TME2134 Chapter3

3 Fluid Statics
TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

3 Fluid Statics
TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-1

3 Fluid Statics
3 Fluid Statics
3.1 Introduction / Motivation
3.2 Pressure
3.2.1 Pressure at a Point
3.3 Variation of Pressure with Depth
3.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids
3.3.2 Hydrostatic Pressure in Gases
3.4 Measurement of Pressure and Manometry
3.4.1 Barometer
3.4.2 U-Tube Manometer
3.4.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer
3.5 Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Submerged Surfaces
3.5.1 Magnitude of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
3.5.2 Direction of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
3.5.3 Line of Action of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
3 Fluid Statics
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.1 Determination of yP
3.5.4 Centroidal Coordinates and Moments of Area
3.6 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Submerged Surfaces
3.6.1 Horizontal Component
3.6.2 Vertical Component
3.7 Buoyancy
3.7.1 Physical Explanation for Origin of Buoyancy
Force
3.7.2 Buoyancy Force on Submerged Bodies
3.7.3 Buoyancy Force on Floating Bodies

3 Fluid Statics
• Fluid statics  fluids at rest
– Hydrostatics  liquids
– Aerostatics  gases
• Fluid statics
– no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers
– no relative motion between fluid and solid surface
– no shear (tangential) stresses
– Recall:    du dy  u = 0 everywhere  τ = 0
everywhere
• Fluid statics  only normal stresses  force exerted on
fluid at rest is normal to surface at point of contact
• Normal stress  pressure
• Fluid statics  pressure variation only due to weight of
fluid  involves gravity fields and gravitational
acceleration g
3 Fluid Statics
• Applications / significance of fluid statics:

– Pressure distribution in atmosphere and oceans
– Design of manometer pressure measuring
instruments
– Forces on submerged plane (flat) and curved
surfaces
– Design of water dams, liquid storage tanks
– Buoyancy forces acting on floating or submerged
bodies
– Stability analysis of floating and submerged bodies

3 Fluid Statics
3.2 Pressure
• Pressure
– Compressive normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
– normal stress
– SI units: N/m2 or Pa
• Standard atmospheric pressure  101.33 kPa

3 Fluid Statics
3.2 Pressure
• Absolute pressure (Pabs)
actual pressure at a given point
measured relative to absolute vacuum (absolute zero
pressure)
cannot be negative
• Gage pressure (Pgage)

Difference between absolute pressure and local
atmospheric pressure
Pgage = Pabs – Patm
• Vacuum pressure (Pvac)

Used when absolute pressure falls below atmospheric
pressure
Negative gage pressure
Pvac = Patm – Pabs
3 Fluid Statics
• Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions
• Pressure has a magnitude, but not a specific direction 
pressure is a scalar quantity
• Pressure force acting on a surface is a vector (magnitude =
pressure  area) that acts inwards and normal to surface
• Consider wedge-shaped
fluid element of unit
length (into page) in
equilibrium

3 Fluid Statics
• Mean pressures at three surfaces are P1, P2 and P3
• Newton’s second law  force balance in x- and z-

directions:
 Fx  max  0  P1z  P3l sin   0 (3.2.1)

1
 Fz  maz  0  P2x  P3l cos   2  g xz  0 (3.2.2)
weight of fluid element
• From geometry:
x  l cos (3.2.3)
z  l sin  (3.2.4)
3 Fluid Statics
• Substituting (3.2.3) and (3.2.4) into (3.2.1) and (3.2.2)
yields:
P1  P3  0 (3.2.5)
1
P2  P3   g z  0 (3.2.6)
2
• z  0  last term in (3.2.6) goes to zero  wedge

becomes infinitesimal  fluid element shrinks to a point
• Combining the above results,

P1  P2  P3  P (3.2.7)
regardless of value of θ
 Pressure at a point in a fluid has same magnitude in all

directions
3 Fluid Statics
• Consider a rectangular fluid element of height Δz, length
Δx, and unit depth (into page) in equilibrium:

3 Fluid Statics
• Force balance in vertical z-direction:
 Fz  maz  0  P  x   P  P  x   g x z  0
Px   g xz  0
 P   g z  0
• In the limit as z  0 :
dP
  g (3.3.1)
dz
• Negative sign  pressure in a static

fluid decreases with elevation or
increases with depth
3 Fluid Statics

3 Fluid Statics
• Most liquids are incompressible   = constant
• Integrating (3.3.1) between two points with elevations z1

and z2:
P2 z2 z2
 dP     gdz    g  dz
P1 z1 z1
P2  P1    g  z2  z1  (3.3.2)
• Easier to remember:
Pbottom  Ptop   g z (3.3.3)
where z is the absolute difference in depth between

the two points of interest
3 Fluid Statics
• Pressure in a fluid is independent of shape or cross
section of container
– Except for small diameter tubes where surface
tension effects become significant
• Pressure changes with vertical distance (depth), but

remains constant in other directions
• Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane

in a given fluid
• Pascal’s law  If a continuous line can be drawn

through the same fluid from point 1 to point 2, then P1 =
P2 if z1 = z2
3 Fluid Statics
• Same pressures at A, B, C, D, E, F and G since they are

at the same depth and they are interconnected by same
fluid
• H and I  pressures different since these 2 points
cannot be interconnected by the same fluid, even though
they are at same depth
3 Fluid Statics
• Pressure force exerted by fluid always normal to surface
at specified points
• Multiple immiscible fluids of different densities stacked
on top of one another:
P1  Patm  1gh1  2 gh2  3 gh3
• Pressure is constant across a

flat fluid-fluid interface:
PA  PB
PC  PD
PE  PF

3 Fluid Statics
In summary:
• Pressure change across an
incompressible fluid column of height
h is
P  gh
• Pressure increases downward in a
given fluid  Pbottom > Ptop
• Pbottom > Ptop so as to support weight of
liquid column
• Pascal’s law  2 points at same
elevation in a continuous fluid at rest
are at the same pressure
• Pressure is constant across a flat
fluid-fluid interface
3 Fluid Statics
3.3.2 Hydrostatic Pressure in Gases
• Gases are compressible    constant  appreciable
changes in gas density with changes in pressure and
temperature
• Assume ideal gas law  equation of state:
P  RT (3.3.4)
where P : absolute pressure
R : specific gas constant [= 287 J/(kgK) for air]
T : absolute temperature
• Substituting (3.3.4) into (3.3.1):
dP gP
  g   (3.3.5)
dz RT
• Separating the variables:
P2 z2
dP P2 g dz
 P  ln P1   R  T
P1 z1
• Assume isothermal conditions  T = T0 = constant:
 g  z2  z1  
P2  P1 exp    (3.3.6)
TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I  RT0  3-19
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.1
• Earth’s Standard Atmosphere

3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.1
• In the troposphere [from sea-level (z = 0) to z =11 km],
temperature variation is of the form
T  T1   z (3.3.7)
where T1 = 288.15 K = 15C (temperature at sea-level)
 = 0.00650 K/m (lapse rate)
• From (3.3.7): dT   dz (3.3.8)
• Using (3.3.5):
dP gP
  g   (3.3.5)
dz RT
• Substituting (3.3.8) into (3.3.5) and integrating:
dP gP
 
dT RT
dP g dT

P R T 3-21
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.1
• At z = 0, P = P1 = 101.33 kPa, T = T1. Hence
P T
dP g dT
 P   R T g
P1 T1
P g T  T  R
ln  ln  ln  
P1 R T1  T1 
g
P  T1   z  R 
ln  ln  
P1  T1 g
  z  R (3.3.9)
P  P1 1  
g  T1 
where  5.26 for air
R
• In the stratosphere (from z = 11 km to z = 20.1 km),
T = T0 = constant = –56.5C
 Pressure distribution is given by (3.3.6) 3-22
3 Fluid Statics
3.4 Measurement of Pressure and Manometry
3.4.1 Barometer
• Barometer  used for
measuring atmospheric
pressure
• A tube is filled with
mercury and inverted while
submerged in a reservoir
PB  Patm
• Mercury has a very low
vapor pressure of 0.16 Pa
at room temperature of
20C  near-vacuum in
closed upper end  PC  0
• Force balance in vertical
direction:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barometer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barometer_question
Patm   gh
3 Fluid Statics
3.4.1 Barometer
• At sea-level, with Patm = 101.33 kPa, and Hg = 13,595
kg/m3, barometric height is h = 0.76 m
• A water barometer would be 10.3 m high
• Length and cross-sectional area of tube have no effect
on h, provided tube diameter is sufficiently large to avoid
surface tension (capillary) effects:

3 Fluid Statics
• Manometers  vertical or inclined liquid columns for
measuring pressure differences
• Simple open U-tube manometer for measuring PA in a

closed chamber relative to atmospheric pressure Patm,
i.e. gage pressure
3 Fluid Statics
• Begin at A  move down to level z1 (add  g z ) 
jump across fluid 2 to the same pressure P1  move up
to level z2 (subtract  g z ):
PA  1g z A  z1   2 g z1  z2  P2  Patm
PA  1g  z A  z1    2 g  z2  z1   P2
PA  P2   1g  z A  z1    2 g  z1  z2 
• Another approach:
– apply (3.3.2) repeatedly, jumping across at equal
pressures when we come to a continuous mass of
same fluid:
PA  P2   PA  P1    P1  P2 
  1g  z A  z1    2 g  z1  z2 
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.2
• Multiple-fluid manometer
• Find pressure difference between chambers A and B
Solution:
PA  PB
  PA  P1    P1  P2    P2  P3    P3  PB 
  1g  z A  z1    2 g  z1  z2   3 g  z2  z3    4 g  z3  z B 
3 Fluid Statics
• To measure small pressure differences
P1  PA  1gh1  PB  3 gh3   2 gl2 sin 

PA  PB   2 gl2 sin   3 gh3  1gh1
PA  PB  3 gh3  1gh1
l2 
2 g sin 
3 Fluid Statics
• For a given pressure difference, differential reading l2 of
inclined-tube manometer can be increased over that
obtained with conventional manometer by factor 1 sin 
• Make θ small  differential reading along inclined tube

becomes large for small pressure differences

3 Fluid Statics
• Objective  To determine magnitude and line of action of
resultant hydrostatic force acting on a plane (flat) surface
 What is the resultant force due to the hydrostatic pressure
acting on one side (submerged side) of the green flat
surface inclined at angle  to the horizontal?
Absolute
pressure above
liquid = P0

3 Fluid Statics
• On a plane (flat) surface, hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces  need to determine
– Magnitude of resultant hydrostatic force
– Point of application of resultant hydrostatic force
(center of pressure)
• Consider top surface of flat plate with arbitrary shape
completely submerged in a liquid shown on following
slide
• Plane surface lies in xy-plane
• Plane surface (xy-plane) makes an angle of θ with the
horizontal free surface
• x-axis is the line of intersection of plane surface with
• z-axis passes through O and is normal to plane surface
• Absolute pressure above liquid = P0
3 Fluid Statics

3 Fluid Statics
• Absolute pressure at any general point on the plate:
P  P0   gh
P  P0   gy sin 
where h: vertical distance of the point from free surface
y: distance of point from x-axis (from point O)
• Hydrostatic force acting on differential area dA:
dF  PdA
dF   P0   gy sin   dA
• Resultant hydrostatic force acting on surface:
FR   dF   PdA
A A
FR    P0   gy sin  dA
A
FR  P0 A   g sin   ydA
TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I A 3-33
3 Fluid Statics
• But first moment of area
 ydA  yC A
A
where yC is the y-coordinate of the centroid (or geometric
center) of the surface
• Substituting,
FR  P0 A   g sin   yC A 
FR   P0   gyC sin   A (3.5.1)
FR   P0   ghC  A (3.5.2)
FR  PC A (3.5.3)
where
hC  yC sin 
is the vertical distance of the centroid C from the free
surface of the liquid and
3 Fluid Statics
PC  P0   ghC
is the pressure at the centroid C of the surface, which is
equivalent to the average pressure on the surface.
• Hence,
FR  PC A  Pave A
 The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane

surface of a completely submerged plate in a
homogeneous (constant density) fluid is equal to the
product of the pressure PC at the centroid of the surface
and the area A of the surface

3 Fluid Statics

3 Fluid Statics
3.5.2 Direction of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
• Since all the differential forces that were summed to
obtain FR are perpendicular to the surface, the
resultant FR must also be perpendicular to the surface
3.5.3 Line of Action of Resultant Hydrostatic Force

• Let line of action of resultant force FR pass through
center of pressure CP with coordinates (xP, yP)
• yP is determined by equating moment of resultant force
FR about the x-axis to moment of distributed pressure
force about the x-axis:
yP FR   ydF   yPdA
A A
• yp is the distance of CP from x-axis
3 Fluid Statics

3 Fluid Statics
yP FR   y  P0   gy sin   dA
A
yP FR  P0  ydA   g sin   y 2 dA
A A
yP FR  P0 yC A   g sin  I xx,O
(3.5.4)
• Second moment of area of plane surface about the x-
axis passing through O:
I xx,O   y 2 dA (3.5.5)
A
• Parallel axis theorem:
I xx,O  I xx,C  yC2 A (3.5.6)
Ixx,C is the second moment of area of plane surface about
an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to the
x-axis
yC (y-coordinate of centroid) is the distance between the
two parallel axes
3 Fluid Statics
• Substituting (3.5.1) and (3.5.6) into (3.5.4),
yP FR  P0 yC A   g sin  I xx,O (3.5.4)
FR   P0   gyC sin   A I xx,O  I xx,C  yC2 A

(3.5.1) (3.5.6)

 yP  P0   gyC sin   A  P0 yC A   g sin  I xx,C  yC2 A 
 yP P0 A  yC P0 A  yP yC  gA sin   yC2  gA sin    g sin  I xx ,C
  yP  yC  P0 A   yP  yC  yC  gA sin    g sin  I xx,C
 g sin  I xx,C
yP  yC 
P0 A  yC  gA sin 
I xx,C
yP  yC  (3.5.7)
 P0   g sin    yC  A
3 Fluid Statics
 Note:
• In many applications, atmospheric pressure Patm acts on both
sides of plane surface
 Simplification: Subtract Patm from absolute pressure and work
with gage pressures acting on one side (submerged side) 
can assume P0 = 0

3 Fluid Statics
• If P0 = 0 (considering gage pressures), (3.5.7) becomes
I xx,C
yP  yC  (3.5.8)
yC A
• Note:
– Resultant force FR does not pass through centroid C
but passes through center of pressure CP
I xx,C
– Since  0 , yP  yC  CP lower than C
yC A
(except when θ = 0)
– As yC increases, CP moves closer to C

3 Fluid Statics
• Centroidal coordinates and moments of area for some
common areas are given as follows:
TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I http://www.efunda.com/math/areas/Common_Geometric_Shapes_Index.cfm 3-43

3 Fluid Statics
TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I http://www.efunda.com/math/areas/Common_Geometric_Shapes_Index.cfm 3-44

3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3
• Gate 5 m wide is
hinged at B and
rests against smooth
wall at A
• Find:
a) Force on gate
due to water
pressure
b) Horizontal force P
exerted by wall at
A
c) Reactions at
hinge B
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3
Solution:
Part (a)
• Gate is 10 m long from A to B  centroid (CG) is halfway
between at elevation 3 m above B
• Depth of centroid hC = 15 – 3 = 12 m
• Gate area A = 10 x 5 = 50 m2
• Neglect P0 as atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of gate
• Hydrostatic force on gate:
FR  PC A (3.5.3)
FR   ghC A
FR  1000  9.8112  50 
FR  5.886 106 N
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3

3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3
Part (b)
• First find center of

pressure of FR
• Gate is a rectangle:
3
I xx,C 
3
ba

 5 10 
 417 m 4
12 12
• Centroid (C):
hC  yC sin 
hC 12
yC    20 m
sin   3 5 
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3
• Center of Pressure (CP):
I xx,C
yP  yC  (3.5.8)
yC A
I xx,C
l  yP  yC 
yC A
417
l  0.417 m
 20  50 
• Distance of B to force FR = 10 – l – 5 = 4.583 m
• Taking moments counterclockwise about B:
PL sin   FR  5  l   0
 
P 10  3 5   5.886 106  5  0.417   0

P  4.496 106 N 3-49
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3
Part (c)
• Summing forces on gate:
 Fx '  0
Bx '  FR sin   P  0
 
Bx '  5.886 106  3 5   4.496 106  0
Bx '  0.964 106 N

 Fy '  0
B y '  FR cos   0
 
B y '  5.886 106  4 5   0
B y '  4.709 106 N

3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.4
• Tank of oil
with right
triangular
panel near
bottom
• Assume P0 =
0 Pa gage
• Find
a) Hydrostatic
force on
panel
b) Center of
pressure

3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.4
Solution:
Part (a)
• Centroid of triangle is 4 m up and 2 m over from lower
left hand corner
• Area of triangle:
1
A  12  6   36 m 2
2
• Depth of centroid: hC = 5 + 4 = 9 m
• Hydrostatic force:
FR  PC A (3.5.3)
FR   ghC A
FR   900  9.81 9  36 
FR  2.861106 N
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.4

3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.4
Part (b)
• Second moment of area (slide 3-43):
a = 12 m, b = 6 m, d = 0
3
I xx,C 
ba 3

 6 12 
 288 m 4
36 36
• Centroid (C):
hC 9
hC  yC sin   yC    18 m
sin  sin 30
• Center of pressure (CP):
I xx,C
yP  yC  (3.5.8)
yC A
288
yP  18   18.444 m
18 36 
• Resultant force FR = 2.861 x 106 N acts through center of
pressure (CP) which is below centroid C
3 Fluid Statics
3.6 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Submerged Surfaces
• Consider arbitrary curved surface:
• Incremental
pressure forces are
normal to the local
area element 
forces vary in
direction along the
surface  cannot be
added numerically
• Separate into
horizontal
component FH and
vertical component
FV
3 Fluid Statics

3 Fluid Statics
• Project curved surface horizontally onto vertical plane 

get projected area on vertical plane
• Projected area lies on a vertical plane (θ = 90)

– Can determine centroid C and center of pressure CP
– Can determine magnitude and line of action of
resultant horizontal force due to hydrostatic pressure
FX

3 Fluid Statics
• Shift vertical projected area horizontally so that it lies on
the right of curved surface:

3 Fluid Statics
• Consider wedge of liquid enclosed by curved surface
and shifted vertical projected area:
Side View
of liquid
wedge 3-59
3 Fluid Statics
Side View
of liquid
wedge
• FH ← (on slide 3-55) is the horizontal component of the

force exerted by the liquid on the curved surface
• By Newton’s third law, FH → (on this slide) is the

horizontal component of the force exerted by the curved
surface on the wedge of liquid
3 Fluid Statics
• Wedge of liquid is in static equilibrium  horizontal

forces must balance:
FH  FX
 The horizontal component of hydrostatic force acting on

a curved surface is equal to the force on the plane area
formed by the projection of the curved surface onto a
vertical plane normal to the component. It acts through
the center of pressure (not centroid) of the projected
area

3 Fluid Statics
• Consider free-body diagram of liquid column contained
in vertical projection above curved surface:

3 Fluid Statics
• FV ↓ (on slide 3-55) is the
vertical component of the
force exerted by the liquid on
the curved surface
• By Newton’s third law, FV ↑

(on this slide) is the vertical
component of the force
exerted by the curved surface
on the liquid column
• W is the weight of the liquid

column extending vertically
from curved surface to
3 Fluid Statics
• Assume P0 = 0 (considering gage pressures)
• Liquid column is in static equilibrium  vertical forces
must balance:
FV  W
 The vertical component of pressure force on a curved
surface equals in magnitude and direction to the weight
of the entire fluid column above the curved surface, and
acts through the center of gravity (centroid) of the fluid
column
• Note:
In general there are 3 mutually perpendicular force
components: two horizontal and one vertical, which
might not meet at a single point  in general, there is no
single resultant force
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
• Dam with parabolic
shape
2
s s0   r r0 
• r0 = 10 m, s0 = 24 m
• Fluid: water ( =
1000 kg/m3)
• Omit atmospheric
pressure (P0 = 0 Pa
gage)
• Find FH and FV
acting on dam and
position CP where
they act
• Width of dam: w =
100 m
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
Solution:
• Project curved surface horizontally onto vertical x-y
plane  get rectangle S 24 m high and 100 m wide

3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
• Vertical projection of curved surface is a rectangle 24 m
high and 100 m wide
hC  yC sin 
hC  yC sin 90  yC
• Depth of centroid:
yC = hC = 12 m
• Horizontal component FH:
FH   ghC A (3.5.3)
FH  1000  9.8112  24 100
FH  2.825 108 N

3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
• Line of action of FH below free surface:
I xx,C
hP  yP  yC  (3.5.8)
yC A
1 3
100  24 
hP  yP  12  12
12  24 100 
hP = 16 m
• FH acts along a line 8 m from bottom (line of action of FH)
• Vertical component FV  weight of parabolic portion of
fluid above curved surface
2 
FV   g  r0 s0 w 
3 
2
FV  1000  9.81   10  24 100 
3
8
FV  1.570  10 N 3-68
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
• FV acts downward on surface at 3r0/8 = 3.75 m from
origin
• Total resultant force on
dam:
F  FH2  FV2
 2.825 10   1.570 10 

2 2
8 8
F
F = 3.232 x 108 N
• F acts down and to the
right at angle of
1  1.570 
tan    29
 2.825 
• F passes through
(3.75 m, 8 m)
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
• Move down along 29º line until strike dam  equivalent

center of pressure CP:
rCP = 5.43 m
sCP = 7.07 m 3-70
3 Fluid Statics
3.7 Buoyancy
3.7.1 Physical Explanation for Origin of Buoyancy Force
• Hydrostatic pressure in a constant density fluid increases

linearly with depth
• A net upward vertical force acts on body because
pressure forces acting from below body are larger than
the pressure forces acting from above body
• Resultant upward vertical force due to unbalanced
hydrostatic forces called buoyancy force or upthrust 3-71
3 Fluid Statics
• Consider a submerged body which lies between an
upper curved surface 1 and lower curved surface 2:
• Body experiences net upward buoyant or upthrust force

FB  FV  2   FV 1
 (fluid weight above 2) - (fluid weight above 1)
= weight of fluid equivalent to body volume
3 Fluid Statics
 Archimedes Principle:
A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical
buoyant (upthrust) force equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaces
• Alternatively, sum the vertical forces on elemental

vertical slices through the immersed body:
3 Fluid Statics
FB    P2  P1 dAH
body
FB    g   z2  z1 dAH
body
FB   g  body volume 
• Line of action of buoyant

force FB passes through
center of volume of displaced
body  known as center of
buoyancy B
• Center of buoyancy B may or may not correspond to
actual mass center of immersed body’s own material,
which may have variable density
3 Fluid Statics
• Shaded portion of body is the displaced volume

• Buoyancy force:
FB = weight of fluid displaced
FB = g(displaced volume)
• Vertical equilibrium:
FB  W 3-75
3 Fluid Statics
 Law of Flotation:
A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in
which it floats
Note:
• Displaced volume = volume of

submerged portion of floating
body = Vsub
• Since there can be no net

moments for static equilibrium,
buoyant force FB and body
weight W are collinear

3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.6
• Hydrometer floats at level which is
a measure of specific gravity of
liquid
• Top part of hydrometer extends
above liquid surface
• Divisions on hydrometer allow
specific gravity to be read directly
• Hydrometer calibrated such that
in pure water it reads exactly 1.0
at air-water interface
a) Obtain relation for specific gravity
of a liquid as a function of
distance Δz from mark
corresponding to pure water
b) Determine mass of lead that must
be poured into a 2-cm-diameter,
20-cm-long hydrometer if it is to
float halfway (the 10-cm mark) in
pure water
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.6
Solution:
Part (a)
• Hydrometer in static equilibrium (in water):
FB  W   w gVsub   w gAz0 (E3.6.1)
A: cross sectional area of tube
w: density of pure water
• In fluids less dense than water (f < w)  hydrometer
sinks deeper  liquid level rises a distance Δz above z0
FB  W   f gVsub   f gA  z0  z  (E3.6.2)
• Relation also valid for fluids denser than water (f > w)
 Δz < 0
• Relating (E3.6.1) and (E3.6.2),
 w gAz0   f gA  z0  z 
f z0
SG f  
w z0  z
• z0 is constant for a given hydrometer
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.6
Part (b)
• Neglect weight of glass tube
W  mg  FB   w gVsub
m   wVsub
m   w  R 2 z0  

m  1000    0.012  0.1 
m  0.0314 kg
Commercial
Hydrometer
TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I http://www.wiley.com/college/munson/1118116135/video_lib/chapter02/ch02_v2_8.html 3-79
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.7
• Body floats in between 2 immiscible fluids

• Evaluate x
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.7
Solution:
• Let length of body perpendicular to page be L
• Volume of displaced fluid:
V1  axL
V2  a  b  x  L
• Buoyancy force:
FB  FB1  FB 2
FB1  1gaxL
FB 2   2 ga  b  x  L
FB  1gaxL   2 ga  b  x  L
• Weight of body:
W   gV   gabL
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.7
• Vertical equilibrium:
FB  W
1gaxL  2 ga  b  x  L   gabL
1x   2  b  x    b
x
 2    b
2  1
• 0  x  b  1     2
• If 1   2 (like air-water):
x
 2    b
2
 can ignore buoyancy
force due to less dense
fluid 1

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3 Fluid Statics

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-1

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-3

• Applications / significance of fluid statics:

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-5

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-6

• Gage pressure (Pgage)

• Vacuum pressure (Pvac)

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-8

• Newton’s second law  force balance in x- and z-

 Fx  max  0  P1z  P3l sin   0 (3.2.1)

• z  0  last term in (3.2.6) goes to zero  wedge

• Combining the above results,

 Pressure at a point in a fluid has same magnitude in all

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-11

• Negative sign  pressure in a static

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-13

• Integrating (3.3.1) between two points with elevations z1

Pbottom  Ptop   g z (3.3.3)

where z is the absolute difference in depth between

• Pressure changes with vertical distance (depth), but

• Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane

• Pascal’s law  If a continuous line can be drawn

• Same pressures at A, B, C, D, E, F and G since they are

• Pressure is constant across a

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-17

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-20

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-24

• Simple open U-tube manometer for measuring PA in a

P1  PA  1gh1  PB  3 gh3   2 gl2 sin 

• Make θ small  differential reading along inclined tube

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-29

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-30

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-32

 The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-35

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-36

3.5.3 Line of Action of Resultant Hydrostatic Force

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-38

FR   P0   gyC sin   A I xx,O  I xx,C  yC2 A

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-41

– As yC increases, CP moves closer to C

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-42

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I http://www.efunda.com/math/areas/Common_Geometric_Shapes_Index.cfm 3-43

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I http://www.efunda.com/math/areas/Common_Geometric_Shapes_Index.cfm 3-44

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-47

• First find center of

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Bx '  0.964 106 N

B y '  4.709 106 N

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-51

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-53

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-56

• Project curved surface horizontally onto vertical plane 

• Projected area lies on a vertical plane (θ = 90)

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-57

TME2134 Fluid Mechanics I 3-58

• FH ← (on slide 3-55) is the horizontal component of the

• By Newton’s third law, FH → (on this slide) is the

• Wedge of liquid is in static equilibrium  horizontal

 The horizontal component of hydrostatic force acting on