HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Introduction
Learning Objectives:

Describe how the “Big Ideas” in Anatomy

and Physiology develop a context that Use a thematic framework to make
facilitates deep understanding of key sense of the different components of
concepts, connections, and anatomy and physiology
interdependencies.

Classify individual body system Use body planes and directional

functions based on their contribution to orientation to describe the locations of
vital human functions. body structures.

Why Study Anatomy and Physiology?

You probably have a general understanding of how your body works, but to truly understand the intricate
functions of the human body and dispel many misconceptions that you have learned about your body
over the years, you must approach the study of the body in an organized way.
This subject will help you understand those intricacies and attack misconceptions head-on. This subject
will expose you to the complex levels of organization taking place inside the body and provide you with
the information you need to delve deeply into the specific aspects of the body systems. This will prepare
you for the more complex topics you will encounter in your future subjects.
There is some agreement among professionals about how to do this, and what information must be
common across all Anatomy and Physiology subjects. This is presented as the Big Picture in Anatomy
and Physiology.
Big Picture Ideas in Anatomy and Physiology
Big Picture, Big Ideas, core principles, are all ways to
describe the necessary concepts that make up a
discipline. For Anatomy and Physiology, research
studies have been conducted by various groups to
determine what are the Big Ideas in this discipline. In
2007, Joel Michael and his colleagues compiled a list
of Big Ideas in Anatomy and Physiology and then went
on to test these ideas with several comprehensive
surveys of professionals and educators in the field.
They determined that the “Big Ideas in Physiology” are:
Living organisms are causal mechanisms whose
functions are to be understood by applications of the
laws of physics and chemistry.
The cell is the basic unit of life.
Life requires information flow within and between cells
and between the environment and the organism.
Living organisms must obtain matter and energy from
the external world. This matter and energy must be
transformed and transferred in varied ways to build the organism and to perform work.
1. Homeostasis (and “stability” in a more general sense) maintains the internal environment in a
more or less constant state compatible with life.
2. Understanding the behavior of the organism requires understanding the relationship
between structure and function (at each and every level of organization).
3. Living organisms carry out functions at many different levels of organization simultaneously.
4. All life exists within an ecosystem made up of the physiochemical and biological worlds.
5. Evolution provides a scientific explanation for the history of life on Earth and the mechanisms
by which changes to life have occurred.
This subject has taken these Big Ideas and used them to structure the material of the subject. We will
explain this further on the next page.
Organizing Anatomy and Physiology Concepts
Our intention is for you to begin to think and speak in the language of the domain while integrating the
knowledge you gain about anatomy to support explanations of physiological phenomenon. The subject
focuses on a few themes derived from the Big Ideas, that when taken together, provide a full view of
what the human body is capable of and the exciting processes going on inside of it. These organizational
themes are:
• Structure and function of the body, and the connection between the two.
• Homeostasis, the body’s natural tendency to maintain a stable internal environment.
• Levels of Organization, the major levels of organization in the human organism from the
chemical and cellular levels to the tissues, organs and organ systems.
• Integration of Systems, concerning which systems are subsets of larger systems, and how
they function together in harmony and conflict.

You can see how these themes directly relate to the Big Ideas. As these themes are used to describe
the inner workings of each of the body’s organ systems, an integrated collection of organs that function
together, those systems can be categorized based on their contribution to the specific vital functions for
human life. The vital functions provide the context for the whole body, and how each organ system plays
a role in keeping us alive. So, the information provided for each of the organ systems is organized
according to those functions that are essential to the survival of the human body. The vital functions for
human life are:
• Exchange with the environment • Structure, support, and movement
• Transport within the body • Control and regulation
All multicellular organisms need these vital functions to operate properly in order to survive. In addition
to understanding the Themes and Vital Functions that help us organize our knowledge about the
structure and function of the different body organ systems, knowing and using proper terminology related
to body planes and directional terms will also help you in your quest for Anatomy and Physiology
mastery.
Body Systems
You will be first introduced to all of the body systems in this introductory unit. In the Introduction to
Systems unit, you’ll see that we have grouped the organ systems according to the Vital Functions they
perform. For example, the Digestive and Respiratory Systems are concerned with Exchange of
substances and information within the environment. In the units that follow, with the exception of Levels
of Organization, and Homeostasis, you will learn and explore each body system in-depth. The order in
which you learn each system will be determined by your instructor, but the aspects of each system will
be similarly described according to the Big Picture themes.
Body Planes and Directional Terms
Another commonality across body types are the body planes and directional terms. Those in the health
professions must speak the same language with regard to locating and identifying specific body parts
and organs. Body planes and directional terms are part of this common language. The imaginary
vertical and horizontal planes run through the body, essentially cutting it into parts. You will be
introduced to this new “language” and given opportunities to practice using it in context so that you
become comfortable locating and describing all organs and parts in the body and in relation to each
other. Everything that you learn after body planes and directional terms will be referring to this
terminology to help you visualize, identify, and locate anatomical structures.

Themes in Anatomy and Physiology

Everyone has a body and, by adulthood, a general understanding of how it works. But to truly
understand the intricate functions of the human body—and the problems that occur when something
goes wrong—you must approach the study of the body in an organized way. This subject will help you
understand the functions of the human body. The subject will discuss the details of many complex
functional systems but will also look at how all these systems work in harmony to keep you healthy. As
you move through this subject, you should keep four main themes in mind: structure and function,
homeostasis, levels of organization, and integration of systems.
Structure and Function
The first theme is the connection between structure and function. You will be studying both anatomy ,
which focuses on the body’s structures, and physiology , which focuses on the body’s functions. In fact,
it is virtually impossible to study one without the other, because function relies so completely upon
structure. For example, the structure of the bones in the skeletal system provides the support necessary
for the function of walking upright. The vocal cords would not be able to fulfill their function—the
production of sound—if their structure were disrupted. The large surface area of the small intestine
allows it to efficiently perform its primary function: absorbing nutrients from food. And the list goes on.
Homeostasis
The second theme will be homeostasis , or the body’s natural tendency to maintain a relatively stable
internal environment. Most of the body’s functions are driven by homeostasis. Homeostasis occurs at all
different levels. For example, body temperature is regulated around 370C, a temperature that is optimal
for cell function and organism function. To maintain this temperature, we sweat to cool down on a hot
day and we shiver to increase temperature when we are cold. Other variables, like blood pressure, blood
pH, blood calcium concentrations are similarly maintained within a narrow range that is optimal for
human health. Many diseases occur because of disruptions in homeostasis.
Levels of Organization
The third theme will be the hierarchical organization of the parts of the body. You can think of the
body's parts as being organized into a hierarchy of levels. Your body, like all things in the physical
world, is built from chemical building blocks. The smallest of these building blocks are atoms of
elements, which combine to form bigger and more complicated structures called molecules. These
molecules, such as water, proteins, carbohydrates (glucose), and lipids are used to build cells, the
smallest unit of structure capable of carrying out all life processes. Groups of related cells that work
together to perform specific functions make up tissues , and tissues that work together form organs.
Organs do not work independently; they are organized into organ systems that complete more
complex tasks.
The digestive system, for example, includes the mouth, stomach, intestines, and many other organs—
all of which are integral to proper functioning of the system as a whole. The organ systems work together
to support life in the entire organism—in this case, a human being.
Understanding this hierarchy is important because disruptions might occur at any level. For example, a
depletion of calcium atoms from the body can lead to weak bones. Or a single mutation in a DNA
molecule can lead to organ dysfunction, such as the disturbed lung function found in individuals with
cystic fibrosis.

Integration of Systems
Finally, each section of the subject will discuss the integration of all the body’s systems. In order to carry
out its functions, every organ system relies on the healthy functioning of other systems. When these
systems all work together, the organism thrives. A breakdown in one system can cause failures in other
systems as well.
 Vital Functions for Human Life
Within any organism, there are a multitude of functions taking place at any given time. Humans, for
example, can breathe, talk, digest food, process visual images, and move their bodies all at the same
time. While all these activities are important, some are essential to the survival of the human body itself.
They are vital functions - processes or actions of the body on which life is directly dependent. You will
examine four main vital functions in this subject: exchange with the environment; transport within the
body; structure, support, and movement; and control and regulation.
For human life, there are several vital functions.

All multicellular organisms need to do the following to survive:

✓ Exchange with the environment ✓ Provide structure, support, protection
✓ Transport fluids and material throughout and movement
the body ✓ Regulate and control processes
So what does this mean? What does this involve? How does the human body do these things? Try
answering the questions below to begin broadly thinking about bodily function within these categories
and how they are linked to one or more of the primary organ systems.
Learn by Doing:

How does the body exchange with the Heart Beating?

environment? Indicate whether or not the functions o Yes
below help the body exchange with the o No
environment. Defecation?
Breathing? o Yes
o Yes o No
o No Eating and Drinking?
o Yes
o No

What has to move or flow through the body? Muscles?

Indicate which materials are transported o Yes
throughout the body. o No
Water? Oxygen?
o Yes o Yes
o No o No
Nutrients? Waste Products?
o Yes o Yes
o No o No

What structure(s) is/are directly responsible for Bones?

helping you stand up straight? Indicate whether the o Yes
items below help do this as part of the vital o No
functions of providing structure, support and Stomach and Intestines?
protection. o Yes
Lungs? o No
o Yes Muscles?
o No o Yes
o No

What is the most important regulator and coordinator of multiple functions in the body?
o Stomach
o Heart
o Eyes
o Bones
o Brain
Exchange with the Environment
An organism constantly interacts with its environment. In order to survive, the human body must obtain
food, water, and oxygen from the world around it. The human body must also rid itself of wastes before
they build up to toxic levels. Two organ systems are primarily responsible for exchange of material with
the environment. The digestive system brings food and water into the body and eliminates solid
wastes. The respiratory system brings in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
The urinary system doesn’t take in anything from the environment but does eliminate waste products
of metabolism from the body fluid. However, this is just one of several roles that the urinary system plays
in maintaining homeostasis of body fluids, so it will be explored more extensively in the next vital function
category involving body fluids.

Fluid Transport within the Body

Single-celled organisms can absorb nutrients and oxygen directly from the environment into the cells,
where they are used to support basic cell functions. Waste products are excreted from these single cells
in a similar fashion. In multi-celled organisms like humans, however, most cells are not exposed directly
to the outside environment. Instead, body cells rely on organ systems to transport and regulate the
composition of internal fluids throughout the body. Three main body systems, the cardiovascular
system, the lymphatic system, and the urinary system take care of this vital bodily function. The
cardiovascular and lymphatic systems also participate in the function of immunity, to help defend the
body's cells from foreign organisms that may enter the body tissues or fluids. The lymphatic system
returns interstitial fluid to blood and the urinary system filters blood to regulate body fluid homeostasis,
including volume, pressure, and chemical composition.

Structure, Support, Protection, and Movement

For the organs of the human body to function, they must be protected from potentially damaging
substances in the environment. One level of defense is provided by the integumentary system, made
up of the skin, hair, and nails. This system prevents many potentially harmful irritants from entering the
body. Eyelashes, for example, help keep sand or other items out of the eyes, where they could
potentially cause serious damage, and the skin prevents most pathogens (disease-causing
microorganisms) from entering the body and destroying healthy body cells. Certain parts of
the skeletal system, such as the skull and ribcage, also help to protect the internal organs, such as
the brain, heart and lungs, from damage. The skeletal system and the muscular system also support
the body and allow it to move away from danger, toward food sources, etc. The cardiovascular and
lymphatic systems also help defend the body’s cells from foreign organisms that may enter the body
tissues or fluids through the process of immunity.

Control and Regulation

To keep itself in a state of equilibrium, an organism must constantly gather information and react
accordingly. In humans, the nervous system, made up of the brain, nerves, spinal cord and sensory
organs, reacts to stimuli in the environment and signals other systems when actions are needed to bring
the body back into balance. The endocrine system, which produces hormones and other regulatory
substances, plays a key role in maintaining balance among chemical messengers within the body.
Locally, most body cells can produce chemical messages that influence the metabolism of other cells.
And there are some organs in other body systems that produce chemicals that can travel through the
body to regulate metabolic processes in other organs.
As you can see, several organ systems work together to accomplish these various vital functions
throughout the body. Since the organ systems are distributed throughout large regions of the human
body, it is necessary to define orientation within the body and communicate the proper terminology as
you study these integrated structures and functions.
 Did I get this?
Which of the following concepts would be classified as vital functions of human life?
o the nervous system and the cardiovascular system
o fluid transport within the body, and control and regulation.
o the cell is the basic unit of life
o homeostasis and structure and function
Body Planes
To better identify the locations of the organs that contribute to vital functions, you need some points of
reference for description. To serve that function, we will now define different planes of the body. These
imaginary flat surfaces run through the body in different directions. They are used by medical
professionals to examine various internal body parts. Directional orientation is another anatomical tool
used to describe how parts of the body are related to one another.
Each organ system spans large regions of the human body. It is helpful, therefore, to establish reference
planes and directions that can help us describe specific locations of structures as we discuss them. To
make sure everyone is talking about the same thing, anatomists and physiologists often refer to
anatomical position and the body planes that penetrate it. Anatomical position describes a person
standing upright, with the arms at the sides and the palms facing forward (as demonstrated in the image
below). Body planes (a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface) are imaginary surfaces that run through
the body and divide it into different sections. We can talk
about a specific location using the planes as reference
points within the anatomical position.
There are an infinite number of planes running through the
human body in all directions. However, we will focus on the
three planes that are traditionally used when discussing
human anatomy. First is the transverse plane, (also called
the horizontal plane), which divides the body into top and
bottom. In anatomical position, transverse planes are
parallel to the ground. The second is the coronal plane,
which is a vertical plane that divides the body into the front
and back sections. If you do a “belly flop” into the water, you
sink into the water via the coronal planes. Finally, we will
refer to the sagittal plane, which divides the body into left
and right sections with a vertical plane that passes from the
front to the rear.
Learn by Doing:
Does the body plane shown depict the sagittal, transverse or coronal plane?
o Transverse
o Sagittal
o Coronal

Did I get this?

What plane is shown in the adjoining scan?
o Transverse
o Sagittal
o Coronal
 What plane is shown in the adjoining scan?
o Transverse
o Sagittal
o Coronal

What plane is shown in the adjoining scan?

o Transverse
o Sagittal
o Coronal

Directions and Orientation

You can use other terms to further pinpoint an anatomical location. These terms are used to describe a
location in relation to other structures. Some of them may be terms you have heard in everyday
conversation; a lateral pass in football, for example, is a pass toward the sideline.
Superior, Inferior, Anterior and Posterior
The first set of directions that we will explore are superior, inferior, anterior, and posterior.
In humans, which stand upright on two feet, there are other terms that are synonymous with these four
terms. Cephalic means toward the head and is the same as superior for a human in anatomical
position. Caudal means toward the tail, or same as inferior for a human in anatomical position. Dorsal
means toward the back and ventral means toward the belly; so dorsal and posterior are the same
direction and ventral and anterior are the same direction for a human in anatomical position. This
would not be true for a four-legged animal, such as a rat or cat you might dissect in lab.

Which direction is the arrow pointing?

o Inferiorly
o Posteriorly
o Superiorly
o Anteriorly

Medial and Lateral

Next, we will discuss terms that relate structures to the midline. These are medial, lateral and
intermediate.
Walkthrough: Refer to video posted in our group.

The arrow is in the coronal plane, pointing toward the mid-sagittal plane.
Which directional term best depicts the direction the arrow is pointing?
o Inferiorly
o Laterally
o Medially
o Superiorly
Proximal, Distal, Superficial, Deep
These next terms are used when referring to either appendicular parts of the body (arms and legs) or
position in body relative to the external surface. These are Proximal, Distal, Superficial, Deep.
Walkthrough: Refer to video posted in our group.

When considering the trunk as the origin, the knee would be considered _______ to the ankle.
o Superficial
o Deep
o Distal
o Proximal

The following table lists all the human anatomical directions that we discussed. You will practice using
these planes and directional terms when describing the locations of organs and organ systems in the
following sections.

Directional Term Meaning

superior above (or toward the head)

inferior below (or toward the feet)

distal farther from the trunk or origin
proximal closer to the trunk or origin
superficial toward or on the surface
deep (internal) away from the surface
anterior (ventral) toward the front (or toward the belly)
posterior (dorsal) toward the rear (or toward the back)
medial toward the midline

lateral toward the side