe that you want to work.
Your poster should showcase one specific example of microbe that includes the following
details: picture of the microbe and its scientific name and the subdivision / taxonomy of
microbiology relating to the said microbe, basic characteristics of microbe, the role and
beneficial uses of microbes. If the microbe is causative agent of a disease include the
disease caused, symptoms, effect on immune system and ways to prevent the disease.
Your poster will be graded based on the rubrics below.
 Presentation of the Poster: You are required to use the poster as an IEC material. For Bio
4 students you should learn 16 microbes and make a summary of it. Write in one whole
yellow paper due on Sept. 5.
Name of Subdivision Taxonomy Characteristics Organic Role/Use Disease
Microbe Compound

Your poster will be rated by BSED Science 2 students who are studying Chem 3 Organic
Chemistry using the following rubrics.

Poster Rubric

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1

Required The poster All required Few of the Several required

Elements includes all elements are required elements are
required included on the elements are missing.
elements as well poster. included on the
as additional poster.
information.

Design The poster is The poster is The poster is The poster is

exceptionally attractive in acceptably distractingly
attractive in terms of design, attractive though messy or very
terms of design, layout and it may be a bit poorly designed.
layout, and neatness. messy. It is not
neatness. attractive.

Content - All contents Some contents Few contents are Inaccurate

Accuracy accurate and are are accurate and accurate and are contents are
displayed on the are displayed on displayed on the used.
poster. the poster. poster.

Slogan Slogan is catchy Slogan is weak Slogan is catchy Slogan's

and showcases but showcases but doesn't meaning isn't
the chosen the chosen showcases the clear and doesn't
microbe. microbe. chosen microbe. showcases the
chosen microbe.
References

Biology Libretext, (2021). History of Microbiology-Hooke, van Leeuwenhoek, and Cohn

Retrieved September 27, 2021 from
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Book%3A_Microbiology_(Boun
dless)/1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology/1.1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology/
1.1B%3A_History_of_Microbiology_-_Hooke_van_Leeuwenhoek_and_Cohn

Future Learn. Five Groups of Microbes. Retrieved September 27, 2021 from
https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/introduction-to- microbiology/0/steps/51408

Michael J. Pelczar (2020) Types of Microorganisms. Retrieved September 27, 2021 from
https://www.britannica.com/science/microbiology/Types-of-microorganisms

National Center for Biotechnical Information, (2007). Types of Microorganisms. Retrieved

September 27, 2021 from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20370/