CHAPTER 8 ANALYSIS OF PIPE FLOW

1
8.1 Introduction

Pipes of different sizes and shapes are used in many industrial

applications

(Acknowledgement: Forchase Corporation Ltd, http://forchase.com)

2
 Some examples of piping system in
engineering applications

To Malaysia

Water pipelines

(Acknowledgement: skyscrapercity.com)

Water pipelines between Malaysia and Singapore

3
 (Acknowledgement: http://www.fullsupply.co.uk/)

Pipelines in a petrochemical plant

4
 (Acknowledgement: Mark Gallagher)

Pipelines inside Honda Accord engine compartment

5
(Acknowledgement:www.hotshowers.com) (Acknowledgement:www.bengreenplumbing.co.uk )

Pipelines used in household appliances

6
An analysis of pipe flow involves estimation of energy
loss/head loss to maintain the flow.

Energy loss/head loss includes

• Friction loss: related to knowledge of boundary layer
theory, type of flow (laminar or turbulent) and
surface roughness.
• Minor losses: due to presence of bends, valves,
elbows, enlargements, contractions, etc.

The following analysis relates to homogeneous fluid of

constant viscosity and density. The results are also
applicable to gases provided that the density changes are
small.

7
8.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flows

There are two types of flow in a pipe:

(a) Laminar Flow

(b) Turbulent Flow

8
8.2.1 Laminar Flow

This type of flow is characterized by motion of fluids

in layers or laminas, parallel to the boundary surface.

FLOW

Laminar flow
FLOW

Laminar: Smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion.

9
8.2.2 Turbulent Flow
Under certain conditions, a laminar flow can become
unstable and become turbulent.
FLOW

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

FLOW

Turbulent: Velocity fluctuations and highly disordered

motion. It is characterized by Random, Irregular and
Unsteady movement of fluid particles.
Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent. 10
8.2.3 Classification of Flows by Critical Reynolds Number
There is a transition region from laminar flow to turbulent flow,
which depends on the geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity,
surface temperature, and type of fluid. Usually, the type of flow is
determined by Reynolds number,

V d

 Vd   Vd 
Re d    or  
     
where =density of fluid, =dynamic
viscosity, and =kinematic viscosity.
As shown in Chapter 7, Reynolds number can be viewed as the
ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces acting on a fluid element.
11
At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces, which are
proportional to the fluid density and the square of the fluid
velocity, are large relative to the viscous forces, and thus the
viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid
fluctuations of the fluid (turbulent).
At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, the viscous forces
are large enough to suppress these fluctuations and to keep the
fluid “in line” (laminar).
Critical Reynolds number, Recr: The Reynolds number at
which the flow becomes turbulent. It was first observed by
Osborne Reynolds (a British Engineering Professor) to
determine whether the flow is Laminar or Turbulent in a
circular pipe. The value of the critical Reynolds number is
different for different geometries and flow conditions.

Red < 2300 (Laminar Flow) (8.1)

12
Critical Reynolds number is very sensitive to the initial
disturbances in the fluid at the entrance.

By “quieting” the flow, it is possible to extend Red

>50,000

The upper limit of critical Reynolds number depends on

a) initial disturbance of approach flow,

b) shape of pipe entrance and
c) roughness of pipe.

Usually, we say that if the critical Reynolds number is

below 2300, the flow is laminar, and above it, the flow
is turbulent.

13
8.3 Entrance Region
8.3.1 Velocity Boundary Layer
No-slip condition: A fluid in
direct contact with a solid
“sticks” to the surface due to
viscous effects, and there is
no slip.

Boundary layer: The flow region adjacent to the wall in

which the viscous effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are
significant. Formation of boundary layer: fluid flowing over
a stationary surface comes to a complete stop at the surface
due to no-slip condition.
The fluid property responsible for the no-slip condition and
the development of the boundary layer is viscosity.
14
 Velocity Boundary Layer
– A consequence of viscous effects
associated with relative motion
between a fluid and a surface.

– A region of the flow characterized by

shear stresses and velocity gradients.

– A region between the surface u  y

and the free stream whose   0.99
u
thickness  increases in
the flow direction. u
w   y 0
– Manifested by a surface shear y
stress w that provides a drag
force, FD . FD    w dAs
As
15
8.3.2 Flow Near Entrance of Pipe

The above figure shows development of the velocity boundary

layer in a pipe. The developed velocity profile is parabolic in
laminar flow, but somewhat flatter or fuller in turbulent flow.

16
8.3.3 Entrance Length

Entrance length is defined as the distance from the entrance of the

pipe that the flow needs to travel before the flow is fully
developed (i.e. the velocity profile does not change with distance).
Fully Developed
Velocity Profile Profile

d
A B C
Boundary Layer
Entrance Length (Le)

The entrance length (Le) is a function of Reynolds number , i.e.

Le  Vd 
      Re d 
d   
17
Laminar Flow:
Fully Developed
Velocity Profile Profile

d
A B C
Laminar Boundary Layer
Laminar Flow
Entrance Length (Le)

The accepted correlation is

Le
 0.06 Re d (Laminar) (8.2)
d

The maximum laminar entrance length at Red,critical = 2300 is

Le=138d, which is the longest development length possible.

18
Turbulent Flow:
Laminar Turbulent
Boundary Layer Boundary Layer

Fully
Developed
Profile
A B C

Entrance Length (Le) Turbulent Flow

In turbulent flow, the boundary layers grow faster, and Le is

relatively short. An approximation form is
1
Le
 4.4 Red6 (Turbulent) (8.3)
d
Red Le/d
The entrance length at 4000 18
various Reynolds number 104 20
can be calculated as 105 30
shown in the table. 106 44
107 65 19
 Example 8.1

SAE 10 oil at 20oC flows through a 3-cm diameter tube.

Estimate the entrance length in cm if the volume flow rate
is (a) 0.001 m3/s and (b) 0.03 m3/s. The density (ρ) and
dynamic viscosity (μ) of SAE 10 oil are 870 kg/m3 and
0.104 kg/m.s, respectively.

Solution:
d2 4Q
Q= V V
4 d 2

Vd 4  Q
Re  = Laminar or Turbulent?
  d
20
(a) Q=0.001 m3/s
4(870)0.001
Re= =355 < 2300 Laminar
 (0.104)(0.03)
From equation (8.2), we have

Le  0.06 Re(d )  0.06  355  3  64 cm

(b) Q=0.03 m3/s
4(870)0.03
Re= =10650 > 2300 Turbulent
 (0.104)(0.03)

From equation (8.3), we have

Le  4.4 Re (d )  4.4 10650   3  62 cm

1/6 1/6

21
8.4 Energy Loss and Friction in A Circular Pipe
gsinf
p1 gf
Consider a steady Control
flow in a circular volume
pipe of constant d r=R w
p2= p1+p
radius R. The V1
pipe is inclined to
horizontal level at f f
w V2
an angle f and
the flow is driven L =x2-x1
by pressure or z1
gR2L z2= z1+z
gravity or both.
Arbitrary reference datum
1 2
By applying energy equation between sections 1 and 2, we get
p1 V12 p2 V22
  z1    z2  h f (8.4)
g 2 g g 2 g
where hf = friction head loss, V = averaged velocity 22
Since there is no change for the section area, the average
velocity will have no change. Thus, the energy loss (or head
loss) is given by  p2  p1   p 
h f    z2  z1      z   (8.5)
 g   g 

Apply momentum equation to the control volume, we get

p1R 2  p2 R 2  g R 2 L sin    w 2RL  ṁ V2  V1   0 23
 pR 2  g R 2 L sin    w 2RL  0

But L sin   z1  z2  z

-

Therefore, the above equation becomes

pR 2  g R 2 z   w 2RL

 p  2w L
or   z    hf  (8.6)
 g  gR

The friction head loss can be computed from shear stress on

the pipe surface.

24
Define the dimensionless parameter f (Darcy Friction Factor)
8w
f  (8.7)
V 2

By combining Eqs. (8.6) and (8.7), the desired equation for pipe
head loss is
For simplicity, we have
LV2 used L to replace ∆L
hf  f (8.8)
d 2g
(Darcy-Weisbach Equation)

NOTE: Darcy-Weisbach Equation is valid for duct flows of

any cross-section and both laminar and turbulent flow.

The friction head loss can be computed from the friction

factor.
25
 8.5 Laminar Flow in a Circular Pipe
8.5.1 Velocity Profile

f -dz
dx
R
p 
v1
f
dz r p +dp
f
v2 x


dx

gr2dx
Consider fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe. Applying
Newton’s second law to a control volume represented by dashed
red line, we have
pr 2  ( p  dp)r 2  g r 2 dx sin   2rdx  ṁ (v 2 -v1 )  0 26
  dpr 2  g r 2 dx sin   2rdx

 dpr 2  g r 2 dz  2rdx
r d
  p  gz  (8.9)
2 dx
The shear stress is related to the velocity gradient by
du
   (8.10)
dr
Note that velocity gradient, du/dr, is negative i.e. as r
increases, u decreases.
Substituting Eq. (8.10) into Eq. (8.9) gives

du r d
   p  gz 
dr 2 dx
27
 du r d
   p  gz 
dr 2 dx
Any assumption involved?
Integrating above equation gives
r2 d
u  p  gz   C1 (8.11)
4 dx

C1 is a constant that depends on the boundary condition.

Boundary condition: at r=R, u=0.

Substituting the boundary condition into equation (8.11) gives

R2 d
C1    p  gz  (8.12)
4 dx
28
After substituting Eq. (8.12) into Eq. (8.11), the velocity
distribution is given by
r2 d R2 d
u  p  gz    p  gz 
4 dx 4 dx
1  d  2 2
u     p  gz   R  r  (8.13)
4  dx 
which is a parabolic distribution as shown below. Equation
(8.13) is called the Hagen-Poiseuille Flow.

u
R
r
FLOW

Note: Equation (8.13) applies to Laminar Flow Only

29
8.5.2 Maximum Velocity and Volume Flow Rate

From laminar velocity profile

1  d  2 2
u    p  gz   R  r  (8.13)
4  dx 
u
R
r umax
and FLOW

Maximum velocity occurs at the centre of the pipe, i.e. r=0

R2  d 
umax   p  gz  (8.14)
4  dx 
30
To find volume flow rate (Q) [m3/s],
we consider flow through a circular ring
dr

R r

Therefore, dQ = u×2rdr Shaded area = (r+dr)2-(r)2

2rdr
R (since dr is small)
 Q   u  2rdr
0

1  d  2 2
R
Q    p  gz   R  r  2rdr
0
4  dx 

R 4  d 
Q 
 dx  p   gz   (8.15)
8
31
Comparing Eqs. (8.14) and (8.15), it can be seen that

R 4  d  1 2 R  d 
2
Q
8   dx  p  gz    2 R   4  dx  p  gz   
 
umax
1 2
 Q  R umax
2

Q umax
But V (average velocity )   (8.16)
A 2

32
8.5.3 Shear Stress, Friction Factor and Head Loss
Shear stress (), friction factor (f) and head loss (h) can be
determined as follows
1  d  2 2
du u   
4  dx
 p  gz  

 R  r  (8.13)
w  
dr r  R

R d 2 R 2 d 2umax
 w   p  gz    p  gz   (8.17)
2 dx R 4 dx R
From Eq. (8.7)
8 w 64 and umax=2V
fla min ar   (8.18)
V 2
Re d

L V 2 128LQ (8.19)
h f ,la min ar  fla min ar 
d 2g gd 4
33
From Eq. (8.8)
8.5.4 Pressure Drop for a Laminar Flow in a Horizontal Pipe

From equation (8.15), we have

R 4  d 
Q
8  dx 
 p  gz 

R 4  dp dz 
   dx  g dx 
(8.20)
8
Assuming that the length of the pipe is L; p=change in
pressure over the length of the pipe, and z=change of
elevation.
L
p1
p1+p
z1
z2

Datum 34
Equation (8.20) becomes

R 4  p z 
Q 
 L  g
8 L 

If the pipe is horizontal, z=0, therefore

8LQ
p  (8.21)
R 4
for laminar flow only
p 128LQ
h f  z  
Introducing R=d/2 g gd 4

128LQ
p  (8.22)
d 4
35
 Example 8.2
Oil of specific gravity 0.9 and kinematic viscosity 330×10-6
m2/s is pumped over a distance of 1.5 km through a 75 mm
diameter tube at a rate of 25×103 kg/hr. Determine the shear
stress at the wall and the head loss through the pipe.

Solution: Given:
ν=330×10-6 m2/s
SG (oil)=0.9
L=1.5 km
d=75 mm = 0.075m
ṁ  25 103 kg/hr
Calculation of shear stress and head Vd
Re 
loss is related to Reynolds number  36
 d 2 25 103
ṁ V kg/s
4 3600

1 4 25 103
V  1.746 m/s
0.9 1000  (0.075) 3600
2

Vd 1.746  0.075
Re    396.94  2300 Laminar
 330 10 -6

For laminar flow, the friction factor is given by Eq. (8.18):

f laminar  64 / Re  64 / 396.94  0.1612

37
From the definition of friction factor in Eq. (8.7):
8 w
f 
V 2

f 0.1612
 w  V 
2
(900)(1.746) 2  55.28 N / m 2
8 8

From Darcy-Weisbach Equation (Eq. (8.8)):

Head loss:

LV2 1.5 1000 (1.746) 2

hL  f  0.1612  501.45 m
d 2g 0.075 2  9.8

38
8.5.5 Friction in Non-circular Pipes
• Most of the pipes or conduits used in engineering applications
are circular in cross-section.
• On some occasions, we also use rectangular ducts and cross
sections of other geometry.
• We can modify many of the equations that we have derived
earlier for circular cross-sections to noncircular sections by
using the concept of Hydraulic Diameter.

(Acknowledgement: itctubeco.com)
(Acknowledgement: Rigidtools.org)

Circular pipes Non-circular pipes

39
Hydraulic Diameter
4  cross  sec tional area
DH 
perimeter
Rectangular Cross-section:
Examples:
H
W
4WH
DH 
2 H W 
if W>>H (i.e Elongated rectangular section)

H
W

4WH 4WH
DH    2H
2  H  W  2(W ) 40
If W=H (i.e. Square)

Therefore, using hydraulic diameter (DH),

4H H
DH  H
2 H  H 
L V2
hL  Frictional Loss   f
DH 2 g

64 64
For laminar flow, f   (from eqn (8.18))
Re d VDH
will be changed a little bit 41
 Laminar Flow in
Noncircular Pipes
The friction factors f
given in the table are for
fully developed laminar
flow in pipes of various
cross sections. The
Reynolds number for flow
in these pipes is based on
the hydraulic diameter Dh
= 4Ac /p, where Ac is the
cross-sectional area of the
pipe and p is its wetted
perimeter.
From: Fluid Mechanics:
Fundamental and
Applications, 3rd Edition
by Cengel and Cimbala 42
8.6 Turbulent Flow Through A Smooth Pipe
Laminar
(PARABOLIC)

d V

Turbulent

In turbulent flow, a major part of the mechanical energy in the flow

goes into forming and maintaining randomly eddying motion.

Eddying motion dissipates their kinetic energy into heat.

At a given Reynolds number, the drag of the turbulent flow is higher

than the drag of a laminar flow.

Turbulent flow is affected by surface roughness, so that increasing

roughness increases the drag.
43
Turbulent Velocity Profile
• The very thin layer next to the wall where
viscous effects are dominant is the viscous
sublayer (laminar). The velocity profile in
this layer is very nearly linear, and the
flow is streamlined.
• Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer
layer, in which turbulent effects are
becoming significant, but the flow is still
dominated by viscous effects.
• Above the buffer layer is the overlap (or
transition) layer, also called the inertial
sublayer, in which the turbulent effects are
much more significant, but still not
dominant.
• Above that is the outer (or turbulent)
layer in the remaining part of the flow in
which turbulent effects dominate over
molecular diffusion (viscous) effects. 44
For turbulent flows, there are No Exact Solutions available for the
velocity profile and the friction factor variation with Reynolds number,
and we must rely on experimental data or empirical correlation.

Experiments show that the velocity profile for turbulent flow

through a smooth pipe follows a logarithmic relation.

umax
r
R u

u r 
1  R  r u * (8.23)
 n B
u*  
where =0.4 and B=5.0.  =kinematic viscosity of fluid
w
u*  is called the friction velocity.

Note: u[r] means that u is a function of r. 45
Relationship between average velocity (V) and maximum
velocity (umax) for a turbulent flow in a pipe can be given by
V 1
 (8.24)
umax 1  1.33 f

Friction Factor:
The relationship between friction factor and Reynolds number
for a smooth turbulent pipe flow is given as (semi-empirical)
1
f

 2.0log Re d 
f  0.8 (8.25)

which is known as Prandtl’s Universal Law of Friction for

smooth pipe.

46
 Some numerical values of equation (8.25) are listed below

Red 4000 104 105 106 107 108

f 0.0399 0.0309 0.0180 0.0116 0.0081 0.0059

1
f

 2.0log Re d 
f  0.8

Graphically, equation (8.25) can be plotted together with

equation (8.18) for smooth pipe laminar flow as shown in the
graph below
64
f 
Re d
47
 0.10
0.09
0.08 Smooth pipe: Laminar flow (Eq. (8.18))
0.07
64
0.06 f 
0.05
Re d
f 0.04

0.03 Smooth pipe: Turbulent flow (Eq. (8.25))

0.02
1
f

 2.0log Re d 
f  0.8

0.01

103 104 105 106 107 108

Reynolds number (Red)
Equation (8.25) is quite cumbersome to solve if Red is
known and f is required. There are many alternatives of
finding f. One of them is
1

f  0.316 Re d 4
4000  Re d  105 (8.26)
48
Pressure Drop for a Turbulent Flow in a Smooth Horizontal Pipe

Frictional loss in the pipe (laminar or turbulent) is given by

 p  LV2
h f     z   f
 g  d 2g

Eqn (8.5) Eqn (8.8)

If the pipe is horizontal, z=0

p LV2
hf    f (8.27)
g d 2g

Substituting equation (8.26) into the above equation gives

1
p LV2    LV2 4
hf    f  0.316   d 2g (8.28)
g d 2g  Vd 
Eqn (8.26) 49
 3 1
 p  0.158L  d 1.25V 1.75
4 4

1
Introducing Q  d 2V
4
3 1
p  0.241L  d  4.75Q1.75 for turbulent flow
4 4 (8.29)

Recall: Pressure drop in laminar flow for a horizontal pipe

128LQ
p  or
d 4

128Ld 4Q
p  For Laminar flow (8.22)


For a given Q, the pressure drop in turbulent flow decreases

more quickly than in laminar flow when d is increased.
50
 Turbulent Flow

Q Pressure Drop (P1) d Pipe 1

P1
Q P2  2d Pipe 2
27

The quickest way to reduce the required pumping pressure

is to increase the diameter of the pipe. Doubling the pipe
reduces p by a factor of about 27.
Better to transport water from Malaysia to Singapore
using a big pipe, but the cost of the pipe will go up!
51
8.7 Turbulent Flow Through A Rough Pipe
• Most of the pipes used in engineering applications such as
cement pipes, cast iron pipes cannot be regarded as
hydraulically smooth, especially at high Reynolds
numbers.

• In fact, they are actually behaving as hydraulically rough.

• The resistance to fluid flow offered by rough boundaries is

larger than that for smooth boundaries on account of
formation of eddies behind rough protrusions.

• For Laminar Flow, all rough pipes irrespective of their

roughness size and pattern offer the same resistance as that
offered by a smooth pipe under similar conditions of flow.
52
• In fact, there is no surface which may be regarded as
perfectly smooth. The term “smooth” and “rough” are
relative.

• In turbulent flow, there is a thin layer very close to the

boundary in which the flow exhibits characteristics of
laminar flow. This layer is called “laminar sublayer”

Turbulent flow
Limit of laminar
sublayer

Turbulent boundary layer

53
8.7.1 Type of Rough Pipe

Hydraulically Smooth Walls

This occurs when the roughness elements are submerged in
the laminar sublayer, and therefore have no effects on friction

Limit of laminar sublayer Roughness elements

 completely submerged in
the laminar sublayer

Criteria for Hydraulically Smooth Walls:

u *
5 (8.30)

w
Recall that u*  and  = kinematic viscosity of fluid
 54
Hydraulically Rough Walls
This occurs when the roughness elements protrude into the
main flow causing it to break up into vortices or eddies.

Roughness elements
protrude into the main flow
Limit of laminar sublayer

Criteria for Hydraulically Rough Walls:

u *
 70 (8.31)


55
Transitional Rough Walls

The regime lies between hydraulically smooth wall and

hydraulically rough walls.
Some roughness elements
are submerged and some are
Limit of laminar sublayer protruded into the main flow

Criteria for Transitional Roughness:

u *
5  70 (8.32)

56
 Example 8.3
Water at 20 oC flows in a 10 cm diameter pipe at an average
velocity of 1.6 m/s. If the roughness elements are 0.046 mm
high and the friction factor is f = 0.0204, would the wall be
considered rough or smooth? Assume the kinematic viscosity
of water () 10-6 m2/s.
Solution:
To find if the wall is smooth, we need to make use of the
flow criteria:
u *
5 hydraulically smooth


u *
 70 rough

57
 1 1
  V f  1000 1.62  0.0204  6.53 Pa
2

8 8

The friction velocity is

w 6.53
u*    0.0808 m/s
 1000
Thus, the reference Reynolds number is:

u *

 0.046  10 -3
 0.0808  3.7  5
 10 -6

Hence, the wall is hydraulically smooth even though it

is physically rough.

58
8.7.2 Velocity Profile in a Rough Pipe

The velocity profiles in a rough pipe depend on whether the pipe is

hydraulically smooth or completely rough or transitional rough.

Hydraulically Smooth
For hydraulically smooth pipe, the roughness elements are
submerged inside laminar sublayer. We may use the
velocity profile for a smooth pipe, i.e.
u 1 yu *
 ln  5.0 (8.33)
u * 0.4 
Completely Rough y  Rr
u 1 y
 ln  8.5 (8.34)
u * 0.4 
59
Transitional Rough
The velocity profile is also given by
u 1 y
 ln  B (8.35)
u * 0.4 
where B is given from the experimental data as
shown below

 u * 
ln  
  
Acknowledgment: F.M. White:
Fluid Mechanics, 3rd Edition 60
 8.7.3 Moody Diagram for Friction Factor
C
A

COMPLETELY TURBULENT REGIME

(COMPLETELY ROUGH PIPES)

LAMINAR
FLOW
D

1
f
 
 2.0log Red f  0.8

SMOOTH
PIPES
B
F

61
 Moody Diagram
A
COMPLETELY ROUGH PIPE

Smooth pipe
1
 
 2.0 log Red f  0.8
f

Eqn (8.25) B

For all the curves on the right hand side of AB (red curve), f
versus Reynolds number relationship becomes horizontal, indicating
that friction factor is independent of the Reynolds number. This
region is identified as a fully rough flow, and is described by
1  d 
 2.0log   (8.36)
f  3.7  62
 A
COMPLETELY ROUGH PIPE

1  d
E  2.0log  
f  3.7 
Eqn (8.36)

Smooth pipe
1
f
 
 2.0 log Re d f  0.8
Eqn (8.25)
B
F

Between lines EF and AB, the friction factor is dependent on both

Reynolds number as well as the relative roughness. Colebrook in
1939 cleverly combined the smooth wall (Eq. (8.25)) and fully
rough flow (Eq. (8.36)) relations into an interpolated formula.
1  d 2.51 
 2.0log    (8.37)

f  3.7 Re d f 
63
But equation (8.37) is difficult to use.
 A
COMPLETELY ROUGH PIPE

1  d
E  2.0log  
f  3.7 
Eqn (8.36)

Smooth pipe
1
f
 
 2.0 log Re d f  0.8

Eqn (8.25)
B
F

An alternative formula given by Haaland is given by

1  6.9   d  
1.11

 1.8log     (8.38)
f  Re d  3.7  
which varies less than 2% from equation
1  d 2.51 
 2.0log    (8.37)
 3.7 Re f 64
f  d 
 COMPLETELY ROUGH PIPE

0.0125

0.0185

0.0128

65
 COMPLETELY ROUGH PIPE

The Moody Diagram is accurate to 15% for design

calculations over the full range shown in the figure. The shaded
area in the Moody diagram indicates the range where transition
from laminar to turbulent flow occurs. There are no reliable
friction factors in this range, 2000<Red<4000. 66
 Average Roughness of Commercial Pipes

Material  (mm)
Riveted steel 0.9-9.0
Concrete 0.3-3.0
Cast iron 0.26
Galvanised iron 0.15
Asphalted cast iron 0.12
Commercial steel or wrought 0.046
iron
Drawn tubing 0.0015
Glass “Smooth”
From: F.M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 3rd Edition
67
8.8 Minor Losses in Pipes

Fittings
Inlet Bends

Valve
Outlet

Sudden Sudden
enlargement contraction

The minor losses are those caused by change in pipe cross-

section, presence of bends, valves, elbows, enlargements,
contractions, inlets, outlets and fittings of all kinds.

68
A minor loss is expressed in terms of loss coefficient K,
defined by
V2 (8.39)
hL  K
2g
It is often the practice to express a loss coefficient as an
equivalent length (Leq ) of the pipe.

V2 Leq V 2
K  f
2g D 2g

D
Therefore Leq  K (8.40)
f

69
8.8.1 Loss in Sudden Enlargement
(1) (2)
F p’ E

B
A1v1=A2v2
C D
p1 p2
A1 A2
v1 v2
z1 z1

If the head loss due to sudden enlargement is hL, the

energy equation between sections (1) and (2) gives
p1 v12 p 2 v 22
  z1    z2  h L
g 2g g 2g
70
Applying momentum equation to the control volume
ABCDEFA, we get
p1A1  p '(A 2  A1 )  p 2 A 2  Q  v 2  v1 
Approximation: p’ p1
Q  v 2  v1    p1  p 2  A 2
Q
 (p1  p 2 )   v 2  v1   v 2  v 2  v1 
A2
p1  p 2 v12  v 22
hL  
g 2g

v 2  v 2  v1  v12  v 22
 hL  
g 2 2g
 v1  v 2 

2g 71
  v1  v 2 
2 (1) (2)
F p’ E
hL  A
2g
A1
v2  v1 B
A2 A1v1=A2v2
A1v1=A2v2 C D
A2 p1 p2
v1  v2 A1 A2
A1 v1 v2
z1 z1
2
v  A1 
2
hL  1 
1
 (8.41)
2g  A 2 
2
v  A2 
2
hL  2
  1 (8.42)
2g  A1 
The above equation was first obtained by J.C. Borda (1733-
99) and L. Carnot (1753-1823) and is frequently known as
the Borda-Carnot head loss. 72
 Exit Loss
A1 A2

2
Large tank
v  A1 
2
h L  1 
1

2g  A 2 

A2>> A1
A1 A2
A1 A2 Equivalent

v12
hL  (exit loss)
A1 v12 2g
0 hL 
A2 73
2g
8.8.2 Loss in Sudden Contraction

Vena Contracta
(Area=Ac)

V1 V2 d2
d1
D
C
Area (A2)
Area (A1) (Section 2)
(Section 1)

Although a Sudden Contraction is geometrically the reverse of a

Sudden Enlargement, it is not appropriate to apply momentum
equation to a control volume between sections (1) and (2) as
drag force on the control volume is significant.
74
Between the vena contracta and the downstream section (2) the
flow pattern is similar to that after an abrupt enlargement, and
the loss of head is assumed to be given by equation (8.42)
2 2
V  A2  V  1
2 2
 (8.42)
hL  2
  1    1
2
2 g  Ac  2 g  Cc 

where Ac represents the cross-sectional area of vena

contracta, and the coefficient of contraction is Cc=Ac/A2.

In general, the loss in a Sudden Contraction can be

expressed as

V22 (8.43)
hL  K sc
2g

75
 V22
hL  K sc (8.43)
2g
Because of the complexity of the flow, the loss coefficient Ksc is
obtained experimentally. Representative values are shown below.

d2/d1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Ksc 0.5 0.45 0.38 0.28 0.14 0

Note:

a) When d2/d1=1.0, there is no sudden

contraction and the pipe is a normal d1 d2
straight pipe, and Ksc=0.
b) As A1 , d2/d10, the value of
KSC =0.5
76
8.8.3 Entrance Loss

 

Square-edge Protrusions
(flush) V V

K=0.5
(a) (b)

t/d=0.02

Acknowledgment: F.M. White:

Fluid Mechanics, 3rd Edition
77
 

Bell-mouthed

V
r

Rounded
0.04 Edge

Acknowledgement: F.M. White

Fluid Mechanics, 3rd Edition

78
8.8.4 Gradual Expansion Energy loss can be considerably
reduced if the pipe transition is
more gradual.
V1 A1  A2 V2

Such a transition device is called

DIFFUSER
a Diffuser.

V1  V2 
2

9
hL  K L
2g
KL A2/A1=2.25
2
(8.44)
A2/A1=4  A1  V12
 K L 1  
 A2  2 g


6o

79
Some Nominal Loss Coefficients ( K) (turbulent Flow)
Type of fitting K
2
A1 A2  A1 
1  
Sudden enlargement  A 2

90o mitre bend (without vanes) 1.1

0.2
90o mitre bend (with vanes)


=30o 0.02

General contraction =70o 0.07

More nominal Loss Coefficients ( K) for different

80
pipe fittings can be found in the reference books.
8.9 Multiple Pipe System
Frequently, problems of
dividing pipelines are
encountered in engineering
practice. These problems
include looping pipes (pipe
connected in parallel),
branching pipes and pipe
network

a) Pipes connected in
Series
b) Pipes connected in
Parallel
c) Branched Pipes
81
 8.9.1 Pipes in Series
3
1 2

Q1 Q2 Q3

If one or more pipes are connected in series, conservation of

mass gives
Q  Q1  Q2  Q3
or V1d12  V2 d 22  V3 d 32 (8.45)

The total head loss is the sum of the total losses in each of the
individual pipes and fittings

H L  H L1  H L 2  H L 3 (8.46)
82
In terms of friction and minor losses in each pipe, equation
(8.46) may be re-written as

Friction loss
Minor losses

V12  f1 L1  V22  f 2 L2 
HL     K1,i      K 2,i 
2 g  d1 i  2g  d2 i 
(8.47)
V32  f3 L3 
    K 3,i 
2 g  d3 i 

83
8.9.2 Pipes in Parallel
1

Q1 (B)
(A) 2
Q Q2 Q
Q3 3

1
Q1
(A) 2 (B)
Q Q2 Q
Q3 3

When two or more pipes are connected so that the flow

divides and subsequently comes together again.
Continuity equation gives
Q  Q1  Q2  Q3 (8.48)
84
At any point in the pipe, there can be only one value of total
head (energy). In other words, all fluid passing point (A) has
the same total head
PA VA2
  zA
g 2 g
Similarly, at point (B),
PB VB2
  zB
g 2 g
The steady state-energy equation may be written as
PA VA2 PB VB2
  zA    zB  H L
g 2 g g 2 g

Therefore, all the fluid in Each Pipe suffers the same loss of
head HL
H L1  H L 2  H L 3 (8.49) 85
8.9.3 Branched Pipes

Tank 1
Tank 2
1
2
Q1
z1 Q2 z2
3 J
Q3
Tank 3
z3 HJ
Arbitrary datum

Another example of practical importance involving a pipe

system is when a number of pipes meeting at a junction as
shown above.

86
The basic principles to solve the problem:

• Continuity: At a given junction, Mass flow rate towards

the junction = Mass flow rate away from the junction.

• There can be only one energy level (Head) at a given

point.

• The friction equation must be satisfied for each pipe.

87
 Tank 1
Tank 2
1
2
Q1
z1 Q2 z2
3 J
Q3
Tank 3
z3 HJ
Arbitrary datum

The energy (or head) at:

a) Tank 1=H1,
b) Tank 2 =H2,
c) Tank 3=H3,
d) Location J = HJ

88
Under steady condition

H1 - HJ = HL1 (head loss in pipe 1)

H2 - HJ = HL2 (head loss in pipe 2)
HJ –H3 = HL3 (head loss in pipe 3)
Q3 =Q1 + Q2

Assuming that Minor Losses are negligible, it can be

shown that
 f 2 L2 V22 f3 L3 V32 
H 2  H 3  H L 2  H L3   
 2d 2 g d 3 2 g 

 f1 L1 V12 f3 L3 V32 
H1  H 3  H L1  H L 3   
 1d 2 g d 3 2 g 
89
 P1 P2
Tank 1 If P1 = P2 = P3 = Patmosphere
Tank 2
1 2 Assuming that Tank 1, Tank 2
Q1
z1 Q2 and Tank 3 are so large that
P3 J z2
3
Tank 3
Q3 V1=V2=V3  0
z3 HJ
Arbitrary datum If gauge pressure is used
throughout, it can be shown that
In general,
P1 V12
H1    z1 H1  z1
g 2g
P2 V22
H2    z2 H2  z2
g 2g
P3 V32
H3    z3 H3  z3
g 2g
PJ VJ2 VJ2
PJg
HJ    zJ HJ    zJ
g 2g g 2g
90
 Example 8.4
Water at 20oC flows through a 40 mm diameter wrought
iron horizontal pipe with a flow rate of 0.003 m3/s. If the
pipe is 1000 m long, and the roughness element of the
pipe (ε) is 0.046 mm, determine the pressure drop over
the length of the pipe.

Solution:
Q 0.003
V   2.39m / s
A   0.04  4
2

VD 2.39  0.04
Re= =  9.6  10 4

ν 10-6
 0.046
Also   0.00115
D 40
91
 From the Moody
diagram: f=0.023 0.023

1  6.9   d 1.11 
 1.8log    
f  d  3.7  
Re

The head loss in meter can be determined from

L V2 1000 2.392
hL  f  0.023  168 m
D 2g 0.04 2  9.81
Therefore, the pressure drop can be obtained from

p   ghL  1000  9.8 168  1,646, 400 Pa or 1646.4 kPa

92
 Example 8.5

Two reservoirs 1 and 2 with a water surface height

difference of z are connected by a pipe with length L,
internal diameter d and Darcy friction f. Show that z can
be expressed as aQ2, where Q is the mean flow rate in the
pipe. Expresse a in terms of L, d, f and other suitable
parameters.

93
Solution:

By applying Bernoulli equation between the surfaces

of Tanks 1 and 2, we have
p1 V12 p2 V22
  z1    z2  h f
 g 2g  g 2g

Note that p1=p2=patm and V1=V2≈0. The equation

becomes:

h f  z1  z2  z
94
From Darcy-Weisbach friction Eq. (8.8)
LV2
hf  f  z (8.8)
d 2g
The flow rate Q is given by
d2
Q V
4
4Q V2 8Q 2
V  2 4
d2 2g  d g
Substituting above expression into Eq. (8.8) gives
L 8Q 2
z  f  a Q 2

d  2d 4 g
8 fL
where a  2 4
 d gd 95
 Example 8.6
Water flows from reservoir A through a 100 m long pipe of
diameter 120 mm to a branch point D where it is diverted to
reservoirs B and C in separate pipes as shown in the figure below.
Assuming that f =0.02 for all the pipes and neglecting all losses
other than those due to friction, determine the elevation of the
reservoir B. The flow from the reservoir A is 0.02 m3/s.

96
The velocity of water
between A and D is

QA 20 103
V 
A  2
  (0.12)
4
 1.768 m / s

.
The head loss in friction between A and D is
Gauge pressure
fLA VA2 0.02 100 1.7682 for tanks (zero)
h fA    2.655m
DA 2 g 2  9.81 0.12 is used, but
gauge pressure
 H D  z A  h fA  50  2.655  47.365 at D is not zero.

97
The head loss in friction
between D and C is
H D - zC  47.365 - 25  22.365

Using Eq. (8.8)

LV2
hf  f  z (8.8)
d 2g
0.02  40  VC2
we get 22.365 
2  9.81 0.06
Therefore, Vc=5.737 m/s

Flow to reservoir C is: QC  (0.06) 2  5.737  0.01622 m3 /s
4
98
From the continuity equation,
we get
QB  QA - QC  (0.02 - 0.01622)
 3.78 10-3 m3 /s

Therefore,
3.78 10-3
VB   0.855 m/s
  2
  (0.075)
4
Head loss in friction between D and B is
0.02  60  0.8552
h fB   0.596 m/s
2  9.81 0.075

Therefore, z B  H D  h fB  47.365  0.596  46.77 m 99