Chapter 3

The Nature of Aerodynamic

Forces

1 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 2.Applications of Bernoulli’s
Equation:
Measurement of Airspeed

2 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation:
Measurement of Airspeed
(A) Incompressible Flow M< 0.3

Airflow over airfoil

• Consider the airflow over the airfoil as

shown in figure.

3 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Assume that the airflow velocity v1 is
required to be measured.
• Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2
(point 2 at the nose of the airfoil):
p1 + (1/2) ρ v12 = po

Where po is the total (stagnation) pressure

and p1 is the static pressure.
Thus, if we measure the pressure difference
(po-p1), the velocity v1 can be obtained.
4 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• po can be measured by a tube called Pitot
tube as shown in figure.

Pitot tube

5 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Sketch of a Pitot tube

6 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• The pressure gauge may be a U-tube
manometer as shown in Fig.
po = p1
patm = p2

Force diagram for U-tube manometer

• Thus, if the Pitot tube is connected to one
side of the manometer and the other side is
left opened to the atmosphere where the
pressure is patm :
7 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Then po – patm = ρm g ∆h

or po = patm + ρm g ∆h

• P1 also can be measured by a tube called

static-tube, as shown in Fig.
• Thus, if the Static tube is connected to one
side of the manometer and the other side is
left opened to the atmosphere where the
pressure is patm:
• Then patm - p1 = ρm g ∆h
or p1 = patm - ρm g ∆h
8 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
9 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
♦ Pitot-Static tube
• The Pitot-static tube is a combined tube of
Pitot tube and Static tube, as shown in Fig.
• The Pitot-static tube measures the difference
po – p1.
• Also, the Pitot-static tube can measure po
and p1 separately.

10 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Pitot-static tube

Po – p1 = ρm g ∆h

11 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Airspeed indicators
• The airspeed of an airplane means its
speed relative to the air.
• Either a Pitot tube or a Pitot-static tube
can be used to measure the airspeed of
airplanes.
• Such tubes are mounted near the wing
tips (see figure).

12 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
13 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• If a Pitot tube is used, the ambient static
pressure in the atmosphere around the
airplane is obtained from a static
pressure orifice (ports) placed on the
fuselage between the nose and the wing.
• The values of po obtained from the wing
tip Pitot tube and p obtained from the
static pressure orifice on the surface
enable the calculation of airplane true
airspeed from the equation:

14 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 where ρ is density of air in the atmosphere
around the airplane.
• Note ρ varies with the altitude of the airplane.
# What is the airspeed indicator?
• An airspeed indicator is a flight instrument
that displays the airspeed, as shown in Fig.
• The airspeed indicator is a dial in the cockpit,
with units of velocity, say km/hr or mile/hr.
15 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Airspeed indicator

16 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
17 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• The airspeed indicator subtracts the static
pressure p from the total pressure po
supplied by the Pitot tube.
• The chamber of the airspeed indicator is
flooded with static pressure.
• The diaphragm expands or contracts due
to Pitot (total) pressure.
• The airspeed pointer deflects according to
the difference between the two pressures
(dynamic pressure).
• The problem now how to measure ρ
18 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• The measurement of atmospheric density ρ
at the airplane’s location is difficult, since ρ
varies with the altitude.
• This problem is solved by calibrating all
speed indicators assuming that the density is
the standard sea-level value ρs .
• This gives a velocity called equivalent
airspeed Ve or calibrated airspeed VCAL :

VCAL =

19 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Note that: vtrue > ve
or, ve = vtrue (ρ/ρs)1/2

(B) Subsonic flow 0.3 < M < 1

• This is the flight regime of commercial jet
transport aircaft such as the Boeing 747
and the McDonnel-Douglas Dc-10.
• Bernoulli’s equation for compressible flow
is applied for measuring the airspeed of
the airplane in this case.

20 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• From compressible Bernoulli’s equation:
[γ/γ-1] p1/ρ1 + v12/2 = [γ/γ-1] po/ρo
Then : v12 = 2 [γ/γ-1] [ po/ρo – p1/ρ1 ]
• From the equation of state for perfect gas;
p/ρ = R T
• Substitute: v12 = 2 [γ/γ-1] [ RTo – RT1 ]
Or : v12 = [2 γ RT1 /(γ-1) ] [To/T1 – 1 ] [1]
• But from the isentropic relations:
To/T1 = ( po/p1) γ-1/ γ

21 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• And the sonic speed a12 = γ RT1
• Substitute into Eq.[1] :
[2]

• Eq.[2] gives the true airspeed v1 of the

airplane
or [3]

• Where M1 is the Mach number.

22 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Thus, individual measurements of po and
p1 in conjunction with Eq.[3] can be used
to calibrate an instrument in the cockpit of
an airplane called a Mach meter.
• The dial of the Mach meter reads directly
the flight Mach number of the airplane.
• Eq.[2] can be rearranged algebraically as:

[4]

• Eqs.(2) and (4) give the true airspeed of

the airplane.
23 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• However, they require a measurement of T1
and then calculation of a1.
• The measurement of static temperature T1 at
the airplane’s location is difficult, since T1
varies with the altitude.
• This problem is solved by calibrating all
speed indicators assuming that a1 is equal to
the standard sea-level value as = 340.3 m/s.
• Moreover, the airspeed indicator is designed
to sense actual pressure difference (po-p1)
in Eq.[4], not the pressure ratio po/p1 in [2]
24 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Hence, the form of Eq.[4] is used to define a
calibrated airspeed Vcal as follows:

[5]

• Where as and ps are the standard sea-level

values of speed of sound and static
pressure respectively:
as = 340.3 m/s and
ps= 1.01325 x 105 N/m2

25 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 3- Calculation of Shear Stress
Distribution

26 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
Newton’s Theory
● In general, in any fluid flow, layers move at
different velocities and the shear stress
between the layers, which opposes any
applied force, arises from the fluid’s
viscosity
●Newton postulated that, for straight
parallel flow, the shear stress,τ, between
layers is proportional to the velocity
gradient, du/dy, in the direction
perpendicular to the layers:
27 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
28 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Effect of viscosity is confined to a very thin
region adjacent to the surface of the airfoil,
and this region is called boundary layer, as
shown in Fig.

Shear stress at the wall

29 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Shear stress at the surface of airfoil is
(τ)y=0 = τw = µ(du/dy)y=0

-Shear stress causes a skin friction drag

on an airplane.
-The drag due to skin friction is called skin
friction drag..
30 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 For air at standard sea-level conditions :

31 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Calculation of depends on

whether the airflow is laminar or turbulent.

• Laminar Flow
• In laminar flow the streamlines are smooth
and regular.
• Fluid element moves smoothly along a
streamline.
• There is no mass or momentum transfer
between adjacent layers.
• Laminar flow occurs at low Re, i.e. at high
viscosity µ.
32 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Re = Reynolds number = ρ v∞ L /µ
= Inertia Force/Viscous Force

33 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Turbulent Flow
• In turbulent flow the streamlines break up.
• Fluid element move in a random and
irregular fashion.
• There are mass and momentum transfer
between adjacent fluid layers.
• Turbulent flow occurs at high Re, i.e. at
high velocity and/or low viscosity.

34 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
35 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Comparison of laminar and turbulent

δT > δL and (wall shear stress)T > (wall shear stress)L

36 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Based on the theory of boundary layer
results for airflow over flat plate at zero
angle of attach / thin streamlined body
only we have :
• Laminar Flow
1-Local wall shear stress

37 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
2- Total Skin Friction Drag Coefficient Cf
• Consider a flat plate of length L and unit
width ,as shown in Fig

• On one side,friction drag on infinitesimally

small element dS = (1) dx is dDf , where
dDf = τw(x) dS = τw(x) dx (1)

38 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• The total skin friction drag on one side is

• Substituting for :

• Then,

or,

39 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Define a total drag coefficient Cf as

• Where S is the total area of the plate

S = L (1)
• Thus,

or
based on ReL

40 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
• Turbulent Flow
1-Local wall shear stress

Tw = f(x) = 0.0592 q∞ / Rex0.2

2- Total Skin Friction Drag Coefficient Cf

41 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 4- Scope of Aerospace
Engineering

42 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Scope of Aerospace Engineering
• Aerospace engineering means airplane,
missiles (Rockets), and satellite design,
manufacturing, testing, maintaining,
repairing, overhauling, and performance
analysis
• The Main Topics of A.E. are:
(1) Aerodynamics
(2) Airframe Design
(3) Propulsion
(4) Flight Mechanics & Control

43 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
■ The Associated Topics are:
►Flight navigation
►Electronics ( + Flight navigation = Avionics )
►Meteorology
►Metallurgy
►Production Engineering
►Fluid-power engineering (pneumatic,
hydraulic, pressurization, and air-
conditioning
systems)
►Instrumentation
►Chemical & fuel engineering
►Flight regulations & Airworthiness

44 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Aerodynamics
●Aerodynamic design of the flight vehicle/space
vehicle for:
►Maximum lift production
►Minimum drag
►Max. available space for structure and
payload
●Determination of the aerodynamic forces on
the designed configuration at the different
flight conditions (speed, attitude, and altitude)
● Wind-tunnel testing
●Flight testing
45 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Propulsion
●Power-plant design & construction for:
►Max. thrust/weight of engine
►Max. thrust/drag of engine
►Min. specific fuel consumption (sfc)
►Good performance at different altitudes
and speeds of flight
●Power-plant manufacturing
●Power-plant testing

46 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Airframe Design(Structure)
●Structural analysis
●Airframe design & construction for:
sufficient strength and with less weight
●Airframe manufacturing techniques
●Airframe testing techniques

47 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
 Flight Mechanics & Control

●Stabilizing and control surfaces design

●Control surfaces operation and
performance
●Aircraft stability analysis
●Maneuverability considerations
●Airplane systems and instrumentation

48 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo University