UNIT - 4 NOTES: - BATTERIES

Basics of Batteries
4.Battery:
A battery is a device that stores chemical energy, and converts it to electricity. This is known
as electrochemistry and the system that supports a battery is called an electrochemical cell. A
battery can be made up of one or several electrochemical cells. While charging a battery cell,
electrical energy is converted to chemical energy and is stored. While discharging, the
electrical energy is delivered to the connected load.

To understand, the working of battery, we must know about electricity. Most simply,
electricity is a type of energy produced by the flow of electrons. In an electrochemical cell,
electrons are produced by a chemical reaction that happens at one electrode and then they
flow over to the other electrode where they are used up.

4.1Parts of Battery:

Each electrochemical cell consists of two electrodes separated by an electrolyte. Two main
parts of the battery are Electrodes and Electrolytes. Electrodes are of two types -
positive(Cathode) and negative(Anode).Fig.1 below shows the battery and its parts.

Fig1.Basic Structure of Battery

Electrodes:
An electrode is an electrical conductor that makes contact with the non-metallic circuit
parts of a circuit, called an electrolyte.

The electrode from which electrons flow from is called Anode. i. e Negative electrode. At the
anode, the electrode reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction that produces electrons. These
electrons accumulate at the anode

The electrode to which electrons flow to is called Cathode.i.e. Positive electrode., At the
cathode, another chemical reaction occurs simultaneously that enables that electrode to accept
electrons.

The technical chemical term for a reaction that involves the exchange of electrons is a
reduction-oxidation reaction, more commonly called a redox reaction. The entire reaction can
be split into two half-reactions, and in the case of an electrochemical cell, one half-reaction
occurs at the anode, the other at the cathode. Reduction is the gain of electrons, and is what
occurs at the cathode; we say that the cathode is reduced during the reaction. Oxidation is the
loss of electrons, so we say that the anode is oxidised

Electrolyte
An electrolyte can be a liquid, gel or a solid substance, but it must be able to allow the
movement of charged ions.

Electrons have a negative charge, and as we’re sending the flow of negative electrons around
through our circuit, we need a way to balance that charge movement. The electrolyte provides
a medium through which charge-balancing positive ions can flow.

As the chemical reaction at the anode produces electrons, to maintain a neutral charge
balance on the electrode, a matching amount of positively charged ions are also produced.
These don’t go down the external wire (that’s for electrons only!) but are released into the
electrolyte.

At the same time, the cathode must also balance the negative charge of the electrons it
receives, so the reaction that occurs here must pull in positively charged ions from the
electrolyte (alternatively, it may also release negative charged ions from the electrode into the
electrolyte).

So, while the external wire provides the pathway for the flow of negatively charged electrons,
the electrolyte provides the pathway for the transfer of positively charged ions to balance the
negative flow. This flow of positively charged ions is just as important as the electrons that
provide the electric current in the external circuit we use to power our devices. The charge
balancing role they perform is necessary to keep the entire reaction running.
4.2.1 Series Connections:
Series connections involve connecting 2 or more batteries together to increase the voltage of
the battery system but keeps the same amp-hour rating. Keep in mind in series connections
each battery needs to have the same voltage and capacity rating, or you can end up damaging
the battery. To connect batteries in series, you connect the positive terminal of one battery to
the negative of another until the desired voltage is achieved. When charging batteries in
series, you need to utilize a charger that matches the system voltage.

In the image below, there are four 12V batteries connected in series which turns this battery
bank into a 48V system. You can also see that the bank still has a total capacity rating of 100
Ah.

Fig2. Series Connection of battery

4.2.2 Parallel Connections:

Parallel connections involve connecting 2 or more batteries together to increase the amp-
hour capacity of the battery bank, but your voltage stays the same. To connect batteries in
parallel, the positive terminals are connected together via a cable and the negative terminals
are connected together with another cable until you reach your desired capacity.

A parallel connection is not meant to allow your batteries to power anything above its
standard voltage output, but rather increase the duration for which it could power equipment.
It’s important to note that when charging batteries that are connected in parallel, the increased
amp-hour capacity may require a longer charge time.

In the example below, we have three 12V batteries, but you see the amp-hours increase to
300 Ah.

Fig3. Parallel Connection of battery

4.3 Primary Batteries and Secondary Batteries

There are two basic types of battery (i) Primary Battery(ii) Secondary battery. Primary
batteries are non-reversible. The secondary batteries are reversible.

Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries

Primary batteries are not rechargeable. They
are discarded after discharge.
Applications: Toys, Flashlights, Watches,
Clocks, Hearing aids, Radios
Secondary batteries store energy in charge
state and release it whenever required at
required level.
Applications: Cellular phones, power tools,
and cars.

It has no fluids in the cells hence it is also
called as dry cells
It has high internal resistance
It has an irreversible chemical reaction
Its design is smaller and lighter
It can be used only once
Its initial cost is cheap
EX: Dry cell
There are made up of wet cells (flooded and
liquid cells) and molten salt (liquid cells
with different composition)
It has a low internal resistance
It has a reversible chemical reaction
Its design is more complex and heavier
It can be used more than once
Its initial cost is high
Ex: Ni-cd, LiMno2, Lead acid

4.4 Terms Used in context of Battery Technology

Battery Condition
This section describes some of the variables used to describe the present condition of a
battery.

 State of Charge (SOC)(%) – An expression of the present battery capacity as a

percentage of maximum capacity. SOC is generally calculated using current
integration to determine the change in battery capacity over time.

 Depth of Discharge (DOD) (%) – The percentage of battery capacity that has been
discharged expressed as a percentage of maximum capacity. A discharge to at least
80 %DOD is referred to as a deep discharge.

 Terminal Voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery terminals with load
applied. Terminal voltage varies with SOC and discharge/charge current.

 Open-circuit voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery terminals with no
load applied. The open-circuit voltage depends on the battery state of charge,
increasing withstate of charge.

 Internal Resistance – The resistance within the battery, generally different for
charging and discharging, also dependent on the battery state of charge. As internal
resistance increases, the battery efficiency decreases and thermal stability is reduced
as more of the charging energy is converted into heat.
Battery Technical Specifications
This section explains the specifications you may see on battery technical specification
sheetsused to describe battery cells, modules, and packs.

 Nominal Voltage (V) – The reported or reference voltage of the battery, also
sometimesthought of as the “normal” voltage of the battery.

 Cut-off Voltage – The minimum allowable voltage. It is this voltage that

generallydefines the “empty” state of the battery.

 Capacity or Nominal Capacity (Ah for a specific C-rate) – The coulometric

capacity, the total Amp-hours available when the battery is discharged at a
certain discharge current (specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge
to the cut-offvoltage. Capacity is calculated by multiplying the discharge current
(in Amps) by the discharge time (in hours) and decreases with increasing C-rate.

 Energy or Nominal Energy (Wh (for a specific C-rate)) – The “energy capacity” of
the battery, the total Watt-hours available when the battery is discharged at a certain
discharge current (specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge to the cut-
off voltage. Energy is calculated by multiplying the discharge power (in Watts) by
the discharge time (in hours). Like capacity, energy decreases with increasing C-rate.

 Cycle Life (number for a specific DOD) – The number of discharge-charge cycles
the battery can experience before it fails to meet specific performance criteria. Cycle
life is estimated for specific charge and discharge conditions. The actual operating
life of the battery is affected by the rate and depth of cycles and by other conditions
such as temperature and humidity. The higher the DOD, the lower the cycle life.

 Energy Density (Wh/L) – The nominal battery energy per unit volume,
sometimes referred to as the volumetric energy density. Specific energy is a
characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. Along with the energy
consumption of the vehicle, it determines the battery size required to achieve a
given electric range.

 Power Density (W/L) – The maximum available power per unit volume. Specific
power is a characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the
battery size required to achieve a given performance target.

 Maximum Continuous Discharge Current – The maximum current at which the

battery can be discharged continuously. This limit is usually defined by the battery
manufacturer in order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage the
battery or reduce its capacity. Along with the maximum continuous power of the
motor, this defines the top sustainable speed and acceleration of the vehicle.

 Charge Voltage – The voltage that the battery is charged to when charged to full
capacity. Charging schemes generally consist of a constant current charging until
the battery voltage reaching the charge voltage, then constant voltage charging,
allowing thecharge current to taper until it is very small.
  Float Voltage – The voltage at which the battery is maintained after being charge to
100percent SOC to maintain that capacity by compensating for self-discharge of the
battery.

4.5 Battery Testing and Performance

Testing is designed to verify the performance of the individual cells and batteries.
Some typical characteristics, which are analysed during testing are, State of Charge, Depth of
discharge, cycle life and etc.

Indirect Measurements
Although all of the cell parameters the design engineer may wish to measure can be
quantified by direct measurement, this is not always convenient or possible. For example, the
amount of charge left in the battery, the State of Charge (SOC) can be determined by fully
discharging the battery and measuring the energy output. This takes time, it wastes energy,
each test cycle shortens the battery life and it may not be practical if the battery is in use. It
would also be pointless for a primary cell.
Similarly, the remaining life of a secondary cell can be determined by continuously cycling it
until it fails, but there's no point in knowing the cell life expectation if you have to destroy it
to find out. This is known as the State of Health (SOH) of the battery.
What is needed are simple tests or measurements which can be used as an approximation to,
or indirect measure of, the desired parameter, because of this we are going for Indirect
measurements.

Some of the indirect measurement tests conducted in battery to verify its performance are
explained below.

4.5.1.Qualification Testing
Qualification testing is designed to determine whether a cell or battery is fit for the purpose
for which it was intended before it is approved for use in the product. This is particularly
important if the cell is to be used in a "mission critical" application. These are comprehensive
tests carried out initially on a small number of cells including testing some of them to
destruction if necessary.
As a second stage, qualification also includes testing finished battery packs before the
product is approved for release to the customer. The tests are usually carried out to verify that
the cells meet the manufacturer's specification but they could also be used to test the cells to
arbitrary limits set by the applications engineer to determine how long the cells survive under
adverse conditions or unusual loads, to determine failure modes or safety factors.

The battery packs should also be tested with the charger recommended for the application to
ensure compatibility. In particular the potential user patterns must be evaluated to ensure that
the batteries do not become inadvertently overcharged. The important qualifications testing
are Load testing and cycle testing and are discussed below.
Load Testing
Load testing is used to verify that the battery can deliver its specified power when needed.
The schematic of the same is shown in Fig.5 below.
The load is usually designed to be representative of the expected conditions in which the
battery may be used. It may be a constant load at the C rate or pulsed loads at higher current
rates or in the case of automotive batteries, the load may be designed to simulate a typical
driving pattern. Low power testing is usually carried out with resistive loads. For very high-
power testing with variable loads other techniques may be required.

Fig:5 Schematic of load testing

Cycle Testing
This is perhaps the most important of the qualification tests. Cells are subjected to repeated
charge - discharge cycles to verify that the cells meet or exceed the manufacturer's claimed
cycle life. Cycle life is usually defined as the number of charge - discharge cycles a battery
can perform before its nominal capacity falls below 80% of its initial rated capacity. These
tests are needed to verify that the battery performance is in line with the end product
reliability and lifetime expectations and will not result in excessive guarantee or warranty
claims. Temperature, charge/discharge rates and the Depth of Discharge each have a major
influence on the cycle life of the cells. Depending on the purpose of the tests, the temperature
and the DOD should be controlled at an agreed reference level in order to have repeatable
results which can be compared with a standard. Alternatively, the tests can be used to
simulate operating conditions in which the temperature is allowed to rise, or the DOD
restricted, to determine how the cycle life will be affected.

Similarly cycle life is affected by overcharging and over discharging and it is vital to set the
correct voltage and current limits if the manufacturer's specification is to be verified.

4.5.2. Shake and Bake

 Mechanical Testing
Typical tests are included in the safety standards below. They include simple tests
for dimensional accuracy to dynamic testing to verify that the product can survive
any static and dynamic mechanical stresses to which it may be subject.
  Environmental Testing
Typical tests are included in the safety standards below. They are designed to
exercise the product through all the environmental conditions likely to be
encountered by the product during its lifetime.

Abuse Testing
The purpose of abuse testing is to verify that the battery is not a danger to the user or to itself
either by accidental or deliberate abuse under any conceivable conditions of use. Designing
fool proof batteries is ever more difficult because as we know, fools are so ingenious.
Abuse testing (always interesting to witness) is usually specified as part of the Safety Testing
(below). Recent accidents with Lithium cells have highlighted the potential dangers and
stricter battery design rules and a wider range of tests are being applied as well as
stricter Transport Regulations for shipping the products.

Safety Standards of battery:

Consumer products normally have to comply with national or international Safety
Standards required by the safety organisations of the countries in which the products are sold.
Examples are UL, ANSI, CSA and IEC standards. Some of the safety standard tests carried
out and its purposes are listed below in Table.1
Typical contents

Safety Tests

Casing
 Strength, rigidity and Failsafe electronics
flammability
 Mould stress (Temperature) Marking
 Venting Instructions for use
 Insulation Safety instructions
 Electrolyte not under pressure
 No leakage Mechanical tests
 No explosion or fire risk  Crush tests
 Nail penetration tests
Protection from or tolerance to  Shock test
 Short circuit  Vibration test
 Overcharge (time)  Impact test
 Overcharge (voltage)  Drop test
 Over-discharge
 Voltage reversal Environmental tests
 High temperature  Heating
 Low temperature  Temperature cycling
 Misuse  Altitude
 Abuse  Humidity
 Exposure to fire
Power output - Load test

Table.1
The published safety standards specify the method of testing and the limits with which the
product must comply.

C- rates

4. 6 C- rates – A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged relative to its
maximum capacity. A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire
battery in 1 hour. For a battery with a capacity of 100 Amp-hrs, this equates to a discharge
current of 100 Amps. A 5C rate for this battery would be 500 Amps, and a C/2 rate would be
50 Amps.

Significance of C-rate

Charge and discharge rates of a battery are governed by C-rates. The capacity of a battery is
commonly rated at 1C, meaning that a fully charged battery rated at 1Ah should provide 1A
for one hour. The same battery discharging at 0.5 C should provide 500mA for two hours,
and at 2C it delivers 2A for 30 minutes. Losses at fast discharge reduce the discharge time
and these losses also affect charge times.

A C-rate of 1C is also known as a one -hour discharge;0.5C or C/2 is a two -hour discharge
and 0.2C or C/5 is a 5-hour discharge. Some high-performance batteries can be charged and
discharged above 1C with moderate stress. Table .1, illustrates typical times at various C-
rates.

The capacity, or the amount of energy a battery can hold, can be measured with a battery
analyzer. The analyser discharges the battery at a calibrated current while measuring the time
until the end-of-discharge voltage is reached. For lead acid, the end-of -discharge voltage is
reached. For lead acid, the end -of -discharge is typically 1.75V/cell and for Li-ion 3.0V/Cell.
If a 1Ah battery provides 1A for one hour, an analyzer displaying the results in percentage of
the nominal rating will shoe 100 percent. If the discharge lasts 30 minutes before reaching the
end-of -discharge cut-off voltage, then the battery has a capacity 0f 50 percent. A new battery
is sometimes overrated and can produce more tan 100 percent capacity. Others are underrated
and never reach 100 percent, even after priming.

When discharging a battery with a battery analyser capable of applying different C rates, a
higher C rate will produce a lower capacity reading and vice versa. By discharging the 1Ah
battery at the faster 2C rate, or 2A,the battery should ideally deliver full capacity in 30
minutes. The sum should be the same since the identical amount of energy is dispensed over
a shorter time. In reality, internal losses turn some of the energy into heat and lower the
resulting capacity to about 95 percent or less. Discharging the same battery at0.5C, or 500mA
over 2 hours, will likely increase the capacity to above 100 percent.

To obtain a reasonably good capacity reading, manufacturers commonly rate alkaline and
lead acid batteries at a very low 0.05C, or a 20-hour discharge. Even at this slow discharge
rate, lead acid seldom attains a 100 percent capacity as the batteries are overrated.
Manufacturers provide capacity to adjust for the discrepancies if discharged at higher C rate
than specified. Figure.5 illustrates the discharge times of a lead acid battery at various loads
expressed in C-rate.
Table.2, C rates and servicing times when charging and discharging of 1Ah battery

C-rate Time
5C 12 min
2C 30 min
1C 1h
0.5 Cor C/2 2h
0.2C or C/5 5h
0.1C or C/10 10h
0.05C orC/20 20h

4.6.1Problems for understanding C rate.

1. Calculate how much (i) current (ii) hours (iii) minutes, a battery with 2300Ah
capacity with 0.5C rate can supply.

2300mAh Battery.
Current rating of the battery: 2300mAh / 1000 = 2.3A.
(i) 0.5C x 2.3A = 1.15A can supply
(i) 1 / 0.5C = 2 hours.
(ii) 60 / 0.5C = 120 minutes.

2.Calculate how much (i) current (ii) hours (iii) minutes, a battery with 2300Ah capacity
with 2C rate can supply.
2300mAh Battery.
Current rating of the battery: 2300mAh / 1000 = 2.3A.
(i) 2C x 2.3A = 4.6A available.
(ii)1 / 2C = 0.5 hours. =1/2 hours
(iii)60 / 2C = 30 minutes
 Fig.6,Typical discharge curve of Lead -acid battery as a function of C-rate

4.7 Typical Charge and Discharge Curves

Charge Curve:
Voltage. Starting with a battery which has been discharged until its voltage has decreased to
1.7 per cell, we pass a current through it and cause the voltage to rise steadily. Fig. 6 shows
the changes in voltage during charge. Ordinarily the voltage begins to rise immediately and
uniformly. If, however, the battery has been left in a discharged condition for some time, or
has been "over discharged," the voltage rises very rapidly for a fraction of the first minute of
charge and then drops rapidly to the normal value and thereafter begins to rise steadily to the
end of the charge. This rise at the beginning of the charge is due to the fact that the density of
the acid in the pores of the plates rises rapidly at first, the acid thus formed being prevented
from diffusing into the surrounding electrolyte by the coating of sulphate. As soon as this
sulphate is broken through, diffusion takes place and the voltage drops.
As shown in Fig. 6, the voltage remains almost constant between the points M and N. At N
the voltage begins to rise because the charging chemical reactions are taking place farther and
farther in the inside parts of the plate, and the concentrated acid formed by the chemical
actions in the plates is diffusing into the main electrolyte. This increases the battery voltage
and requires a higher charging voltage.

At the point marked 0, the voltage begins to rise very rapidly. This is due to the fact that the
amount of lead sulphate in the plates is decreasing very rapidly, allowing the battery voltage
to rise and thus increasing the charging voltage. Bubbles of gas are now rising through the
electrolyte.

At P, the last portions of lead sulphate are removed, acid is no longer being formed, and
hydrogen and oxygen gas are formed rapidly. The gas forces the last of the concentrated acid
out of the plates and in fact, equalizes the acid concentration throughout the whole cell. Thus,
no further changes can take place, and the voltage becomes constant at R at a voltage of 2.5
to 2.7.

Discharge Curve:
Discharge Voltage – the amount of battery voltage available at any given point while the
battery is discharging.

The voltage of a battery gradually decreases as it discharges. The rate of this decrease
depends on the device it is powering and the battery chemistry. The voltage in sealed lead
acid batteries, for example, tends to decrease gradually, but visibly. In a lithium-ion battery,
the decrease is extremely small until the unit is almost flat at which point the voltage falls off
very quickly.

Fig.8, Discharge Curve of Lead -acid battery

In the above Fig .8 we can see how the voltage decreases in one particular 12-volt 26 Ah
sealed lead acid battery as it is discharged under different loads from 75amps to 1.3 amps.
(Note every battery model has its own discharge characteristic). The left most blue line shows
the battery response when it is connected to a 78 Amp device. In the first minute the voltage
drops to just below 12, then gradually decreases over the next 4 minutes before rapidly falling
away as the battery’s power is exhausted.

Simple battery charging circuit

Block diagram:

Fig. 1 Block diagram of a battery charging circuit

Charging and discharging processes are two modes of operations of a battery. Performance of
a battery depends on the working of a charging circuit. Battery chargers are as important as
batteries connected to it. All battery chargers feed electric current for a period of time until
the batteries indicate completely charged. Batteries are charged with DC supply. In case of
AC supply rectifiers are used for the conversion from AC-DC and the process is called
rectification. The rectified output is then used to feed the batteries. Number of batteries
connected together is referred to as a battery bank. The process of charging a battery
continues and stores energy as long as there is a supply of power. The load shown in the
block diagram initially draws a current from the main source of supply however, in case of
power failure the load draws current from a battery backup. UPS is an example of a battery
charging circuit. During the charging process UPS converts AC supply into DC. And when it
supplies the load it converts the stored energy from DC to AC.
Battery charging circuit for EV

Fig. 2 Block Diagram of EV charging Circuit

The operation of an EV battery charger depends on components and the control strategies
employed. Referring to Fig. 2, in the first stage of control, sensing circuits provide the status
of all relevant system variables required to control the feedback signals. If EVs use
conventional unidirectional chargers then the first stage of conversion will be rectification
using a diode bridge rectifier. Currently, most PEVs use a single-phase on-board charger and
many circuit configurations for single-phase EV battery charger with various control
schemes.

Battery charging circuit for EV

Fig.3 Block diagram of an Electric Vehicle Charger

EV charger consists of the following parts basically- transformer, rectifier and converter etc.
Fig. 3 shows a block diagram of an EV charger which is comprised of transformer, rectifier
and converter. Rectifier and converter make a charger circuit which is used for EV charging.
Most of the EVs have power ranges from 0.5 kW to 1 kW and all of them use single phase
240 V, 50 Hz supply system.

Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium is extremely attractive as a negative electrode material on account of its low atomic
mass and high electrode potential. It is necessary to handle the metal and to construct cells in
a dry-room because of its reactivity towards moisture. The rechargeable lithium cell has
proved to be much more difficult to develop than a primary cell. The electrochemically active
electrode materials in Li-ion batteries are a lithium metal oxide for the positive electrode and
lithiated carbon for the negative electrode.

Fig.4 Basic Li ion battery structure

Advantages of Li-ion batteries

 Sealed cells; no maintenance required.

 Long cycle life
 Broad temperature range of operation
 Long shelf life
 Low self-discharge rate
 Rapid charge capability
 High rate and high-power discharge capability
 High coulombic and energy efficiency
 High specific energy and energy density
 No memory effects

Disadvantages (Li-ion batteries)

 Moderate initial cost

 Degrades at high temperature
 Need for protective circuitry
 Capacity loss or thermal runaway when overcharged
 Venting and possible thermal runaway when crushed and over charged
 Cylindrical designs typically offer lower power density than NiCd or NiMH
 Li-ion batteries degrade when discharged below 2 V and may vent when overcharged.
 Li-ion products permanently lose the capacity at elevated temperatures (65 0C), though
at a lower rate than most NiCd or NiMH products.

Types of Lithium-ion batteries

 Based on construction
 CYLINDRICAL Li-ION CELLS AND BATTERIES
 Prismatic Li-ion Cells
 Flat-plate Prismatic Li-ion Batteries
1. CYLINDRICAL Li-ION CELLS AND BATTERIES

Fig. 5 cross sectional view of Cylindrical Li-ion cell

The long experience in the production of the cylindrical design is a considerable
advantage of cylindrical cells. Their container is dense and can withstand some
inner pressure without deformation. A disadvantage is the low packaging density
and the lower heat transport from inner cell parts to the outside. In particular, for
cells with a higher capacity, this can lead to higher temperatures in the middle of
the cells. However, the relation between the surface and the volume is more
efficient, which makes cooling concepts easier. Other problems might be the
density of the cells and the swelling when the inner pressure rises.
2. Prismatic Li-ion Cells

Fig.6 Schematic of prismatic Li-ion cell

In prismatic configurations flat plate construction are more common. Since Li-ion cells are
fabricated in the discharged state, they must be charged before use. Prismatic cells are from
the construction point of view similar to cylindrical cells. Because of the strength of the
container, they are at present preferred for automotive applications by some manufacturers.

3. Flat-plate Prismatic Li-ion Batteries

Construction of Flate-plate Prismatic Li-ion Batteries
The construction of flat-plate prismatic cells is illustrated in Fig. 6. As in a
wound cell, a microporous polyethylene or polypropylene separator
separates the positive and negative electrodes.

Fig.7 construction of flat-plate prismatic cells

Three different cell designs are being developed and produced today: cylindrical, prismatic
and flat plate cells. It is predicted that, in future, flat-plate cells can achieve lower production
costs and slightly higher energy density as the case foils are lighter than the containers of
cylindrical cells. In flat-plate cells (also called pouch cells) the quality of the welding is an
issue even after several years of ongoing development.

Costs for lithium-ion batteries are too high for the mass market. When mass production
comes to the market, relevant cost reductions are expected. However, high-power cells
probably will remain 50–70 % more expensive than high-energy cells. The availability of
lithium, when the number of electric vehicles increases, is under controversial discussion.
However, according to the current state of knowledge, there is sufficient lithium available to
equip all vehicles in the world with large lithium-ion batteries. Lithium sources are limited to
few countries with a core area in South America.

 Based on Electrolyte used

1) Non-aqueous electrolytes

2) Aqueous solutions

3)Ionic liquids

4) Polymer electrolytes

5) hybrid electrolytes.

Polymer Electrolyte

Electrolyte which is capable of ionic conduction is polymer electrolyte. Polymer electrolytes

(PEs) are an important component for the well-used lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) because they
are inherently safer than some classical liquid electrolytes. PEs can be classified into mainly
two kinds: solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) and gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs).

Fig.8 Basic structure of Polymer Electrolyte Battery

Properties Of Polymer Electrolyte

(1) High ionic conductivity at operating temperature (normally room temperature), while
electronic conductivity can be negligible.
(2) Sufficient mechanical strength at the operating temperature for self-supported cell.
(3) High electrochemical decomposition voltage (wide electrochemical window).
(4) High cationic or anionic transference number (The transference number is defined as the
ratio of the electric current derived from the cation to the total electric current).
(5) Environmental friendly, non-hygroscopic (doesn’t absorb moisture from air) , low cost,
and ease of preparation.
(6) Stability against chemical and electrochemical reactions with both electrodes (cathode
and anode) during preparation and operation of the battery.
(7) Thermal expansion coefficient matches with that of the electrodes to ensure good contacts
between PE and electrodes.

Solid Polymer Electrolytes

Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPEs) refer to the solid polymeric materials with ability to
transport lithium ions. SPEs are believed to be the most promising candidate for high-
performance electrolytes in next-generation energy devices, primarily because of their
excellent mechanical and safety properties. As electrolytes, SPEs are free of the safety issues
for traditional organic liquid electrolytes and enable design flexibility for LIBs. Solid
polymer electrolytes (SPEs) are composed of an ionic salt is separated in a neutral polymer
matrix. SPEs can support the design of flexible all-solid-state batteries and micro-batteries for
microelectronics. According to their structures, they can be divided into homogeneous and
heterogeneous SPEs. Homogeneous SPEs are pure polymeric solid solutions of ions, whereas
heterogeneous SPEs can be any solid polymeric materials comprising different
phases/structures with different abilities to transport ions. Owing to the complexity of
polymeric materials, SPEs are usually heterogeneous. Among the various SPEs, electrolytes
based on polyethylene oxide (PEO) are the most attractive, owing to the fact that PEO shows
excellent solubility for lithium salts. But Improving the ionic conductivity is the most
challenging and critical issue for PEO-base PSEs.

Advantages of SPEs

SPEs are preferred over liquid electrolyte and GPEs due to many advantages, such as high
durability, long shelf life, high energy density, light weight, great flexibility for cell design,
low reactivity toward the electrodes, free from the problems of solvent leakage and harmful
gases for above ambient temperature operations, and reduced packaging cost. It also shows
wider electrochemical and thermal stability range as well as low volatility. SPE is considered
to be a promising candidate for commercial application if its ionic conductivity is as high as
10−5 S cm−1 at room temperature. Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) can solve the issue of
leakage. Additionally, PEs possess much lower flammability than the organic electrolytes due
to low vapour pressure.

Liquid and Gel Polymer Electrolyte

GPE contains a plasticizer or gelled polymer matrix, which is swollen by addition of the
plasticizers and can be prepared by simply heating a mixture of polymer and Li salt with
solvent. When the polymer is composed of interconnected micropores, the ionic conductivity
of GPEs mainly depends on the properties of surrounded liquid electrolyte. On the contrary,
ion transport mainly occurs in the swollen gelled phase if the polymer does not contain many
interconnected pores. The GPEs should possess good mechanical strength, capability of
holding a liquid electrolyte, high ionic conductivity, and electrochemical stability toward
both cathode and anode.

Plasticizers, which are usually low molar-mass organics, organic solvents, or ionic liquids
(ILs), largely affect the properties of GPEs. A plasticizer can increase the content of the
amorphous phase in a PE and promote segmental motion. In addition, it can also promote
dissociation of ion pairs. As a result, the number of charge carriers is increased, leading to
enhanced ionic conductivity.

Applications of batteries

Lithium-ion batteries have the high-capacity utilisation even at high current rates. This is why
lithium-ion batteries are especially suitable for applications with high currents, e.g. electric
vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries are offered in two major production lines: high-energy
batteries and high-power batteries. High-power batteries have very thin active mass layers so
that the relative volumes of the metal foils (used as current collectors) and the separator (or
electrolyte) are high compared with the volume of the active mass. To reach the same
capacity as high-energy batteries, high-power cells need more material, resulting in higher
costs. Values for the power density of lithium-ion batteries can be gradually shifted between
high energy and high-power cells.

Li-ion batteries are lightweight and more compact than other battery types, which makes
them convenient to carry around within cell phones, laptops and other portable personal
electronic devices. The automotive industry is creating a demand for Li-ion battery packs to
provide power sources for electric, hybrid or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. As Li-ion
batteries can store large amounts of energy and can be recharged many times, they offer good
charging capacity and long lifespans.

Lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries are among the most common battery types used for drones
because they offer the advantage of high energy density in relation to their size and
weight, with a higher voltage per cell, so they can power the drone's on-board systems with
fewer cells than other rechargeable.

{Note : For your reference only

Polymer Electrolytes: Characterization Techniques and Energy Applications
Editor(s):
Tan Winie, Abdul K. Arof, Sabu Thomas
First published:8 November 2019
Print ISBN:9783527342006 |Online ISBN:9783527805457 |DOI:10.1002/9783527805457
© 2020 Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.}

Questions:

1.Define Battery. Explain battery and its different parts with neat diagram.

2.What is electrode? Explain reduction - oxidation process.

3.Explain series and parallel connection of battery with neat diagram and its purpose?

4.Distinguish between Primary and secondary battery.

5.Define any five terms used in battery terminology.

6. Why testing is required for battery? List various tests conducted on battery.

7. List Safety tests conducted on battery and its purposes.

8.Explain qualification test and its types

9..Write Short notes on C-rate and its Significance.

10.Explain typical charge and discharge curve of any battery.

11. Summarize the charging circuits with block diagram

i) Battery charging Circuit
ii) EV charging circuit
12. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Li ion Battery
13. Classify and explain the Li-ion battery based on the construction
14. Classify and explain the Li-ion battery based on the electrolyte
used
15. Illustrate the advantages of SPEs over gel/liquid polymer
electrolytes.
16. Summarize the applications of batteries.
17. Define polymer electrolyte. Illustrate its properties.
18. Explain what type of batteries are used in electronic devices
along with their specifications. (Extra only to know)

Reference link for explanation of Li-ion battery with separator

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxMM4g2Sk8U