Anaphy

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
ANPH 111 (Anatomy and Physiology)

COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK
1 1 1
The Human Body
ü Read course and unit objectives ü Read study

guide prior to class attendance
ü Read required learning resources; refer to unit
terminologies for jargons ü Proactively
participate in classroom discussions ü Participate
in weekly discussion board (Canvas) ü Answer
and submit course unit tasks.
VanPutte, Cinnamon. Regan, Jennifer. Russo, Andrew (2016). Seeley’s Essentials of

Anatomy & Physiology Penn Plaza, New York, New York, McGraw-Hill Education, 10th
Edition
Computer device or smartphone with internet access (at least 54 kbps; average data
subscription will suffice)
At the end of the course unit (CM), learners will be able to:
Cognitive
• Define anatomy and describe the levels at which anatomy can be studied.
• Explain the importance of the relationship between structure and function.
• Ascertain two major goals of physiology
• Describe the six levels of organization of the body, and describe the major
characteristics of each level.
• List the eleven organ systems, identify their components, and describe the major
functions of each system.
• Relate the six different characteristics of life
• Define homeostasis, and explain why it is important for proper body function.
• Describe a negative-feedback mechanism and positive-feedback mechanism and give
an example for each.
• Describe a person in anatomical position. Define the directional terms for the human
body, and use them to locate specific body structures.
Affective
• Listen attentively during class discussions
• Demonstrate tact and respect of other students’ opinions and ideas
• Accept comments and reactions of classmates openly
Psychomotor
• Participate actively during class discussions
• Follow class rules and observe compliance to Netiquette
• Use critical thinking to identify areas of care that could benefit from additional
research or application of evidence-based practices
• Integrate knowledge of trends in Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy - study of the structures of the body

Physiology - study of the processes and functions of the body
Organelles - are the small structures that make up some cells
Organism - any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell, such
as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human
Metabolism - is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth,
movement, and reproduction
Growth - refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism
Reproduction - is the formation of new cells or new organisms
1.1 ANATOMY
Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body. The word
anatomy means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Studying anatomy involves structure of body parts, its microscopic organization, how each
develops including its relationships and functions.
There are basic approaches in anatomy namely Systemic and Regional. As the name implies,
systemic dwells on body systems such as skeletal and muscular systems. While the latter, which
is regional, reviews specific areas - head, abdomen.
Surface Anatomy and Anatomical Imaging are yet another approach to anatomists. These two
general ways examines a living person through its internal structures. For instance, Surface
anatomy focuses study of external features like bony projections. On the other hand,
Anatomical imaging utilizes different imaging samples like ultrasound and X-rays to evaluate
internal structures.
1.2 PHYSIOLOGY
As VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016) notes, Physiology deals with processes or functions of
living things as an ever-changing organism. This is to aid in predicting body’s responses to
different stimuli and to understand how the body maintains homeostasis. Therefore,
physiology is the science of body functions. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
Moreover, there are subdivisions of physiology that focuses on different organizational level
such as cellular physiology and systemic physiology. For the human as a specific organism, the
study is called Human Physiology. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
1.3 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATON OF
THE HUMAN BODY
There are six structural levels that our body can be studied and these are chemical, cell, tissue,
organ, organ system and organism as shown below in figure 1.
Figure 1.1 Levels of Organization for the Human Body

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
The Chemical Level of organization deals with how different atoms like hydrogen and carbon
interact to form molecules. In the Cell Level, which is the basic unit of organisms, we try to
correlate how a molecular substance affects a living organism. For example, our cells contains
nucleus that contains hereditary information. And though cells differ in structure and function,
knowledge of these differences would greatly help in grasping concepts of anatomy and
physiology. Tissues on the other hand are combined cells that are similar. Their similarity in
characteristics and surrounding materials determines its functions. As an overview, we have
epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve tissues. When two or more tissue types work together
to perform one or more functions, this will be called Organ. Examples of which includes our
heart and stomach , even our brain (figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 Major Organs Human Body
The next level would be the Organ System. This pertains to group of organs working together
to sustain a specific function. The works of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureter and urethra is
an example displaying coordinated function for the urinary system to be efficient in its purpose.
But though this system has specific roles to perform, remember that all systems are
interrelated. A problem on one organ system may have serious effects on other systems. Figure
1.3 provides an illustration of the different organ systems in the human body.
The last level is the Organism Level as a living thing considered as a whole, whether composed
of only one cell such as bacterium, or one that is made of trillions of cells like us human.
Figure 1.3 Organs Systems of
the Body *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

Aren’t you wondering whether humans like us share one or many characteristics with other
organism? If there are, what are the different characteristics of life? Let’s take a review at these
characteristics of life, according to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016).
1.4.1 Organization – living things are highly organized. They have specific
interrelationships for it to perform functions essential for the living organism to
thrive. In effect, any problems that affects its organization will greatly disrupt
its function.
1.4.2 Metabolism - is all of the chemical reactions taking place in an organism. It

includes the ability of an organism to break down food molecules, which are
used as a source of energy and raw materials to synthesize the organism’s own
molecules. It is the ability of the organism to use energy to perform functions
essential to growth, movement and even reproduction.
1.4.3 Responsiveness – is simply the capability to react or adjust to whether a

stimulus or a change. For instance, our body perspires a lot whenever our
temperature rises during hot weather.
1.4.4 Growth – an increase in number or length. In the human body, growth is an

evidence when bones become larger as the number of bone cells increases.
1.4.5 Development – occurs when an organism changes through time. Like the
developmental changes happening before birth, a human being changes
through time. Though growth signifies development, differentiation also
embodies development. Differentiation can be seen as a change in structure
and function from a generalized to a specialized structures. For example,
following fertilization, generalized cells specialize to become specific cell types,
such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These differentiated cells form
tissues and organs.
1.4.6 Reproduction - is the ability to form new organism, giving possibility to tissue
repairs and continuity.
1.5 HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis (h ′m - -st ′sis; homeo-, the same), according to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016)
is the ability to maintain balance despite changes in the internal and external environment. Like
temperature regulation as an example, our body produces sweat (as water) in attempt to lower
down body temperature caused by the external environment. And since homeostasis involves
complex mechanisms, these regulations are also affected by different variables. Variables are
conditions like volume, chemical content and in this case, temperature. Their values may easily
change and so does the response of the organism.
In the given example, sweating aids in the regulation, maintaining the body temperature near
the ideal normal value. If temperature was the variable, the sweating is considered as the
Homeostatic mechanism. Most homeostatic mechanisms are governed by the nervous system
or the endocrine system. Note that homeostatic mechanisms are not able to maintain body
temperature precisely at the set point (figure 1.4). Instead, body temperature increases and
decreases slightly around the set point, producing a normal range of values. As long as body
temperatures remain within this normal range, homeostasis is maintained. (VanPutte, Regan, &
Russo, 2016)
Figure 1.4 Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of the carriable, such as temperature around an ideal normal value or set
point.
Homeostasis is maintained by many feedback systems. Each monitored condition in a feedback
system, or feedback loop, is termed a controlled condition. Any disruption that causes a
change in a controlled condition is called a stimulus. Some stimuli come from outside the body,
while others come from within. In addition to the controlled condition and the stimulus,
feedback systems have three other components:
1. A receptor monitors the controlled condition and sends information (input) to a

control center.
2. A control center receives the input, compares it to a set of values that the controlled
condition should have (set point) and sends output commands (nerve impulses or
chemical signals) to an effector.
3. An effector receives output commands and produces a response that changes the
controlled condition.
If a feedback system reverses the change in the controlled condition to restore it to the set
point, this is a negative feedback system. For example, a negative feedback system controls
blood pressure. However, if a feedback system further strengthens a change in the controlled
condition, this is a positive feedback system. For instance, childbirth is an example of positive
feedback. During labor, uterine contractions force the baby’s head into the cervix, which
stretches. The stretching causes the hypothalamus to secrete a hormone called oxytocin, which
induces more uterine contractions. Negative feedback systems tend to maintain stable
conditions, whereas positive feedback systems tend to be unstable and must be shut off by
some event that is outside the feedback loop, such as the delivery of the child.
1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN
Body Positions
Descriptions of any part of the human body assume that the body is in a specific stance called
the anatomical position. In the anatomical position, the body is upright. This means that the
subject stands erect with the head level, eyes facing forward, feet at on the floor, and directed
forward, and arms at the sides, with the palms turned forward. However, two terms describe a
reclining body. If the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position. If the body is lying
face up, it is in the supine position. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Directional Terms
Directional terms describe parts of the body relative to each other. Directional terms are
generally grouped in pairs of opposites. (Thompson, 2015)
Figure 1.5 Directional terms
*taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015)
Body Parts and Regions
Figure 1.6 illustrates different regions in the body. This will help to properly identify specific
area/s of a patient body to be evaluated upon. As seen in the image, the central region of the
body consists of the head, neck, and trunk. The trunk can be divided into the thorax
(chest), abdomen (region between the thorax and pelvis), and pelvis (the inferior end of the
trunk associated with the hips). The upper limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and
hand. The arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow, and the forearm extends from the
elbow to the wrist.
Figure 1.6 Body Parts and Regions (anterior view)
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte , Regan & Russo (2016)
Figure 1.6 Body Parts and Regions (anterior view)

Figure 1.6 Body Parts and Regions (posterior view)
The lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. The thigh extends from the hip to
the knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Make sure to familiarize because these terms would facilitate better communication between
health care providers.
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
One portion of the body that occupies a large area would be
the abdominopelvic cavity. Determining exact location of
possible problems concurrent to different organ/s can be
difficult. For this reason, it was subdivided further into
regions and quadrants. It is also best to appreciate that some
organs may extend over multiple quadrants as shown in
figures 1.7 and 1.8. (Thompson, 2015)
Figure 1.7 Abdominopelvic Quadrants

*taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011)
Figure 1.8 Abdominopelvic Regions and some Organs

foundin each Region
*taken fromVisualizing Anatomy and Physiology byFreudenrich & Tortora(2011)
Planes
Body planes divide the body, even organs, into sections. The following illustrations will provide
a good view of how bodily structures can be viewed.
Figure 1.9 Planes of the Body
*taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A Visual, Auditory,
Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (201 5 )
Organs are often sectioned to reveal their internal structure (figure 1.10). A cut through the
long axis of the organ is a longitudinal section, and a cut at a right angle to the long axis is a
transverse section, or cross section. If a
cut is made across the long axis at other than
a right angle, it is called an oblique section.
Figure 1.10 Planes of Section through an Organ

Body Cavities
The body contains spaces—called cavities—that house the internal organs. The two major body
cavities are the dorsal cavity and the ventral cavity. Each of these cavities is subdivided
further, as shown
below.
Figure 1.11 Body Cavities
*taken from Understanding Anatomy and
Physiology : A Visual, Auditory,
Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan

Thompson (2015)
Serous membranes
VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016) specifies that serous membranes lines trunk cavities and
cover the organs of these cavities. They are filled with minimal fluid to lubricate its surfaces
thereby reducing friction. Figures below will depict different serous membranes found in
our body
Figure 1.12 Location of Serous Membranes

(a) Frontal section showing the parietal pericardium (blue), visceral pericardium (red), and pericardial cavity. (b) Frontal section
showing the parietal pleura (blue), visceral pleura (red), and pleural cavities. (c) Sagittal section through the abdominopelvic cavity
showing the parietal peritoneum (blue), visceral peritoneum (red), peritoneal cavity, mesenteries (purple), and retroperitoneal organs.
The trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes. The parietal part of a serous membrane
lines the wall of the cavity, and the visceral part covers the internal organs. The serous
membranes secrete fluid that fills the space between the parietal and visceral membranes. The
serous membranes protect organs from friction. The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, the
pleural cavities surround the lungs, and the peritoneal cavity surrounds certain abdominal and
pelvic organs. Mesenteries are parts of the peritoneum that hold the abdominal organs in place
and provide a passageway for blood vessels and nerves to organs. Retroperitoneal organs are
found “behind” the parietal peritoneum. The kidneys, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts
of the intestines, and the urinary bladder are examples of retroperitoneal organs. (VanPutte,
Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Rizzo, D. C. (2016). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (Fourth ed.). Boston,

Massachussetts: Cengage Learning.
Thompson, G. S. (2015). Understanding Anatomy & Physiology: A Visual, Auditory, Interactive

Approach,2nd Edition. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company.
Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011). Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. .
VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology.
New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
To set the tone right, we will help each other in the appreciation of the initial phase of
Anatomy and Physiology by accomplishing the Course Task/s in Canvas

1 2 3
The Cell and Cellular Metabolism & Reproduction
ü Read course and unit objectives ü Read

study guide prior to class attendance
ü Read required learning resources; refer to
unit terminologies for jargons ü Proactively
participate in classroom discussions ü
Participate in weekly discussion board (Canvas)
ü Answer and submit course unit tasks.
VanPutte, Cinnamon. Regan, Jennifer. Russo, Andrew (2016). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy &
Physiology Penn Plaza, New York, New York, McGraw-Hill Education, 10th Edition
Computer device or smartphone with internet access (at least 54 kbps; average data
subscription will suffice)
Cognitive
• Explain how the structures of a cell contribute to its function.
• Identify and describe the different functions of each organelle • Elaborate the four
main functions of a cell.
• Describe the structure of the cell membrane.
• Define diffusion and concentration gradient.
• Explain the role of osmosis and that of osmotic pressure in controlling the movement
of water across the cell membrane. Compare hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic
solutions. • Differentiate the transport mechanisms across the cell
• Describe endocytosis and exocytosis.
• Elaborate the phases of how Mitosis and Meiosis occurs
Affective
Psychomotor
• Use critical thinking to identify areas of care that could benefit from additional
research or application of evidence-based practices
Active transport - Transport process in which solutes move from areas of lesser to
greater concentration. It requires energy in the form of ATP
Cilia - Hair-like processes on the surface of the cell that propel materials across a
surface
Cytoplasm - The gel-like substance surrounding the nucleus and filling the cell
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - Large polymer of a nucleotide that carries the

genetic information of a cell
Diffusion - A passive transport mechanism that involves the movement of particles

from an area of higher to lower concentration
Endocytosis - Form of vesicular transport that brings substances into the cell
Exocytosis - Form of vesicular transport that releases substances outside the cell
Facilitated diffusion - Transport process involving the diffusion of a substance
through a channel protein
Filtration - Transport process in which water and dissolved particles are forced across
a membrane from an area of higher to lower pressure
Golgi apparatus - Prepares proteins and packages them for export to other parts of
the body
Hydrostatic pressure - Pressure exerted by water
Hypertonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a higher concentration of solutes

compared to the fluid within the cell
Hypotonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a lower concentration of solutes

compared to the fluid within the cell
Isotonic - Pertains to a solution in which the concentration of solutes in the solution

is the same as the concentration of solutes in the cell
Microvilli - Folds of a cell membrane that greatly increase the surface area of a cell to
facilitate absorption
Mitochondria - Organelle that converts organic compounds into ATP
Mitosis - Type of cell division in which the “mother” cells splits into two identical
daughter cells
Nucleus - The cell’s “control center” that contains a complete set of 46 chromosomes
Organelles - The structures within the cell that perform specific tasks in cellular
metabolism
Osmosis - A passive transport mechanism involving the diffusion of water from an
area of greater concentration of water (and a lesser concentration of solutes) to an area
of lesser concentration of water (and a greater concentration of solutes)
Osmotic pressure - Water pressure that develops in a solution as a result of osmosis
Phagocytosis - Process in which large particles are trapped in the plasma membrane
and brought into the cell
Pinocytosis - Process in which fluid and dissolved particles are trapped in the
plasma membrane and brought into the cell
Plasma membrane - The external boundary of the cell
Polymer - Large molecule consisting of many smaller molecules joined in sequence
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - Nucleotide that assists in protein synthesis
Ribosomes - Granules of protein and RNA scattered throughout the cytoplasm;

some are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
2.1 CELL AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Our cells have distinct parts, it constitutes our body with more than 100 trillion of it. Though
very minute structures, these cells determines form and functions of the human body. No
wonder why many disorders, through the advent of technology, can now be attributed to its
cellular basis. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
If we try to compare the size of a single cell, most of its size are from 10 to 15 micrometers. For
instance, a blood cell measure 7.7 micrometers and an ovum measures 100 micrometers. And
since different cell varies, a very unique cell called nerve cells can have a meter in length of its
extensions. (Thompson, 2015)
These cells may be the smallest units but they perform several important functions. Let’s
review their finest functions that are essential to every living organism. (VanPutte, Regan, &
Russo,
2016)
1. Cell metabolism and energy use – different chemical processes during cell
metabolism provides energy for muscle contraction and heat production.
2. Synthesis of molecules – Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including
proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The different cells of the body do not all produce the
same molecules. Therefore, the structural and functional characteristics of cells are
determined by the types of molecules they produce.
3. Communication – Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that
allow them to communicate with one another. For example, nerve cells communicate
with one another and with muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract.
4. Reproduction and inheritance – Each cell contains a copy of the genetic
information of the individual. Specialized cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that
genetic information to the next generation.
2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

Most cells have three major portions, with the exception of the red blood cells.
• The plasma membrane, or cell membrane, defining boundaries with gate-like

properties
• The cytoplasm contains organelles and molecules
• The nucleus, acts as the control center and contains a cell’s genetic information.
Figure 2.1 showcases the most important structures of many different types of cells. Keep in
mind that this is a representative rather than an actual cell. No single cell contains all of the
specialized components found in the many different cells of the body. (Thompson, 2015)
Figure 2.1 Generalized Cell
The highlighted texts shows the three major portions of the cell: the nucleus, plasma
membrane and cytoplasm. Furthermore, the figure depicts different organelles resting inside
the cytoplasm. However as mentioned, no single cell contains all of these organelle types.
Furthermore, one kind of cell may contain many organelles of one type, whereas another kind
of cell may contain very few.
2.3 CELL MEMBRANE

Figure 2.2 Cell Membrane
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan
& Russo (2016)
(in the membrane. The nonpolar hydrophobic region of each phospholipid molecule is directed toward the center of tha) Fluid-
mosaic model of the cell membrane. The membrane is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids and cholesterol with proteins “floae
membrane, and the polar ting” hydrophilic region is directed toward the fluid environment either outside or inside the cell. (b)
Colorized transmission electron micrograph showing the cell membrane of a single cell. Proteins at either surface of the lipid
bilathe membrane the appearance of having three parts: The two yellow, outer parts are proteins and the phospholipid heads, and
tyer stain more readily than the lipid bilayer does and give he blue, central part is the phospholipid tails and cholesterol.
According to Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011) cell membranes or plasma membranes are like
gatekeepers that manages which does and does not enter the cell. Its flexible barrier, which is
made of two layers of phospholipids referred as lipid bilayer (figure 2.2), separates the inside
and outside of the cell and controls the flow of substances. Associated with this lipid bilayer
are phosphate-containing ends which made it hydrophilic or attracted to water and the fatty
acid ends that are hydrophobic.
To describe better, the double layer of phospholipids has a liquid quality. Cholesterol within
the phospholipid membrane gives it added strength and flexibility. Protein molecules “float”
among the phospholipid molecules and, in some cases, extend from the inner to the outer
surface of the cell membrane. Carbohydrates may be bound to some protein molecules,
modifying their functions. The proteins function as membrane channels, carrier molecules,
receptor molecules, enzymes, or structural supports in the membrane. Membrane channels
and carrier molecules are involved with the movement of substances through the cell
membrane. Receptor molecules (figure 2.2) are part of an intercellular communication
system that enables cell recognition and coordination of the activities of cells. For example, a
nerve cell can release a chemical messenger that moves to a muscle cell and temporarily binds
to a receptor on the muscle cell membrane. The binding acts as a signal that triggers a
response, such as contraction of the muscle cell.
Moreover, this barrier permits exchange of certain substances such as those substances found
outside are called extracellular substances while those inside the cell are termed as
intracellular substances. And because these cell membranes works as a gatekeepers, they
determine which moves in and out of the cell, proving its capability to have selective
permeability. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
As a summary, this provides the four basic functions of a cell membrane and these are:
• It acts as a barrier that separates the internal and external structures
• It controls the flow of substances into and out of the cell through its property called
selective permeability
• Its external glycoproteins helps identify the cell to other cells such as immune cells
• It participates in intracellular signaling by its receptor proteins.
2.4 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES

According to Thompson, (2015) the cytoplasm is the gel-like substance that fills the space
between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It consists of the intracellular fluid called
cytosol and organelles.
Cytosol consists of water plus dissolved ions, proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, ATP, and
gases which provides the avenue for most chemical reactions to occur. While organelles are
considered to be the “little organs” found inside the cytoplasm and are bound to perform
different tasks in cellular metabolism. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
Table 2.1 represents a summary of the organelles found inside the cell. However, no single cell
contains all of these organelle types. One kind of cell may contain many organelles of one type
whereas another kind of cell may contain very few.
TABLE 2.1 : ORGANELLES , THEIR LOCATION AND FUNCTIONS
Organelles Location Function/s
Cell’s control center; contains DNA and Nucleoli; site for RNA
Nucleus Often near the center
synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly
Ribosomes In the cytoplasm Site of protein synthesis

Rough Endoplasmic
In the cytoplasm Where many ribosomes attached; site of protein synthesis
Reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic
In the cytoplasm Site of lipid synthesis; participates in detoxification
Reticulum
Modifies protein structure and packages proteins in secretory
Golgi Apparatus In the cytoplasm vesicles
Contains materials produced in the cell; formed by the Golgi

Secretory Vesicle In the cytoplasm
apparatus; secreted by exocytosis
Lysosome In the cytoplasm Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell
Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP synthesis

Mitochondrion In the cytoplasm
Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division and forms

Microtubule In the cytoplasm
components of cilia and flagella
Centrioles In the cytoplasm Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division
On the cell surface with many

Cilia on each cell Move substances over surfaces of certain cells
On the sperm cell surface with

Flagella one per cell Propel sperm cells
Extensions of cell surface with

Microvilli many on each cell Increase surface area of certain cells
2.4.1 Nucleus
According to Tortora & Freudenrich (2011), the nucleus is the large organelle usually found
centrally. It important thing about this structure is that it carries the genetic material that
contains information for cell activities and cell division. Some of its functions also includes
controlling the cell’s activities and cellular structure and produces ribosomes through its
nucleoli. It has three distinct parts namely nuclear envelope, nucleolus and chromatin (figure
2.3). In the body, cells more often have one nucleus but there are also some cell, like the
skeletal muscle cells that contains more than one of this structure.
The outer part of the nucleus is covered by two layers called the nuclear envelope which
then contains small openings termed as nuclear pores. Just like the cell membranes, these
nuclear pores regulates movement of different substances into and out of the cells.
The nucleolus is a round structure that is made of the DNA, RNA and proteins. The nucleolus
is also the one responsible for making ribosomes which contains small units of RNA.
Figure 2.3 Nucleus
(a) The nuclear envelope consists of inner and outer membranes, which become fused at the nuclear pores. The nucleolus is a *taken
from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016) condensed region of the nucleus not bounded by a
membrane and consisting mostly of RNA and protein. (b) Transmission electron micrograph of the nucleus. (c) Scanning electron
micrograph showing the membranes of the nuclear envelope and the nuclear pores.
As mentioned, the nucleus carries all the information necessary to control cell activities and
make new cells. In a non-dividing cell, the genetic material is spread out in the form of
chromatin, which encompass the last part of the nucleus. Whereas in a dividing cell, the
genetic material is condensed into structures called chromosomes. There are 23 pairs of
chromosomes, which also consists of DNA and protein, can be found in the human cells.
2.4.2 Ribosomes
Ribosomes are made of RNA and proteins. These organelles are formed by the nucleolus and
were sometimes associated with the rough endoplasmic reticulum, some are located within
mitochondria, and some are free-floating or termed as free-ribosomes. But whether free-
floating or associated with organelles, ribosomes are involved in making new proteins.
Functions of the ribosomes includes being associated with the Endoplasmic reticulum so they
can synthesize proteins that are allocated for the plasma membrane. The free ribosomes also
synthesize proteins that are intended to be used in the cytosol.
2.4.3 Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a large membrane system that extends outward from the
outer nuclear membrane throughout the cytoplasm (figure 2.4). There are two types:
Those that extends from the nuclear envelope and filled with ribosomes are
the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. These organelles synthesize glycoproteins
and phospholipids that are then transferred into the plasma membrane, or secreted
during exocytosis. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
Figure 2.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum

(a) The Endoplasmic Reticulum is continuous with the nuclear envelope and can exist as either Rough (with Ribosomes) or Smoot h
(without Ribosomes) (b) Transmission Electron Micrograph of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
On the other hand, Endoplasmic Reticulum without ribosomes is called
smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum. It is where fatty acids and steroids are being
made. And more importantly, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum detoxifies harmful
substances and serves as a storage site for ionized calcium, which gets released as part
of an intracellular signal for muscle contraction and the actions of some chemical
messengers called hormones. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
2.4.4 Golgi Apparatus and Secretory Vesicle
The Golgi apparatus is like a flattened sacs (figure 2.5) that acts like a pathway for
processing proteins and lipids made by the Endoplasmic Reticulum. It forms several things. It
forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via exocytosis into extracellular
fluid. It forms membrane vesicles that ferry new molecules to the plasma membrane and
lastly, it forms transport vesicles that carry molecules to other organelles, such as lysosomes.
(Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
Figure2.5 Golgi Apparatus

(a) The Golgi apparatus is composed of flattened, membranous sacs and
b) Transmission
resembles a stack of dinner plates or pancakes. ( electron
micrograph of the Golgi apparatus.
The Golgi apparatus is present in larger numbers and is most highly developed in cells that
secrete protein, such as those of the salivary glands or the pancreas. (VanPutte, Regan, &
Russo, 2016)
2.4.5 Lysosome and Peroxisomes
Lysosomes have a number of digestive enzymes that break down ingested material and
wornout organelles and release their components into the cytosol. It can digest the entire cells
(autolysis) and carry out extracellular digestion. Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes. The enzymes within the lysosomes break down the materials in the endocytotic
vesicle. For example, white blood cells phagocytize bacteria. Then enzymes within lysosomes
destroy the phagocytized bacteria.
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty
acid and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell. The enzymes in peroxisomes break
down hydrogen peroxide to water and O2. Cells active in detoxification, such as liver and
kidney cells, have many peroxisomes. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
2.4.6 Mitochondrion
These bean-shaped organelles (figure 2.6) are the major structures to produce Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP)-the main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell.
Furthermore, it also participates in the regulation of intracellular ionized calcium. Each
mitochondrion is composed of a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane,
which contain numerous enzymes that are involved in making ATP. (Tortora & Freudenrich,
2011)
Figure 2.6 Mitochondrion
(a) typical mitochondrion structure. (b) TEM of mitochondria in longitudinal an cross sections
ATP is the main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell, and cells with a
large energy requirement have more mitochondria than cells that require less energy. For
example, cells that carry out extensive active transport, contain many mitochondria. When
muscles enlarge as a result of exercise, the mitochondria increase in number within the muscle
cells and provide the additional ATP required for muscle contraction. (VanPutte, Regan, &
Russo, 2016)
The outer membrane gives a mitochondrion its capsule shape while the inner membrane folds
on itself to provide a surface on which the energy-releasing chemical reactions of the cell
occur. The folds of the inner membrane are called cristae. It is on the cristae that cellular
respiration occurs, where food (chemical energy) is converted into another usable form of
chemical energy, ATP. For this reason, the mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the
cell. On the other hand, the fluid that fills the inside of the membrane is termed as
mitochondrial matrix. (Rizzo, 2016)
But in addition in producing ATP, mitochondria also participate in the regulation of intracellular
ionized calcium. They contain their own DNA and ribosomes, both of which make them
capable of reproducing themselves and making new proteins, but the main source of the cell’s
DNA is contained within its largest organelle, the nucleus. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
2.4.7 Cytoskeleton and Microtubules

Figure 2.7 Cytoskeleton
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016) (a) Diagram of the cytoskeleton. (b) Scanning electron
micrograph of the cytoskeleton.
The cytoskeleton is made of networks of the following protein elements (figure 2.7). It is like
tree-branches that holds organelles in place and aid them in changing shape. These protein
elements consists of microfilaments, intermediate filament and microtubules.
Microfilaments are small protein strands that provide mechanical support and generate
force for movement. They are analogous to muscles in your body. They also anchor proteins
within the plasma membrane and provide support for microvilli. Intermediate filament on
the other hand are protein strands that are larger than micro laments but smaller than
microtubules. They hold organelles in place and attach cells to one another. Microtubules
are long, hollow protein tubes that determine shape and movement similar to the way bones
shape your body. They are also the stiff components of cilia and flagella. (Tortora &
Freudenrich, 2011)
2.4.8 Centrosome and Centrioles

Figure 2.7 Cytoskeleton
(a)Diagram of the cytoskeleton. (b) Scanning electron micrograph of the cytoskeleton.
Centrioles are like mini-tunnels that were stacked together by threes (microtubule triplet)
and formed a cylindrical organelle composed of nine triplets (figure 2.7). Putting a pair of
these centrioles plus a pericentriolar material will make up a Centrosome is found near the
nucleus and will be later essential for cell division called Mitosis. That is, the pericentriolar
material of the centrosome contains tubulins that build microtubules in nondividing cells and
form the mitotic spindle during cell division. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
2.4.9 Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli
Cilia and Flagella are surface organelles that resembles projections on the surface that help
cells move, beat or vibrate. (Rizzo, 2016)
Cells may have numerous amounts of cilia in a cell. Cilia are hairy-like projections that propels
materials across the surface. They vary in number from hundreds to thousands. For instance,
the respiratory tract is lined with cilia to trap foreign materials such as dusts. In this way, it aids
in maintaining airways clear from contaminants. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Flagella on the other hand, is like a whip tail placing itself at the terminal end of a cell. Unlike
cilia that were numerous to be found in a cell, flagella usually appears singular like in the
sperm cells. Moreover, this structure allows cells to mobilize like again in the case of sperm
cells that travels its way to find the egg cells. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
Microvilli are folds of the cell membrane that greatly increase the surface area of a cell.
Typically found in cells charged with absorbing nutrients—such as the intestines—microvilli
can increase a cell’s absorptive area as much as 40 times. (Thompson, 2015)
2.5 CELL TRANSPORT

Since cells were known to be the basic unit of life, it requires to undergone several chemical
processes where coordinated movement are essential to maintain its functions. Also, some
substances are needed to be shifted in and out of the cells. In order to understand further,
let’s recall the two fluid compartments before moving into cell transport. (Tortora &
Freudenrich, 2011)
Intracellular fluid - inside the cell

- sample substances that can be found are enzymes, glycogen and
potassium ions
Extracellular fluid - outside the cell

Interstitial fluids – fluids between cell within tissue
Plasma – fluid within a blood vessel
Lymph – fluid within lymphatic vessel
Cerebrospinal fluid – fluid that surrounds brain and spinal cord
As they move across cells and within the cells substances including gases, nutrients and ions
are dissolved in the various fluids. Certain terms in concentration also applies: (Tortora &
Freudenrich, 2011)
Solute – a substance that is being dissolved in the various fluids
Solvent – a. fluid or gas in which solute is being dissolved
Concentration – the amount of solute dissolved in given volume of solvent
Concentration Gradient – the difference in concentration

of a substance between two areas
Cell membranes has the unique capability to only allow certain substances to pass through its
walls—Selective Permeability. Because of this, coupled with the transport capacity, cells
maintains its concentration of molecules. Movement of substances may include two processes:
Passive transport – no cellular energy required during

transport. Examples includes Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated
diffusion
Active transport – certain amount of cellular energy is

needed to help transport to be Successful. Includes itself,
secondary active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis
2.5.1 Diffusion
Diffusion is the process wherein solutes moves from an area of high concentration to areas
of low concentration. It can occur in two conditions. One, the membrane must be permeable
enough to allow passage of substances and two, there must be a concentration gradient of the
particular substance across the membrane because it will be the driving force for the process
to occur. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
In the discussion about cell membrane, it was mentioned that cell membranes has bilipid
layers. This means that those substances which are lipid soluble like oxygen, carbon dioxide
and steroids can easily pass-through the phospholipid bilayer. While these substances can
readily pass, other substances needs channels for cell to accommodate them. For instance,
sodium only enters through sodium channels and the same is true with potassium. (VanPutte,
In addition, cell membrane channels differ in the degree to which ions pass through them.
Some channels constantly allow ions to pass through. These channels are called leak
channels. Other channels limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and
closing. These channels are called gated channels. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
In the body, diffusion is an important means of transporting substances through the

extracellular and intracellular fluids. In addition, substances, such as nutrients and some waste
products, can diffuse into and out of the cell. The normal intracellular concentrations of many
substances depend on diffusion. For example, if the extracellular concentration of O2 is
reduced, not enough O2 diffuses into the cell, and the cell cannot function normally.
2.5.2 Osmosis
Osmosis involves the diffusion of water down the concentration gradient through a
selectively permeable membrane. In the body, this often happens when a particular substance
can’t cross the membrane. In that situation, the water and not the particles, moves in an effort
to equalize the concentration. (Thompson, 2015)
Osmosis is important to cells because large volume changes caused by water movement can
disrupt normal cell functions. Osmosis occurs when the cell membrane is less permeable,
selectively permeable, or not permeable to solutes and a concentration gradient for water
exists across the cell membrane. Water diffuses from a solution with a higher water
concentration across the cell membrane into a solution with a lower water concentration. The
ability to predict the direction of water movement across the cell membrane depends on
knowing which solution on either side of the membrane has the higher water concentration.
The concentration of a solution, however, is expressed not in terms of water, but in terms of
solute concentration. For example, if sugar solution A is more concentrated than sugar solution
B, then solution A has more sugar (solute) than solution B. As the concentration of a solution
increases, the amount of water (solvent) proportionately decreases. Water diffuses from the
less concentrated solution B (less sugar, more water), into the more concentrated solution A
(more sugar, less water). In other words, water diffuses toward areas of high solute
concentration and dilutes those solutes.
Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent the movement of water across a
selectively permeable membrane. Thus, osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of
water to move by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane. It can be measured by
placing a solution into a tube that is closed at one end by a selectively permeable membrane
and immersing the tube in distilled water (see figure 2.8, step 1). Water molecules move by
osmosis through the membrane into the tube, forcing the solution to move up the tube (see
figure 2.8, step 2). As the solution rises, its weight produces hydrostatic pressure (see
figure 2.8, step 3), which moves water out of the tube back into the distilled water surrounding
the tube. Net movement of water into the tube stops when the hydrostatic pressure in the
tube causes water to move out of the tube at the same rate at which it diffuses into the tube
by osmosis. The osmotic pressure of the solution in the tube is equal to the hydrostatic
pressure that prevents net movement of water into the tube.
Figure 2.8 Osmosis
Why is osmosis so important to your health? As a result of fluid intake, transfusions, injuries,
and diseases, the salt and water concentrations of various fluid compartments within your
body change. So, cells within those compartments, like red blood cells traveling through blood
vessels, may find themselves in environments with different solute and water concentrations
There are specific names for such environments; it is important to note that these terms refer
to the concentrations of solutes, not the concentration of water: (Tortora & Freudenrich,
2011)
• Isotonic —The solute concentration outside the cell is the same as that inside the
cell. Therefore, water concentration is also the same on both sides of the cell, and the
net movement of water is zero.
• Hypotonic —The solute concentration outside the cell is less than the concentration
inside the cell. Therefore, the water concentration outside is greater than that inside,
and water flows into the cell.
• Hypertonic —The solute concentration outside the cell is greater than the
concentration inside the cell. Therefore, the water concentration is greater inside the
cell than outside, and water flows out of the cell.
Figure 2.9 Effect of Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic solutions on Red Blood Cells
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan
& Russo (2016)
2.5.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanism
Certain molecules just need a medium to bind to be transported inside the cell. These usually
involves the use of specificity wherein a molecule can only be accommodated by specific
carrier molecule. Carrier molecules are protein present in the cell membranes that serves
as a flexible gate that changes shape. There are three kinds of carrier-mediated transport and
these are facilitated diffusion, active transport, and secondary active transport. (VanPutte,
2.5.3.1 Facilitated diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated transport

process that moves substances across the cell
membrane from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration of that substance. Because
movement is with the concentration gradient, metabolic
energy in the form of ATP is not required. For instance,
the carrier molecule binds with a molecule, such as
glucose, on the outside of the cell membrane (figure
2.10). The carrier molecule changes its shape and
releases the molecule on the inside of the cell
membrane. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Figure 2.10 Facilitated Diffusion

2.5.3.2 Active transport
Active transport is the process in which energy is used to move substances across a
membrane against a concentration gradient, that is, from lower concentration to higher
concentration. Substances must be highly-concentrated on side to have enough stimulation of
the energy required. In most cases, ATP is the energy needed to assist in active transport. One
example of active transport is the movement of various amino acids from the small intestine
into the blood. The malfunction of active transport can lead to serious health conditions.
In some cases, the active transport mechanism can exchange one substance for another. For
example, the sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells (figure
2.11). The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside the cell and a higher concentration of
K+ inside the cell. The concentration gradients for Na+ and K+, established by the
sodiumpotassium pump, are essential in maintaining the resting membrane potential.
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and PhysiolFigure 2.11 Sodiumo-gy by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)Potassium Pump
2.5.3.3 Secondary Active Transport
Secondary active transport involves the active

transport of one substance, such as Na+, across the
cell membrane, establishing a concentration gradient.
The diffusion of that transported substance down its
concentration gradient provides the energy to
transport a
second substance, such as glucose, across the cell
membrane (figure 2.12). In cotransport, the
diffusing substance moves in the same direction as
the transported substance; in countertransport,
the diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite
to that of the
transported substance. Figure 2.12 Secondary Active Transport
2.5.4 Endocytosis and Exocytosis
When substances are too large to be transported, cells would ingest these materials rather
than having it exchanged with ions. The cells forms a vesicle or a round, small sac through
ATP and contractions of microfilaments enabling the contents to be ingested. (Tortora &
Freudenrich, 2011)
Endocytosis involves ingesting material by forming a vesicle from the plasma membrane.
The sac of ingested material buds off inside the cell and usually fuses with lysosomes. There
are three types of endocytosis: (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Phagocytosis. The cell “eats” large particles such as bacteria, viruses, and dead cells.
White blood cells and some other cell types phagocytize bacteria, cell debris and
foreign particles.
Pinocytosis. The cell periodically “drinks” by forming small vesicles around droplets
of extracellular fluid. These droplets may have small particles dissolved in them as
well. These vesicles fuse with lysosomes and release their contents.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis. When hormones bind to receptors on the

plasma membrane, the hormone–receptor complex is often ingested by endocytosis
after the hormone has produced its effect. Cholesterol and growth factors are samples
of which.
In contrast, cells often release substances by a process called exocytosis. They utilize
membrane-bound sacs called secretory vesicles to fuse with the cell membrane and finally
release its content towards the extracellular space. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) Many
substances such as neurotransmitters, endocrine hormones, and digestive enzymes are
secreted via exocytosis. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
2.6 CELL DIVISION

Cells transport materials and make proteins as part of their normal functions. They grow and,
at some point, divide to produce new cells. Cell division is the way your body grows and how it
replaces worn-out cells and cells damaged by disease or injury. Most of the cells in your body
are somatic cells and divide through a process called mitosis. Somatic cells are cells other than
sex cells (sperm and egg). During mitosis, one starting cell divides into two identical cells. Each
cell has exactly the same genetic makeup as the parent cell. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
Mitosis is one part of the cell’s normal life cycle, called the cell cycle. The cell is continually
changing from the time it forms until it divides. Although the cell cycle is continuous, it is
commonly divided into interphase and mitosis. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
During interphase, the cells goes through three stages:
G1—a growth phase in which proteins are synthesized. The cell performs the tasks for
which it was created (such as carrying oxygen, secreting digestive enzymes, etc.). It
accumulates the materials it will need to replicate its DNA.
S— when DNA is replicated.
G2—another growth phase in which proteins are made.
Interphase, which may take 20 to 22 hours, is followed by mitosis.
Mitosis itself consists of four phases:
• Prophase - each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere.

• Metaphase - chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
• Anaphase - chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles
• Telophase - the two new nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is
completed, producing two new daughter cells.
As a result of mitosis, each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. This make-up, which is
identical to that of the starting cell, is called diploid.
Figure 2.13 Mitosis
*taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology: A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015)
Specialized cells called gametes undergo a different process of cell division called meiosis.
During meiosis, a starting cell undergoes two rounds of cell division to produce four cells.
Each cell has one-half the genetic material of the starting cell (only one set of chromosomes).
Meiosis is very similar to mitosis. In fact, the two are so similar that their stages are rather
confusingly referred to by the same names. One difference is that, in the first prophase of
meiosis (prophase I), pairs of homologous chromosomes (that is, pairs of chromosome #1,
pairs of chromosome #2, and so on) remain close together in tight groups called tetrads.
During this phase, the chromosomes may exchange pieces of DNA in a process called
crossing over. Crossing over “shuffles” the genetic material, which allows genetic variation
from one generation to the next. In the first anaphase of meiosis (anaphase I), the tetrads get
pulled apart. Ultimately, the two stages of meiosis divide the chromosome complement of the
parent in half, a status called haploid. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
Figure 2.14 Meiosis


Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011). Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. .
VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology.
New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Anatomy and Physiology by accomplishing the Course Task/s in Canvas

1 3 3
The Tissues and The integumentary System

terminologies for jargons ü Proactively participate in
classroom discussions ü Participate in weekly
discussion board (Canvas) ü Answer and submit course
unit tasks.
Physiology Penn Plaza, New York, New York, McGraw-Hill Education, 10 th Edition
Computer device or smartphone with internet access (at least 54 kbps; average data subscription will
suffice)
Cognitive
• Describe the general makeup of a tissue

• Classify the four types of tissues based on the descriptions and functions
• Identify the structures and functions of the various epithelial tissues
• Describe the types of connective tissues
• Explain the locations and functions of each type of muscle tissue
• Discern the unique characteristics of nervous tissues
• Describe the general functions of the integumentary system
• Elaborate different structures and physiology of the Integumentary System
Adipose tissue - Type of loose connective tissue dominated by fat cells
Areolar tissue - Type of loose connective tissue that lies beneath almost all epithelia
Chondrocytes - Cartilage-forming cells
Columnar epithelium - Epithelial tissue composed of cells having a tall, columnar shape
Connective tissue - The most widespread, and the most varied, of all the tissues. It serves to
connect the body together and to support, bind, or protect organs
Cuboidal epithelium - Epithelial tissue consisting of cells having a cube-like shape Endocrine
gland - A gland that secretes its product, called a hormone, directly into the bloodstream
Epithelium - The layer of cells forming the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of
mucous and serous membranes
Exocrine gland - A gland that secretes its product into a duct, which then empties onto a body
surface or inside a body cavity
Fibroblasts - Cells that secrete collagen, which forms scar tissue inside a wound Fibrosis -
The repair and replacement of damaged tissue with connective tissue, mainly collagen
Glandular epithelium - Type of epithelium consisting of glands that secrete a particular
substance
Goblet cell - Modified columnar cell containing secretory vesicles that produce large quantities
of mucus
Granulation tissue - Newly formed tissue inside a wound
Mucous membrane - Epithelial membrane that lines body surfaces that open directly to the
body’s exterior
Muscle tissue - Tissue consisting of contractile cells or fibers that effect movement of an organ
or body part
Nervous tissue - Tissue with a high degree of excitability and conductivity that makes up the
nervous system
Osseous tissue - Bone tissue

Osteocytes - Bone-forming cells
Reticular tissue - Tissue consisting of a loose network of reticular fibers and cells; forms the
framework of the spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow.
Serous membrane - Membrane composed of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin

layer of areolar connective tissue; lines some of the closed body cavities and also covers many
of the organs in those cavities
Squamous epithelium - Epithelial tissue consisting of thin, flat cells
Stem cell - Specialized cell that can differentiate into many different types of cells Tissue -
Groups of similar cells that perform a common function
3A.1 TISSUES AND HISTOLOGY

As the human body contains trillion of cells, these cells further group together to form tissues. These
tissues were made from specialized cells that were made during development and intended to
group together to perform specific functions. The science that deals with the study of tissues is called
histology. Relating knowledge of different tissues can brought understanding of underlying changes
in the body such development, growth and even disease existence. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
A pathologist on the other hand, is a physician who examines tissues for changes that may indicate
damage or disease. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
According to Tortora & Freudenrich (2011), the cells organize into three layers. The three layers
includes ectoderm as the outer layer, mesoderm as middle layer and endoderm forming the
inner layer. And while cells continue to divide, they also form distinct properties through the process
called differentiation.
There are four basic types of tissues in your body:
• Epithelial tissue - covers body surfaces, forms glands, and lines body cavities, hollow
organs, and ducts.
• Connective tissue - protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together,
stores energy reserves as fat, and provides immunity.
• Muscular tissue - generates the physical force needed to make body structures move.
• Nervous tissue - detects changes inside and outside the body and generates transmits
nerve impulses that coordinate body activities to help maintain homeostasis.
3A.2 EPITHELIAL TISSUE
As VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016) specifies, epithelial tissues covers body surfaces, forms glands, and
lines body cavities, hollow organs, and ducts and perform several functions such as:
1. It protects underlying structures. Skin, for instance, is an evident model of how tissues
provides protection. Other examples includes oral cavity and the linings of the digestive tract.
2. It acts as a barrier. It prevents from contamination of harmful molecules by not allowing
infiltration of toxic microorganisms.
3. It permits passage of substances. Diffusion allows exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the lungs providing enough oxygenation in the body.
4. It secretes. All glands are made of epithelial tissue. The endocrine glands secrete hormones,
the mucous glands secrete mucus, and our intestinal tract contains cells that secrete digestive
enzymes in addition to the pancreas and the liver, which secrete the major portions of
digestive enzymes.
5. It absorbs. In the lining of the small intestine, nutrients from our digested food enter blood
capillaries and get carried to the cells of our body.
3A.2.1 Classification of Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues are classified according to cell shape and to its cell layers.
According to Cell shape from Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011)
• Squamous —Thin and flat cells that allow diffusion and filtration
• Cuboidal — Cube-shaped cells that may have microvilli at their apical surface for
secretion or absorption
• Columnar — Tall and thin cells that may have microvilli or cilia at their apical surface for
secretion and absorption
• Transitional — Change shape from flat to cuboidal and back. These cells are found in
organs that can stretch like the urinary bladder.
According to Cell Layers
• Simple epithelium — has only one layer of cells and primary function is to move
materials
• Pseudostratified epithelium – has a single layer but appears to have many due to
cells’ nuclei are placed at many levels
• Stratified epithelium – has multiple layer of cells and intended for protection
More often than not, each epithelium is named after the shape and the layers. The shape and number
of layers of epithelial cells can change if constantly exposed to irritants.
3A.2.1.1 Simple Squamous Epithelium
Figure 3.1 Simple Squamous Epithelium
It contains single-layered flat cells (figure 3.1) where certain substances are allowed to cross. Because
of this characteristic, processes such as diffusion, osmosis, secretion and filtration as well as provision
of a level of protection from friction are also possible. For instance, diffusion is possible in the linings
of an alveolus in the lungs. Moreover, filtration of mainly water can occur in the kidneys leading to
formation of urine while leaving large molecules such as protein and blood cells back in the blood
vessels. Additionally, protection was also made through the fluid from the secretions of simple
squamous epithelium because it lubricates the surfaces between the organs thereby preventing
damage from friction when the organs rub against one another or the body wall. (VanPutte, Regan, &
Russo, 2016)
3A.2.1.2 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Figure 3.2 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of cube-like cell (figure 3.2) that aids in secretion
and absorption. Through this and their greater volume and organelles, they can enable active
transport and facilitated diffusion. Example of areas where you can find this would be the kidney
tubules, glands and their ducts, and the choroid plexus of the brain. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
3A.2.1.3 Simple Columnar Epithelium
Figure 3.3 Simple Columnar Epithelium

Simple columnar epithelia are made up of large, single layers of thin cells (figure 3.3) that allows
it to conduct complex processes such as mucus secretions. The mucus protects the lining of the
intestine, and the digestive enzymes complete the process of digesting food. The columnar cells then
absorb the digested foods by active transport, facilitated diffusion, or simple diffusion. (VanPutte,
3A.2.1.4 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Figure 3.4 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
The linings of the larger ducts of any glands, the epididymis and male urethra have
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium. When ciliated, it facilitates movement of unwanted
substances and help moves secretions like those found in the upper respiratory tract. As discussed
earlier, a pseudostratified columnar epithelium may look like to have many layers and this is because
of the cells appearing to be at different levels (figure 3.4). Some cells are lengthy enough to touch the
free surface while other cells falls short in length giving the false idea that there are more than one
layer. But originally, they were just a group of cells in single layer that varies in height. (VanPutte,
3A.2.1.5 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Figure 3.5 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium, whether keratinized or not, its main function is protection as it
forms a thick layer of epithelium (figure 3.5) made from several layers of cells.
One type of stratified squamous epithelium forms the outer layer of the skin and is called keratinized
squamous epithelium. The dead cells provide protection against abrasion, and form a barrier that
prevents microorganisms and toxic chemicals from entering the body, and reduces the loss of water
from the body. If cells at the surface are damaged or rubbed away, they are replaced by cells formed
in the deeper layers. In contrast, stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth is composed of living
cells with a moist surface. This nonkeratinized (moist) stratified squamous epithelium also provides
protection against abrasion and acts as a mechanical barrier, preventing microorganisms from
entering the body. Water, however, can move across it more readily than across the skin. (VanPutte,
3A.2.1.6 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

The lining of the ducts of sweat glands, esophageal glands and parts of the male urethra are made up
of Stratified cuboidal epithelium that forms from layers of cube-like cells intended to assist in
secretion, absorption and protection. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
3A.2.1.7 Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells, but only the
surface cells are columnar. The deeper layers are irregular or cuboidal in shape. Like stratified
cuboidal epithelium, stratified columnar epithelium is relatively rare. It is found in the mammary
gland ducts, the larynx, and a portion of the male urethra. This epithelium carries out secretion,
protection, and some absorption. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
3A.2.1.8 Transitional Epithelium
Figure 3.6 Transitional Epithelium
Transitional epithelium is a special type of stratified epithelium that can be greatly stretched. In
the unstretched state, transitional epithelium consists of five or more layers of cuboidal or columnar
cells that often are dome-shaped at the free surface (figure 3.6). As transitional epithelium is
stretched, the cells change to a low cuboidal or squamous shape, and the number of cell layers
decreases. Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can expand greatly, such as the urinary bladder.
It also protects underlying structures from the caustic effects of urine.
3A.2.2 Cell Connection
According to Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011), most epithelial cells and some muscle and nerve cells are
tightly joined into functional units by points of contact between their plasma membranes called cell
junctions. Cell junctions perform different functions in different tissues:
1. Tight junctions fuse cells together tightly to prevent substances from passing between the
cells. In can be found in tissues with simple epithelia like those that line the stomach,
intestines, and urinary bladder, tight junctions prevent the contents of these organs from
leaking out.
specific spots. Figure 3.7 Cell Connection

• Hemidesmosomes resemble half of a *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
desmosome. They do not adhere adjacent Desmosomes and tight junctions anchor cells to one another and
hemidesmosomes anchor cells to the basement membrane. Gap junctions allow
cells but rather attach cells to membranes. adjacent cells to communicate with each other. Few cells have all these different
connections.
2. Some cell junctions hold cells
together so that they don’t separate while
performing their functions:
• Adherens junctions have a dense

layer of proteins just inside the plasma
membrane called a plaque that runs along
micro laments to form a belt or strap-like
structure called an adhesion belt. Two
adjacent cells are joined by
transmembrane glycoproteins that
insert into the corresponding adhesion belts.
This arrangement resists separation even
when stretched.
• Desmosomes are like adherens
junctions, but the plaque binds to
intermediate laments and does not form a
belt. Instead of two cells adhering along a
belt, they adhere at
3. Gap junctions form channels that allow ions and molecules to pass between cells. This
permits cells in a tissue to communicate and enables nerve or muscle impulses to spread
rapidly among cells.
3A.2.3 Glands
A gland is made of glandular epithelial cells that secretes substances either in the surface or in the
bloodstream. These glandular epithelial cells form both endocrine and exocrine glands. Some glands
contain both endocrine and exocrine glandular epithelium like the pancreas, ovaries, and testes.
• Endocrine gland – ductless and secrete substance called hormones directly into the
interstitial fluid then to the blood. Example of which includes thyroid gland, pituitary gland.
• Exocrine gland – secrete substances through tubes or ducts. For instance, sweat glands,
salivary glands, and mammary glands.
a. Structure based on shape of ducts:

a.1 Simple – the duct ends directly
into the secretory portion
a.2 Compound–the duct ends into
multiple
secretory branches
b. Based on secretory units:

b.1 tubular – straight
b.2 Acinar / alveolar – *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo
(2016)Figure 3.8 Structure of Exocrine Glands
saclike structure
c. Based on secretion types: Merocrine, Apocrine, Holocrine
Figure 3.9 Secretion Types

3A.3 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective tissues contains various cells, fibers and other substances. It protects and supports the
body and its organs. No wonder it is one of the most abundant tissues.
Two major components according to Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011)

I. Cells
1.1 Fibroblasts - are large flat cells that move and secrete fibers and ground
substance.
1.2 Macrophages - develop from white blood cells. They eat bacteria and cell
debris by phagocytosis
1.3 Plasma cells - are small cells that develop from a white blood cell. They
secrete antibodies that attack and neutralize foreign substances.
1.4 Mast cells - are abundant along blood vessels. They produce histamine,
which dilates small blood vessels during inflammation and kill bacteria.
1.5 Adipocytes - They are found below the skin and around organs like hear
and kidneys.
1.6 White blood cells like Neutrophils that migrates to sites of infection ad
Eosinophils that migrate to sites of parasitic infection and allergic
responses.
II. Extracellular Matrix
2.1 Collagen – strong, flexible bundles of the protein collagen, the most
abundant protein in the body
2.2 Elastic fibers – stretchable but strong fibers made of proteins, elastin and
fibrillin. They are found in skin, blood vessels and lung tissues.
2.3 Ground substances - is the stuff between cells and fibers. It is made of
water and organic molecules (hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate,
glucosamine). It supports cells and fibers, binds them together, and
provides a medium for exchanging substances between blood and cells.
Connective tissue cells are named according to their functions and suffixes are used to denote their
function. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Table 1. Naming Connective tissues and Example

SUFFIX AND MEANING EXAMPLE
• fibroblasts are cells that form fibers and ground substance in the
suffix -blast (germ) produce
extracellular matrix of fibrous connective tissue Osteoblasts
the matrix
• form bone
cells ending in -cyte (cell) • fibrocytes are cells that maintain it osteocytes
maintain it • maintain bone
cells ending in -clast (break)
• osteoclasts break down bone
break it down for remodeling
Functions of Connective Tissue : Connective tissue performs the following major functions
according to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016):
1. Enclosing and separating other tissues. Liver and kidneys were encapsulated to help
them be separated from other tissues and organs. More so, connective tissues divides
structures such as muscles, nerves as well as blood vessels from one another.
2. Cushioning and insulating. Adipose tissue cushions and protects the tissues it surrounds
and provides an insulating layer beneath the skin that helps conserve heat.
3. Connecting tissues to one another. Connective tissues binds, supports and strengthen
other tissues. For instance, tendons attaches muscles to bones while ligaments holds bones
together.
4. Supporting and moving parts of the body. Connective tissues accommodates
locomotion while providing rigid support. Examples of which includes surfaces of bones and
joints.
5. Storing compounds. Storing energy through fat tissues and cells provides reserves for the
body. Bones in addition, stores minerals such as calcium and phosphate.
6. Transporting. It transport materials throughout the body. For instance, blood, delivers
nutrients, enzymes and essential nutrients.
7. Protecting. It protects the body by destroying invading microorganisms and eliminating
cellular debris. Protection from injury can also be sought from bones.
3.1.1 Classification of Connective Tissue
Like epithelium, connective tissue is classified according to its cells, extracellular matrix, and
appearance under the microscope. Unlike epithelium, most connective tissue has a rich supply of
blood vessels. Two major categories of connective tissue are embryonic and adult connective tissue.
By eight weeks of development, most of the embryonic connective tissue has become specialized to
form the types of connective tissue seen in adults. To further understand the different classifications,
an outline is presented in the table below.
Table 2. Classification of Connective Tissues
Loose – fewer fibers, more ground Areolar

Adipose
substance
Reticular
Connective Tissue
Dense, regular collagenous
Proper Dense – more fibers, less ground Dense, regular elastic
substance Dense, irregular collagenous
Dense, irregular elastic
Hyaline
Supporting Cartilage – semisolid matrix Fibrocartilage Elastic
Connective Tissue Spongy Compact

Bone – solid matrix
Blood
Fluid Connective
Red Marrow Yellow
Tissue Hemopoietic Tissue Marrow
3A.3.1.1 Connective Tissue Proper
Table 3. Connective Tissue Proper: Loose Connective Tissues
a. Areolar Connective Tissue

*Photo and content t*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology baken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & y
VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)Russo (2016)
Cellular components of these Areolar Connective Tissue include fibroblasts, which are mainly responsible for the matrix.
Other cellular components includes plasma cells, adipocytes and mast cells. Moreover, the basement membranes of
epithelia often rests on connective tissues thereby providing strength, elasticity and support.
b. Adipose Tissue
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat cells. They reduces heat loss and provide great amount of energy reserve,
support and protection. Unlike other connective tissue types, adipose tissue is composed of large cells and a small
amount of extracellular matrix, which consists of loosely arranged collagen and reticular fibers with some scattered
elastic fibers. The individual cells are large and closely packed together. Adipose tissue also pads and protects parts of
the body and acts as a thermal insulator.
c. Reticular Tissue
*Photo
*Photo and content
and content
aken
aken
t from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
t fro
m Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
Russo (2016)
Reticular tissue are primarily made from specialized fibroblasts called reticular cells and reticular fibers. They
forms the framework of lymphaticintissue
the spleen and lymph nodes, as aswell
in bone marrow and the. liver
Classification of Connective Tissues (Recall)

Areolar
Loose – fewer fibers, more ground substance Adipose
Connective Tissue Reticular
Proper Dense, regular collagenous Dense,
Dense – more fibers, less ground substance
regular elastic
Table 4. Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Connective Tissues

a. Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue
b. Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue
*Photo and content

aken
t from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo ( 2016)
Dense elastic connective tissue
has abundant elastic fibers among its collagenrs. fibe
It allows stretching of
various organs. Examples includes the lungs, the arterial walls, trachea, bronchial tubes, vocal cords and
ligaments.
3A.3.1.2 Supporting Connective Tissues
Areolar
Connective Tissue Proper Reticular
Dense – more fibers, less ground substance Dense, regular collagenous Dense,
regular elastic
Hyaline
Supporting Cartilage – semisolid matrix Fibrocartilage Elastic
Connective Tissue Spongy Compact

Bone – solid matrix
Another type of a connective tissues are Supporting Connective Tissues. In this connective
tissue, specialized cells called chondrocytes, or cartilage cells makes up a Cartilage. When
grouped together, these chondrocytes forms an island called lacuna.
As an overview, cartilages provides greater support for surrounding structures. Though they are rigid,
it goes back easily when compressed. However, there are no blood vessels within cartilage.
Substances must diffuse through the extracellular matrix into the chondrocytes. This diffusion is a
relatively slow process which means that the cells and nutrients necessary for tissue repair do not
easily reach the damaged area, which is why cartilage injuries take a long time to heal.
Table 5. Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage

a. Hyaline Cartilage
Russo (2016)
Embryonic and fetal skeletons are initially made up of cartilage that eventually develops into a bone. In bones, these
hyaline cartilage are made up of chondrocytes and collagen fibers. It forms a layer sustainable to bear certain amount of
compression. It can be found in the ends of long bones, the ribs, nose, larynx and trachea, as well in bronchial tubes.
b. Fibrocartilage
Russo (2016)
Fibrocartilage, same as hyaline cartilage, consists differentiated fibroblasts and collagen fibers. But unlike hyaline,
fibrocartilage has more collagen that helps withstand pulling and tearing forces. Moreover, they provide support in
joining structures. They can be found in the pelvis, the disks between the vertebrae and in some joints, such as the knee
and temporomandibular joints.
Russo (2016)
3A.3.1.3 Fluid Connective Tissues

Areolar
Connective Tissue Reticular
Dense, regular collagenous
Proper Dense – more fibers, less ground substance
Dense, regular elastic
Dense, irregular collagenous
Dense, irregular elastic
Supporting Cartilage – semisolid matrix

Hyaline
Fibrocartilage Elastic
Connective Tissue Bone – solid matrix

Spongy Compact
Blood
Fluid Connective
Tissue Red Marrow Yellow
Hemopoietic Tissue Marrow
Table 7. Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood

a. Blood
Russo (2016)
To provide more focus in tissues and its composition and structure, bones and blood will be further
elaborated on the weeks assigned for each.
3A.4 MUSCLE TISSUES
Muscular tissue is composed of elongated muscle cells called muscle fibers. The job of muscular
tissue is to generate force, which produces motion, maintains posture, and generates heat. There are
three types of muscular tissue and these are Skeletal Muscles, Cardiac Muscles and Smooth muscles.
Table 8. Muscle Tissues
a. Skeletal Muscle
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
Skeletal muscles are group of multi-nucleated cells with striations due to the arrangement of contractile proteins within
the cells. This further helps in the generation of force during voluntary commands. As described, skeletal muscles can be
found attached to the skeleton. However, the nervous system can cause skeletal muscles to contract without conscious
involvement, as occurs during reflex movements and the maintenance of muscle tone
b. Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle has cylindrical, intermediate-sized cells that make up this tissue are connected to one another by cell
junctions called intercalated discs. These intercalated discs contains specialized gap junctions helps in coordinating
contractions. Cardiac muscle has striations and contracts involuntarily.
c. Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle contains groups of small cells with one nucleus that are capable of stretching and are part of blood
vessels, the stomach, intestines, uterus, and bladder. Unlike skeletal muscles, smooth muscle tissue has no striations and
contracts involuntarily.
3A.5 NERVOUS TISSUE
According to Tortora & Freudenrich (2011), nervous tissue transmits impulses to coordinate activities
including involuntary controls because these specialized cells makes up the brain, spinal cord and
nerves.
Despite the complexity of nervous system functions, nervous tissue consists of only two types of cells
which are neurons and neuroglia. The neurons, or nerve cells, are responsible for conducting
action potentials. These action potentials are electrical signals that assists in cell communication,
making them sensitive to different stimuli. They convert these stimuli into nerve impulses and
conducts to other neurons, to muscle fibers or even to glands.
Nerve cells are composed mainly of cell body, dendrites and axons (Figure 3.10). The cell body
contains the nucleus and is the site of general cell functions. Dendrites and axons are nerve cell
processes. Dendrites usually receive stimuli leading to electrical changes that either increase or
decrease action potentials in the neuron’s axon. Action potentials usually originate at the base of an
axon where it joins the cell body and travel to the end of the axon. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Neuroglia, on the other hand, are supporting cells that do not generate or conduct nerve impulses
but have many other important supportive functions such as nourishment, protection and even
maintenance of temperature for neurons.
Figure 3.10 Nervous Tissue

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan
3B. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

There are many components of the integumentary system. This includes the skin, hair, oil and sweat
glands, nails, and sensory receptors. The skin, or cutaneous membrane, provides covering of the
external surfaces of the body. As its largest organ, skin covers an area of about 2 square meters (22
square feet) and weighs 4.5–5 kg (10–11 lb), about 16% of total body weight.
According to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016), major functions of the integumentary system includes
the following:
1. Protection. The skin serves as the primary defense against offending microorganisms. It
provides a barrier against ultraviolet light and helps maintain fluid inside the body, thus
preventing dehydration.
2. Sensation. Receptors in the skin makes it possible for human organism to perceive pain,
pressure as well as other sensation like temperature changes.
3. Vitamin D production. The body needs Vitamin D to help synthesize calcium absorption,
made possible by the skin’s sufficient exposure to early sunlight.
4. Temperature regulation. The amount of blood flow beneath the skin’s surface and the
activity of sweat glands in the skin both help regulate body temperature.
5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products are lost through the skin and in gland secretions.
3B.1 Skin
The skin is a multilayered organ that consists of two main parts: Epidermis and Dermis
Figure 3. 11 Skin & S ubcutaneous Tissue

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan
& Russo (2016)
• Epidermis, made from keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, is the superficial, thinner
portion of the skin (figure 3.11) that prevents water loss and resists abrasion. This is due to
the process called keratinization, a process where cells undergo changes in shape and
chemical composition to replace worn out cells.
• Dermis instead, is the deeper, thicker and dense connective tissue portion (figure 3.11).
According to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016), the dermis is responsible for most of the skin’s
structural strength.
3B.1.1 Epidermis
The epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. It contains four principal
types of cells: keratinocytes melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells (figure 3.12). Several
distinct layers of keratinocytes in various stages of development form the bulk of the epidermis. This
is called thin skin.
Figure 3.12 Layer and Cells of the Skin

Epidermis has five layers, according to Tortora & Freudenrich (2011) and this section discusses these
layers from the deepest to the most superficial.
• Stratum Basale—also called as the stratum germinatum, is the deepest layer that consists
of either columnar or cuboidal cells aligned in single row. Some cells in this layer are stem cells
undergoing cell division to continually produce keratinocytes. They undergo mitotic divisions
about every 19 days. One daughter cell becomes a new stratum basale cell and can divide again.
The other daughter cell is pushed toward the surface, a journey that takes about 40–56 days. As
cells move to the surface, changes in the cells produce intermediate strata.
• Stratum spinosum— 8 to 10 layers of many-sided keratinocytes that t closely together. This
layer provides strength and flexibility to the skin. Cells in the more superficial portions of this
layer are beginning to flatten.
• Stratum granulosum—3 to 5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing

apoptosis. A distinctive feature of cells in this layer is the presence of the protein keratin and
membrane-enclosed lamellar granules.
• Stratum lucidum—4–6 layers of flattened clear, dead keratinocytes that contain large amounts
of keratin. This layer is found only in the areas of the body (thick skin) where exposure to friction
is greatest (for example, fingertips, palms, soles).
• Stratum corneum—25 to 30 layers of flattened dead cells from the deeper strata. The interior
of the cells contains mostly keratin that aids in its natural strength. Its multiple layers of dead
squamous cells filled with keratin help to protect deeper layers from injury and microbial
invasion. The stratum corneum cells are also coated and surrounded by lipids, which help prevent
fluid loss through the skin. When the skin is subjected to friction, the number of layers in the
stratum corneum greatly increases, producing a thickened area called a callus. Over a bony
prominence, the stratum corneum can thicken to form a cone-shaped structure called a corn.
3B.1.2 Dermis
The dermis is composed of dense collagenous connective tissue containing fibroblasts, adipocytes,
and macrophages. Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, and lymphatic vessels extend into
the dermis (figure 3.11).
Figure 3.13 Cleavage Lines
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by
VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
Structural strength of the dermis solely relies on its collagen and elastic fiber contents making them
durable to body movement. However, collagen fibers runs through different directions making the skin
to have tension lines or cleavage lines. This is also the reason why surgeons needs extra care where
to do their incisions. Another common concern is the presence of stretch marks. If the skin is
overstretched, it produces a damage in the dermis and become stretch marks. (VanPutte, Regan, &
Russo, 2016)
Partition can also be seen in the dermis. The uppermost portion of the dermis is called dermal
papillae. It has a lot of blood vessels that keeps an avenue for providing nutrients, thermoregulation
and elimination of wastes. Moreover, they are aligned in parallels giving way for the presence of
fingerprints and footprints. These nipple-shaped structures project into the undersurface of the
epidermis and can contains blood capillaries, nerve endings for sensory receptors, Corpuscles of touch
or Meissner corpuscle and free nerve endings that helps with sensations of warmth, coolness, pain,
tickling, and itching. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
The deeper part of the dermis, also known as the reticular region, which is attached to the
subcutaneous layer, contains bundles of collagen and some coarse elastic fibers interspersed with
adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, oil glands, and sweat glands. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
3B.1.3 Skin Color
Skin color is caused by pigments such as melanin, hemoglobin and carotene. In the skin, melanin plays
responsible for its pale yellow to reddish brown to black shade. As evident, melanin is quite abundant in
moles and freckles and in certain areas of the body like the nipples and areola. The lips, palms and soles,
have contrariwise low amounts of melanin. Additionally, melanin also protects the body from harmful
effects of ultraviolet rays from the sun.
How does melanin is being produced? In the stratum basale of the epidermis and mucous membranes
all over the body, melanin are being formed by cells called melanocytes. Because the number of
melanocytes is about the same in all people, differences in skin color are due mainly to the amount and
shade of pigment that the melanocytes produce and transfer to keratinocytes.
Carotene, another pigment, produces a yellowish hue brought about by increase intake of carotene-
rich foods such as squash and carrots. These vegetables are actually sources of Vitamin A that found to
be lipid-soluble that accumulates in the adipocytes and subcutaneous tissues. Decreasing consumption
in this case can eliminate the problem.
Consequently, certain conditions alters the skin color and can be attributed to other causes for instance,
pregnant mothers do have increased melanin production causing darkening of areas like nipples, the
genitalia and even more. Paleness and redness like blushing can be credited to the amount of blood
flowing through the skin. Cyanosis, on the other hand, were due to a drop of oxygen saturation in the
blood, producing a bluish discoloration of the skin.
To understand better, here are conditions that displays different skin color variations according to
(Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011). Dark-skinned individuals have large amounts of melanin in the epidermis.
The more melanin that is present, the darker the skin. Light-skinned individuals have little melanin in the
epidermis. Thus, the epidermis appears translucent, and skin color ranges from pink to red, depending
on the oxygen content of the blood moving through capillaries in the dermis. The red color is due to
hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells. Albinism is an inherited trait that causes
individuals to not produce melanin. People affected by albinism are called albinos. Because most
albinos do not have melanin in their hair, eyes, and skin, they need to take extra precautions when
exposed to the sun.
Melanocytes may not be evenly scattered throughout the skin, causing uneven melanin distribution. For
instance, the presence of freckles occurs due to melanin accumulation in patches. A mole or nevus
presents as a round pigmentation brought about by overgrowth of melanocytes. Lastly, when the skin
has portions that has complete or partial absence of melanocytes, irregular white spots are evident. this
condition is termed as vitiligo.
3B.3 Subcutaneous Tissue

Deep to the dermis, but not part of the skin, is the subcutaneous layer. This layer consists of areolar
connective tissue and adipose tissue. Fibers that extend from the dermis anchor the skin to the
subcutaneous layer, which, in turn, attaches to underlying tissues and organs. The subcutaneous layer
serves as a storage depot for fat and contains large blood vessels that supply the skin.
Clinically, subcutaneous tissues are being measured to calculate for an individual’s risks for lifestyle
diseases such as diabetes. The arms are examples of areas where subcutaneous thickness is being
evaluated. Yet, percentage of body fat varies on different population. And individuals who have differing
conditions like pregnancy and pathologic conditions cannot be accounted for this kind estimation.
3B.4 Accessory Skin Structures

Hair, glands, and nails are accessory structures of the integumentary system that develop from the
epidermis of the embryo. Each of these accessory structures performs important functions in the body.
For example, hair and nails protect the body, and sweat glands help regulate body temperature.
3B.4.1 Hair
Hair protects the skin and other structures of the body. Hairs or Pili, are found abundant in almost
every part of the body except for the palms and soles, lips, nipples and parts of the genitalia. The
thickness and pattern of distribution of hair is largely determined by genetic and hormonal influences.
Aside being crowning glory for women, hair was also found beneficial for many reasons. For instance,
hair on the head guards the scalp from injury and the sun’s rays, eyebrows and eyelashes protect the
eyes from foreign particles and hair in the nostrils filters insects and foreign particles to protect the
tissues of the respiratory system.
Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which rests on the hair papilla (figure 3.12). Blood vessels within the
papilla supply the hair bulb with the nourishment needed to produce the hair. Hair is produced in cycles.
During the growth stage, it is formed by epithelial cells within the hair bulb. These cells, like the cells of
the stratum basale in the skin, divide and undergo keratinization. The hair grows longer as these cells
are added to the base of the hair within the hair bulb. Thus, the hair root and shaft consist of columns of
dead keratinized epithelial cells. During the resting stage, growth stops and the hair is held in the hair
follicle. When the next growth stage begins, a new hair is formed and the old hair falls out. The duration
of each stage depends on the individual hair. Hair color is determined by varying amounts and types of
melanin.
Each hair is a thread of fused, dead, keratinized
epidermal cells that consists of a shaft, root, hair

follicle and hair root plexuses (figure 3.14). The
shaft is the superficial portion that projects
above the surface of the skin. The root is the
portion below the surface that penetrates into
the dermis and sometimes into the subcutaneous layer. A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds a
softer center, the medulla. The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a single layer of overlapping cells that
holds the hair in the hair follicle. The hair follicle surrounds the root and is composed of epidermal
cells. Hair root plexuses are nerve endings that surround each hair follicle. They are sensitive to
touch and are stimulated if a hair shaft is moved.
Figure 3.14 Hair Follicle

(a) Hair follicle (b) Enlargement of the hair bulb and hair
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by

VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
Associated with each hair are sebaceous glands and a bundle of smooth muscle cells called arrector
pili to raise, which extends from the upper dermis to the side of the hair follicle. In its normal position,
hair emerges at an angle to the surface of the skin. Under stress, such as cold or fright, nerves stimulate
the arrector pili muscles to contract, which pulls the hair shafts perpendicular to the skin surface.
3B.4.2 Glands
Glands produce secretions that perform a variety of functions. There are two major glands located in the
skin and they are sebaceous and sweat glands.
Sebaceous glands lies in the dermis and open into hair follicles or directly onto the skin. It secretes
sebum as an oily substance that contains lipids and cellular debris. Rich in lipids, they help to soften the
skin, prevents water loss and lubricates skin and hair. However, when sebaceous glands of the face
become enlarged because of accumulated sebum, blackheads develop. Bacteria metabolize the sebum
and form pimples or boils.
The skin of an adult individual contains 3 to 4 million Sweat glands or Sudoriferous Glands as it
appears to be the most numerous of the skin glands. During active movements, the body loses about
500ml of insensible perspiration that doesn’t make the skin feel damp. There are two types of sweat
glands and these are Eccrine and Apocrine.
Eccrine glands produces a transparent, watery fluid called sweat that

contains small amount of potassium, ammonia, lactic acid, uric acid and other
wastes. It is widespread through the body but abundant in the palms, soles, forehead and Figure
3.15 Glands of the Skin *Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology upper torso.
by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
The Apocrine gland is limited to the axillary and pubic regions and produces a thicker sweat often
released during emotional stress. They are compared to scent glands as they respond to stress and
sexual stimulation. It secretes a non-strong odor unless it accumulates on the skin. When this occurs,
bacteria begins to degrade substances in the sweat, resulting to body odor.
3B.4.3 Nails
(a) Dorsal view (b) Lateral view of a sagittal section through the nail. M Figure 3.16 Nail ost of the epidermis is
absent from the nail bed
Nails are plates of tightly packed, hard, dead, keratinized cells of the epidermis. Functionally, nails help
us grasp and manipulate small objects, provide protection to the ends of the fingers and toes, and allow
us to scratch various parts of the body.
Each nail consists of several parts such as nail body, nail root, and nail matrix. The nail body is the
externally visible portion of the nails whereas its nail root is covered and extends to the nail matrix.
The cuticle, or eponychium, is stratum corneum that extends onto the nail body. The nail also
attaches to the underlying nail bed, which is located distal to the nail matrix. The nail matrix and bed
are epithelial tissue with a stratum basale that gives rise to the cells that form the nail. The nail matrix is
thicker than the nail bed and produces most of the nail. A small part of the nail matrix, the lunula, can
be seen through the nail body as a whitish, crescent- shaped area at the base of the nail. Cell production
within the nail matrix causes the nail to grow. Unlike hair, nails grow continuously and do not have a
resting stage. Dividing cells within the nail matrix become keratinized as the nail grows outward. The
average growth of fingernails is about 1 mm (0.04 inch) per week.
Various portions of nails have different colors. For example, the nail body is pink because the blood
vessels of the underlying skin partially show through. The free edge is white because it extends past the
tip of the finger or toe, and there is no underlying tissue. Finally, the lunula is white because the nail is
too thick in this region for any blood vessels to show through.
3B.5 Physiology of the Integumentary System

You may not think much about what the skin does, but it performs essential functions for your health
and well-being. Let’s look at these functions.
SENSATION
The skin is one of our connections to the outside world. Its specialized nerve receptors sense pressure,
pain, changes in temperature, and things we touch. These receptors include mechanoreceptors,
Meissner corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, thermoreceptors, and pain receptors called
nociceptors Although hair does not have a nerve supply, sensory receptors around the hair follicle can
detect the movement of a hair
TEMPERATURE
Our skin helps regulate your body temperature in many ways.
2 2
• Because the skin’s surface area is so large (2 m , or 22 ft ), our body is able to radiate to the
outside air vast amounts of heat that your body has produced.
• The eccrine glands produce sweat to help eliminate heat via evaporation.
• The skin acts as a large reservoir of blood (8%–10% total blood ow). When you are hot,
increased blood flow to the skin delivers more heat to be radiated away and contributes to
higher sweat production. When you are cold, reduced blood flow to the skin conserves body
heat and reduces sweat production.
• When you are cold, arrector pili contract to raise the angle of body hairs and cause goose
bumps. The raised body hair reduces air microcirculation immediately above the skin’s surface.
The reduced air circulation helps impede the loss of body heat via the skin.
• The skin forms a protective barrier for the internal organs. Keratin protects the body from heat,
abrasion, chemicals, and microbes. Keratinocytes resist invasion by microbes, and the
Langerhans cells alert the immune system to the invaders. Furthermore, the skin can usually
repair itself following minor injuries, such as cuts and tears.
PROTECTION
As the largest organ in the body, the integumentary system performs many protective functions. Being
the body’s primary defense, the skin protects the body against invasion of pathogenic microorganisms
as well as extensive water loss. The skin, with its squamous epithelium decreases chances of having
abrasions brought about by friction and trauma whereas protection from harmful effects of ultraviolet
light were afforded by the presence of melanin in the skin.
Hair provides protection in several ways. The hair on the head acts as a heat insulator, eyebrows keep
sweat out of the eyes, eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign objects, and hair in the nose and ears
prevents the entry of dust and other materials. The nails protect the ends of the fingers and toes from
damage and can be used in defense.
VITAMIN D PRODUCTION
A thirty-minute exposure to sunlight in a two-day frequency in a week can provide the body with
adequate Vitamin D. But why bother? Vitamin D plays an important role in calcium homeostasis in the
body. Vitamin D is converted to an active form by reactions in the liver and kidney. Adequate levels of
vitamin D are necessary because active vitamin D stimulates the small intestine to absorb calcium and
phosphate, the substances necessary for normal bone growth and normal muscle function.
ABSORPTION AND EXCRETION

Though minor, the integumentary system also contributes in excretion as well as absorption. Small
amounts of salt, ammonia and urea are being excreted through the sweat glands. And essentially, this
system contributes to absorption of substances such as medication like in the case of transdermal
patches and intradermal implants.
Rizzo, D. C. (2016). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (Fourth ed.). Boston, Massachussetts:
Cengage Learning.
Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011). Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. .
VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology. New York,
New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Anatomy and Physiology by accomplishing the Discussion Board and Quiz in Canvas

1 4 5
The Skeletal System

terminologies for jargons ü Proactively participate in
classroom discussions ü Participate in weekly
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course unit tasks.
Physiology Penn Plaza, New York, New York, McGraw-Hill Education, 10 th Edition
Computer device or smartphone with internet access (at least 54 kbps; average data subscription
will suffice)
Cognitive
• Explain the functions of the skeletal system.

• Describe the components of the extracellular matrix, and explain the function of each.
• Explain the structural differences between compact bone and spongy bone.
• Outline the processes of bone ossification, growth, remodeling, and repair.
• Describe the common features of the Axial Skeleton
• Name and describe the bones that make up the Appendicular Skeleton
Affective
Psychomotor
• Use critical thinking to identify areas of care that could benefit from additional research or
application of evidence-based practices
Appendicular skeleton - Bones making up the limbs, pelvis, and shoulder areas
Articulation - The site of close approximation of two or more bones
Articular cartilage - Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the surface of the epiphysis
Axial skeleton - The skeleton that forms the central supporting axis of the body
Carpal bones - Small bones of the wrist
Condyle - Rounded knob; usually fits into a fossa on another bone to form a joint
Crest - A moderately raised ridge
Diaphysis - The central shaft-like portion of a long bone
Endosteum - Thin epithelial membrane lining the inside of the medullary cavity Epicondyle
- A bump superior to a condyle
Epiphyseal plate - Layer of cartilage separating the epiphysis from the diaphysis at each end
of a long bone It is the site where bone growth occurs
Epiphysis - The head of each end of a long bone
False pelvis - Portion of the pelvis that extends between the edges of the iliac bones
Fontanel - Un-fused area of an infant’s skull
Fossa - A furrow or depression
Foramen - A round opening in a bone, usually a passageway for vessels and nerves
Head - The prominent, expanded end of a bone
Haversian canal - A central canal in compact bone containing blood vessels and nerves;
surrounded by lamellae
Intramembranous ossification - Process in the fetus whereby fibrous connective tissue

evolves into bone
Kyphosis - An exaggerated thoracic curvature
Lacunae - Tiny gaps between rings of lamellae in compact bone

Lamellae - Concentric rings of matrix surrounding Haversian canal in compact bone Meatus -
A tube-like opening
Medullary cavity - The central hollow portion of a long bone that contains bone marrow
Osseous tissue - Bone tissue

Ossification - The creation of new bone
Osteoblast - Bone-forming cell
Osteoclasts - Bone cells that dissolve old or unhealthy bone
Osteocyte - Mature osteoblast
Osteon - Basic structural unit of compact bone consisting of a Haversian canal and surrounding
lamellae
Periosteum - Dense fibrous membrane covering the diaphysis
Process - A projection or raised area
Remodeling - Reshaping or reconstructing part of a bone
Resorption - The destruction of old bone; part of the bone remodeling process
Scoliosis - A lateral curvature of the spine
Sinus: Cavity in the skull filled with air
Spongy bone - Also called cancellous bone. It is found in the ends of long bones and the
middle of most other bones
Sulcus - Groove or elongated depression
Sutures - Immovable joints of the skull
Trabecula - Latticework of osseous tissue that makes up the structure of spongy or cancellous
bone
Trochanter - A large process. It is found only on the femur
True pelvis - Portion of the pelvis that extends between the pelvic brim
Tubercle - A small, rounded process
Tuberosity - A rough, raised bump, usually for muscle attachment
4.1 STRUCTURE AND SKELETAL TISSUES

4.1.1 Extracellular Matrix
The extracellular matrix contains substances that are essential for the make-up of our bones since
the cartilages, tendons, ligaments, and even our bones, are connective tissues. For instance,
collagen, as one of the substances, is a tough and rope-like protein giving our tendons, ligaments
and cartilages great amount of strength like steel bars reinforced in a concrete. The mineral
component, like the concrete itself, gives the bone compression like weight-bearing strength. Most
of the mineral in bone is in the form of calcium phosphate crystals called hydroxyapatite.
Proteoglycans on the other hand, are large molecules consisting of polysaccharides attached to
core proteins, similar to the way needles of a pine tree are attached to the tree’s branches. The
proteoglycans form large aggregates, much as pine branches combine to form a whole tree.
Proteoglycans can attract and retain large amounts of water between their polysaccharide
“needles.” (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
4.1.2 Classification of Bones

Four categories of bone, based on their shape, according to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo,
(2016)
1. Long Bone - are longer than they are wide and have knobby ends where the articulations
form. Long bones are hollow in the middle and more solid on ends. At each ends also
includes a thin layer of hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage, which further
articulates it other bones to form a joint. Their slightly curved structure gives them strength.
Long bones include those of the arms, legs, fingers, and toes. It is covered by dense
connective tissues on the outside called periosteum and a thinner inner lining called
endosteum. Long bones have several parts.
1.1 Diaphysis - shaft or body

1.2 Epiphysis – head of each end of a long bone
1.3 Medullary cavity – marrow cavity or space that contains yellow marrow
2. Short bones - are equal in length and width, making them nearly cube-shaped. Examples
include most bones of the ankles and the wrists.
3. Flat bones - are thin and provide both protection and surfaces for muscle attachments.
The bones of the skull, sternum, and ribs are all at bones.
4. Irregular bones - have complex shapes, such as those of the face and vertebral column.
*illustrations and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutteFigure 4.1 Structure of a Long Bone , Regan &
Russo (2016)
(a) Young long bone-the femur, showing the epiphysis, epiphyseal plates and diaphysis (b) adult long bone with epiphyseal lines. (c) Internal features of
a portion of the diaphysis in (a)
4.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
1. Support - It supports and stabilizes surrounding tissues such as muscles, blood and
lymphatic vessels, nerves, fat, and skin.
2. Protection - It protects vital organs of the body such as the brain, spinal cord, the heart,
and lungs, and it protects other soft tissues of the body.
3. Movement - It assists in body movement by providing attachments for muscles that pull
on the bones that act as levers.
4. Blood cell production - It manufactures blood cells. Red bone marrow, a connective
tissue within bone, produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in a process
called hemopoiesis.
5. Storage - It is a storage area for mineral salts, especially phosphorus and calcium, and
fats. Moreover, Yellow bone marrow within bone is composed mostly of adipose cells,
which store triglycerides (fats). In a newborn, all bone marrow is red, but it eventually
changes into yellow marrow with increasing age.
4.3 DEVELOPMENT
4.3.1 Bone Histology
The periosteum and endosteum contain osteoblasts, which function in the formation of bone, as
well as in the repair and remodeling of bone. When osteoblasts become surrounded by matrix, they
are referred to as osteocytes. Osteoclasts are also present and contribute to bone repair and
remodeling by removing existing bone.
Bone is formed in thin sheets of extracellular matrix called lamellae, with osteocytes located
between the lamellae within spaces called lacunae. Cell processes extend from the osteocytes
across the extracellular matrix of the lamellae within tiny canals called canaliculi.
There are two types of bone tissue and these are compact or dense bone and cancellous or
spongy bone. In both types of tissue, the osteocytes are the same, but the arrangement of how
the blood supply reaches the bone cells is different. The two types of tissue have different functions.
Compact bone is dense and strong, whereas cancellous bone has many open spaces, giving it a
spongy appearance. It is in these spaces that bone marrow can be found.
Compact bone is strong and dense, provides protection and support, and resists
the stresses produced by weight and movement. Compact bone is found beneath the
periosteum of all bones and makes up the bulk of long bones. Compact bone is made of
cylindrical units called osteons. Each osteon consists of concentric lamellae, concentric
layers that surround a central canal, or Haversian canal, containing blood and lymph vessels.
Between the lamellae are spaces called lacunae, which contain osteocytes, and smaller
channels called canaliculi that radiate out from the lacunae. These canaliculi allow nutrients
and wastes to be passed more easily from one osteocyte to another within the osteon.
In contrast to compact bone, spongy bone is lightweight. Spongy bone, also

known as cancellous bone, contains irregular lattices of thin bone columns called
trabeculae. Trabeculae form a supportive framework that is firm but not exceedingly
strong. This tissue must be covered by compact bone or cartilage because it could be
damaged easily if exposed. The spaces between the trabeculae of some bones are filled
with red bone marrow. In such cases, the functions of the trabeculae are to support and
protect the red bone marrow. Spongy bone is found mostly in short, at, and irregular bones.
In long bones, spongy tissue forms the majority of the epiphyses and is also found around
the inner rim of the diaphysis.
4.3.2 Bone Ossification
Bone is formed during ossification and maintained by remodeling. The process of bone formation,
called ossification, occurs in four situations. Initial formation of bones in the embryo and fetus.
Second, bone growth during infancy, childhood, and adolescence prior to adulthood. There is also
bone remodeling, which occurs as old bone tissue is replaced with new bone tissue throughout life.
And lastly, repair of broken bones such as fractures throughout life.
Bones form initially in the embryo by two processes. In the first process, called intramembranous
ossification, bone forms directly from mesenchyme. Intramembranous ossification occurs in the
at bones of the skull, mandible, and clavicle. In the second process, called endochondral
ossification, bone forms within and replaces cartilage.
Intramembranous ossification is the simpler of these two processes.

*illustrations and content tFigure 4aken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte.2 Endochondral Ossification of a
Long Bone, Regan & Russo (2016)
4.3.3 Bone Growth

During infancy, childhood, and adolescence, long bones grow in both length and thickness. The
following section highlight how bones grow in length and in thickness.
Growth in length:
• Within the epiphyseal plate (cartilage) are chondrocytes that divide and form additional
cartilage.
• New chondrocytes form on the epiphyseal side, while the cartilage on the diaphyseal side is
replaced by bone.
• The thickness of the epiphyseal plate remains the same, but the bone lengthens.
• Cartilage growth stops at adulthood, and bone replaces the remaining cartilage to form the
epiphyseal line.
Growth in thickness:
• As the bone lengthens, it also thickens.

• Cells in the perichondrium differentiate into osteoblasts, which secrete extracellular matrix
that calcifies.
• Osteoblasts differentiate into osteocytes as new lamellae are formed.
• Osteoclasts break down the inner surface of the medullary cavity but at a slower rate
than the bone forms on the outer surface. So, the medullary cavity grows in diameter as the
bone thickens.
Figure 4.3 Endochondral Bone Growth

*illustrations and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
4.3.4 Bone Remodeling
Throughout life, bone is constantly made and destroyed in an ongoing process called bone
remodeling. At various stages of life, osteoblasts and osteoclasts regulate bone formation and
bone destruction. During some stages, such as childhood, formation exceeds destruction, allowing
for growth of the skeleton. For a short period of time after ossification processes cease, formation
and destruction are fairly equivalent. As a person ages, destruction often exceeds formation, leading
to bone loss. Rates of remodeling vary depending on the location within the body. The remodeling
process allows for mineral homeostasis, as well as repair of damaged bone tissue.
Remodeling is affected by many factors. Hormones as one of the major factors affect bone
remodeling. For instance, Parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulates osteoclasts whereas and Calcitonin
stimulates formation of osteoblasts. The Human growth hormone (hGH) and Insulinlike growth
factor (IGF) stimulates cartilage and bone growth. And lastly, sex hormones also influence sex-
related differences in skeletal growth. For one, we are indeed aware that certain minerals contribute
to our osseous tissues. These includes availability of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus. This is
congruent to the importance of Vitamins such as Vitamins A, C, and D. but this doesn’t mean that all
depends on the aforementioned factors. This is because our activity level and diet play a major role
on how our body can synthesize these hormones, vitamins and minerals.
4.3.5 Bone Repair

Bones can reform after being fractured (broken). The classification of fractures depends on whether
the bone is splintered (partial), entirely broken (complete), or comminuted. If the broken bone
protrudes through the skin, it is an open fracture. If it remains within the skin, it is a closed
fracture.
Figure 4.4 Bone Repair
*illustrations and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
4.4 DIVISION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Anatomists use several common terms to describe the features of bones. For example, a hole in a
bone is called a foramen. A foramen usually exists in a bone because some structure, such as a
nerve or blood vessel, passes through the bone at that point. If the hole is elongated into a tunnel-
like passage through the bone, it is called a canal or a meatus. A depression in a bone is called a
fossa. A lump on a bone is called a tubercle or a tuberosity, and a projection from a bone is
called a process. Most tubercles and processes are sites of muscle attachment on the bone.
Increased muscle pull, as occurs when a person lifts weights to build up muscle mass, can increase
the size of some tubercles. The smooth, rounded end of a bone, where it forms a joint with another
bone, is called a condyle.
TABLE 4.1 ANATOMICAL TERMS FOR FEATURES OF BONES
TERM DESCRIPTION
Major Features
Body, shaft Main portion
Head Enlarged end
Neck Constricted area between head and body
Condyle Smooth, rounded articular surface
Facet Small, flattened articular surface
Crest Prominent ridge
Process Prominent projection
Tubercle, or tuberosity Knob or enlargement
Trochanter Large tuberosity found only on proximal femur
Epicondyle Enlargement near or above a condyle
Openings or Depressions
Foramen Hole
Canal, meatus Tunnel
Fissure Cleft
Sinus Cavity
Fossa Depression
The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones, while the appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones.
Figure 4.5 Complete Adult Skeleton
*
illustrations and content taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology: A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson
(2015)
Note that in the above picture (figure 4.5), the appendicular skeleton is colored turquoise whereas
the other bones are the axial skeleton.

4.4.1 Axial Skeleton
4.4.1.1 The Skull
4.4.1.1.1 Cranial Bones
The skull, which consists of 22 bones, rests on top of the vertebral column. It has two groups
of bones: 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones. The cranial bones protect the brain and form
attachment points for the meninges on the interior and the muscles that move the head on
the exterior. The facial bones house the openings to the airways and the digestive system,
protect the sensory organs and provide attachments for facial muscles.
• The frontal bone forms the forehead, roofs of the eye sockets, and front part of the cranial
floor. The mucous membrane–lined spaces (frontal sinuses) deep within it resonates sound.
• The parietal bones (2) form the sides and roof of the cranium
• The temporal bones (2) form the lower side of the cranium and part of the cranial floor.
The temporal bones have several features:
• They form joints with the jawbone (mandible) called the temporomandibular joints (TMJ).
• The external auditory meatus is the canal that leads to the middle ear.
• The mastoid process is a point of attachment for some of the muscles involved in head
movement.
• The carotid artery passes through a foramen called the carotid foramen.
• The styloid process serves as a point of attachment for the tongue and neck muscles.
• The occipital bone forms the back part of the skull and most of the cranial floor. The medulla,
spinal cord, and vertebral and spinal arteries all pass through its foramen magnum. The first
cervical vertebra attaches to the occipital bone at two processes called the occipital
condyles.
• The sphenoid bone is in the middle of the cranial floor and is where all the other cranial
bones attach, like the keystone joining two arches to form a doorway. It contains
sphenoidal sinuses, which drain into the nasal cavity. The pituitary gland sits in a
depression of the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica. The optic nerve passes through its
optic foramen, and the mandibular nerve passes through its foramen ovale.
• The ethmoid bone forms the anterior part of the cranial floor, the medial part of the eye
sockets, and superior portions of the nasal cavity. It has 3 to 18 ethmoidal sinuses (air
spaces) and mucus-lined conchae that warm and moisten inhaled air and trap foreign
particles. The crista galli, a ridge on the superior portion of the ethmoid bone, serves as an
attachment point for the meninges. This is surrounded by the cribriform plate through
which the nerves associated with the receptors for smell pass from the nose into the brain.
Figure 4.6 The Skull
*illustrations and content taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011)
4.4.1.1.2 Facial Bones
Your face changes and grows from the time you are born until around age 16. Your teeth
form and erupt, the cranial bones grow, and the paranasal sinuses expand. Your facial bones
include the following:
• Nasal bones (2) form the bridge of the nose.

• Maxillae (2) form the upper jawbone and join with all the other facial bones except the
mandible (lower jawbone):
• Each maxilla has a maxillary sinus that empties into the nasal cavity.
• The alveolar process forms the arch that contains the sockets (alveoli) for the teeth. •
The maxillae form the anterior three-fourths of the roof of the mouth (hard palate).
• Palatine bones (2) form the posterior portion of the hard palate, part of the lower eye
sockets, and part of the floor and the sides of the nasal cavity.
• The mandible is the largest, strongest facial bone and the only one that moves:
• Each condylar process forms a temporomandibular joint with each temporal bone.
• Like the maxillae, the mandible has an alveolar process for the lower teeth.
• The mental foramina are holes that allow passage of the mental nerve. Dentists use
the mental foramina as landmarks to inject anesthetics into the mental nerve.
• Zygomatic bones (2), or cheekbones, form the cheek prominences and part of the
wall of the eye sockets. They form joints with the frontal, maxilla, sphenoid, and
temporal bones.
• Lacrimal bones (2) are the smallest, thinnest bones on the medial eye socket. They
house the tear ducts, which tunnel through to the nasal cavity. This is why your nose
runs when you cry.
• Inferior nasal conchae (2) project into the nasal cavity to filter air before it passes
toward the trachea and lungs.
• The vomer joins with the maxillae and the palatine bones to form the floor of the nasal
cavity. Along with cartilage and the ethmoid bone, the single vomer forms the nasal
septum, which divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides.
4.4.1.1.3 Features of the Skull
The skull has unique features, such as sutures, sinuses, and fontanels (soft spots at birth and
early infancy):
• A suture is a special type of immovable joint that joins most of the skull bones.
There are 4 major sutures in the skull:
• The coronal suture unites the frontal bone and two parietal bones.
• The sagittal suture attaches the two parietal bones.
• The lambdoid suture joins the parietal bones to the occipital bone.
• The squamous sutures seal the parietal bones to the temporal bones.
• Paranasal sinuses are found in the sphenoid, frontal, ethmoid, and maxillary
bones. They produce mucus, lighten the weight of the skull, and serve as echo
chambers, which produce the unique sounds of your voice.
• Fontanels are mesenchyme-filled spaces between the cranial bones of infants at

birth. These soft spots compress as the baby passes through the birth canal. For a
short time after birth, the fontanels also provide room for the brain to grow. Within
the first two years of life, they are replaced by bone via intramembranous
ossification. As the fontanels close, the bones of the skull fuse to form the sutures.
• The hyoid bone is located in the neck, between the mandible and larynx. It is
suspended from the styloid process of each temporal bone by ligaments and
muscle. It supports the tongue, stabilizes the airways, and provides attachment
points for tongue, neck, and pharyngeal muscles.
4.4.1.2 Vertebral Column

The vertebral column (also called the spine, spinal column, or backbone) protects the spinal cord,
supports the head and neck, permits movement, and provides attachment points for the back
muscles, ribs, and pelvis. The vertebral column consists of 26 bones called vertebrae. Vertebrae
have the following general structures.
• The body is the thick, disc-shaped anterior portion that bears weight.
• The vertebral arch extends posteriorly from the body. It consists of two short,
thick processes called pedicles that project backward and join with two at parts
called laminae. The vertebral foramen is an opening through which the spinal cord
passes.
• Seven processes arise from the vertebral arch:

• Spinous process (1) projects from the laminae; it serves as attachment point for
muscles.
• Transverse processes (2) are lateral extensions that serve as attachment points
for muscles.
• Superior articular processes (2) attach to vertebra above.
• Inferior articular processes (2) attach to vertebra below.
The exact shape and structure of the vertebrae vary with the region where they are located:
• Cervical vertebrae (7) are in the neck region. Each cervical vertebra has three
openings (foramina): a larger, central opening (vertebral foramen) for the spinal
cord, and two transverse foramina, passages for blood vessels and nerves.
• Thoracic vertebrae (12) are posterior to the chest cavity and serve as
attachments for the ribs.
• Lumbar vertebrae (5) form the lower back.
• The sacrum consists of 5 fused vertebrae and forms the posterior wall of the
pelvis. Blood vessels and nerves pass through the openings.
• The coccyx, sometimes referred to as the tailbone, consists of 4 fused vertebrae.
Note that the adult vertebral column has four curved regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral.
The curves develop from a single, concave curve in the fetus. When the infant begins holding its
head erect (at approximately three months of age), the cervical curve develops. The lumbar curve
develops later, when the child starts sitting up, standing, and walking. Sometimes, abnormal
curvatures develop in the spine due to uneven growth or weakening of the bones and/or
musculature associated with the spine.
Scoliosis—A lateral curvature that causes

the spine to “lean” to one side more than
the other. This condition is seen more
commonly in females than in males.
Kyphosis—An exaggeration of the thoracic

curve that forms a
“humpback” appearance.
Lordosis—An exaggeration of the lumbar

curve that causes a “sway back.”
Figure 4.7 The Vertebral Curves
Figure 4.8 The Vertebral Column
4.4.1.3 Thoracic Cage
The ribs and sternum form the framework for the thorax. The sternum is made of three parts that
fuse by age 25.
Figure 4.9 The Thorax and Pectoral Girdle
• The manubrium articulates with the collarbone, or clavicle, and the first rib.
• The body articulates with part of the second rib and ribs 3 through 10.
• The xiphoid process is made of cartilage that ossifies by age 40. No ribs attach to this
pointed structure, which rescuers use to locate the proper hand position for
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
The sternum attaches directly to the first through seventh pairs of ribs by a form of hyaline
cartilage called costal cartilage. The remaining pairs of ribs either attach indirectly to the
sternum (pairs 8–12) or do not attach at all (pairs 11–12). Ribs are named based on how they
attach to the sternum; rib pairs 1 through 7 are called true ribs, rib pairs 8 through 12 are
called false ribs, and rib pairs 11 and 12 are referred to as floating ribs. The bones of the
thorax protect the heart and lungs and provide attachment points for muscles, especially those
involved in breathing.
4.4.2 Appendicular Skeleton

4.4.2.1 Pectoral Girdle
The next set of bones in the upper body is the shoulder girdles or pectoral girdles, which attach
the upper limbs to the axial skeleton. The clavicle, or collarbone, attaches to the manubrium of the
sternum and the scapula, or shoulder blade. The coracoid process of the scapula serves as a
point of attachment for muscles and its glenoid cavity forms the shoulder joint with the head of
the humerus (upper arm bone).
4.4.2.2 Upper Limbs

Attached to the scapula is the humerus, the longest bone in the upper body. The humerus has a
rounded head that fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula. The distal end of the humerus attaches
to
the two bones of the forearm, the ulna and radius. The ulna is medial to the radius. The proximal
end of the radius is rounded and articulates with the humerus, to allow approximately 180° of
forearm rotation. Distal to the ulna and radius are the bones of the wrist, the carpals (8 bones),
which are arranged in two rows of 4 bones each. The distal row attaches to the bones of the palm of
the hand (metacarpals), whose distal heads form the knuckles. Finally, the metacarpals attach to
the bones of the fingers, the phalanges. There are 2 phalanges in the thumb and 3 in each finger.
Figure 4.10 The Upper Limb. Wrist and Hand
4.4.2.3 Pelvic girdle
We start our tour of the lower body with the pelvic girdle, which consists of the two hip bones.
The hip bones, also called the coxal bones or os coxa, attach to the sacrum of the vertebral
column posteriorly and with each other anteriorly to form the pubic symphysis. Each coxal bone
is composed of an ilium, an ischium, and a pubis that have fused to form a single unit. Centrally, on
each coxal bone is the acetabulum, the “socket” for the hip joint that articulates with the femur
from the leg.
The bowl-shaped pelvis is formed by the coxal bones, sacrum, and coccyx. The pelvic brim forms
the boundary between the upper pelvis (false pelvis) and the lower pelvis (true pelvis). The false
pelvis is part of the abdomen and contains the urinary bladder and the uterus. The true pelvis
surrounds the pelvic cavity. Blood vessels and nerves to the legs pass through openings in the lower
pelvis called the obturator foramina.
There are a number of structural differences between the male and female pelvis. This is
predominantly because the female must pass the baby through the pelvis during childbirth.
• The angle formed inferior to the pubic bones at the pubic symphysis (pubic arch) is wider in
women (> 90°) than in men (< 90°).
• The pelvic inlet—the superior opening into the bony pelvis—is heart-shaped in males and oval
in females.
• The sacrum is wider and more posteriorly placed in the female than in the male.
4.4.2.4 Lower Limbs

Like the upper limb, the lower limb is composed of a single bone proximally with increasing numbers
of bones as one moves distally. Attached to each coxal bone is a femur (thigh bone), the longest
single bone in the body. Like the humerus, the femur has a rounded, proximal head where it fits into
the acetabulum of the pelvis. The femur bends medially and attaches distally to the patella (knee
cap) and the tibia.
The tibia is the large medial bone of the shin and bears most of the weight. It attaches proximally
with the femur and fibula and distally with the fibula and the talus of the ankle. The patellar
ligament, which holds the patella in place, attaches to the tibia at the tibial tuberosity.
The lateral bone of the shin is called the fibula. The proximal end of the fibula articulates with the
tibia and its rounded distal end and forms a joint with the talus of the ankle. The ankle bones, or
tarsals, consist of 7 bones. Two of these bones, the talus and the calcaneus, are on the posterior
part of the foot. The talus is part of the ankle joint, while the calcaneus forms the heel of the foot.
The rest of the tarsals are anterior to these and attach to the metatarsals.
Figure 4.11 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
The metatarsals (5) are like the metacarpals of the hand. Attached to the metatarsals are the
phalanges (toes), which have a structure similar to the phalanges in the hand. The calcaneus forms
the posterior portion of the foot. The foot has two raised bends, or arches, in it. The longitudinal
arch spreads from anterior to posterior, while the transverse arch goes from side to side. The
arches are flexible and springy. They absorb shocks, distribute body weight over the foot, and
provide leverage while walking.
Figure 4.12 Skeletal of the Foot


Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011). Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. .
VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology. New
York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Anatomy and Physiology by accomplishing the Discussion Board and Quiz in Canvas

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BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

ANPH 111 (Anatomy and Physiology)

ü Read course and unit objectives ü Read study

VanPutte, Cinnamon. Regan, Jennifer. Russo, Andrew (2016). Seeley’s Essentials of

Anatomy - study of the structures of the body

Figure 1.1 Levels of Organization for the Human Body

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

1.4.2 Metabolism - is all of the chemical reactions taking place in an organism. It

1.4.3 Responsiveness – is simply the capability to react or adjust to whether a

1.4.4 Growth – an increase in number or length. In the human body, growth is an

Figure 1.4 Homeostasis

1. A receptor monitors the controlled condition and sends information (input) to a

1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN

Figure 1.6 Body Parts and Regions (anterior view)

Figure 1.7 Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Figure 1.8 Abdominopelvic Regions and some Organs

Figure 1.10 Planes of Section through an Organ

Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan

Figure 1.12 Location of Serous Membranes

Rizzo, D. C. (2016). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (Fourth ed.). Boston,

Thompson, G. S. (2015). Understanding Anatomy & Physiology: A Visual, Auditory, Interactive

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

ü Read course and unit objectives ü Read

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - Large polymer of a nucleotide that carries the

Diffusion - A passive transport mechanism that involves the movement of particles

Hydrostatic pressure - Pressure exerted by water

Hypertonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a higher concentration of solutes

Hypotonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a lower concentration of solutes

Isotonic - Pertains to a solution in which the concentration of solutes in the solution

Mitochondria - Organelle that converts organic compounds into ATP

Plasma membrane - The external boundary of the cell

Polymer - Large molecule consisting of many smaller molecules joined in sequence

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - Nucleotide that assists in protein synthesis

Ribosomes - Granules of protein and RNA scattered throughout the cytoplasm;

2.1 CELL AND ITS FUNCTIONS

2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

• The plasma membrane, or cell membrane, defining boundaries with gate-like

2.3 CELL MEMBRANE

2.4 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES

Organelles Location Function/s

Ribosomes In the cytoplasm Site of protein synthesis

Contains materials produced in the cell; formed by the Golgi

Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP synthesis

Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division and forms

On the cell surface with many

On the sperm cell surface with

Extensions of cell surface with

Figure 2.3 Nucleus

2.4.3 Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Figure 2.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum

2.4.4 Golgi Apparatus and Secretory Vesicle

Figure2.5 Golgi Apparatus

2.4.7 Cytoskeleton and Microtubules

2.4.8 Centrosome and Centrioles

2.4.9 Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli

2.5 CELL TRANSPORT

Intracellular fluid - inside the cell

Extracellular fluid - outside the cell

Plasma – fluid within a blood vessel

Lymph – fluid within lymphatic vessel

Cerebrospinal fluid – fluid that surrounds brain and spinal cord

Solute – a substance that is being dissolved in the various fluids

Solvent – a. fluid or gas in which solute is being dissolved