Transport Phenomena

CHE-345

Dr. Taqi Mehran

SCME, NUST
taqimehran@scme.nust.edu.pk
Transport Phenomena – Text book
 INTRODUCTION
Q. What are Transport Phenomena ?
Ans. A combination of three closely related topics

Fluid Dynamics Momentum Transfer/Transport

Heat Transfer Energy Transfer/Transport
Mass Transfer Chemical Species Mass Transfer/Transport
Q. Why these transfer processes be studied together ?
1. 3 transfer processes mechanisms are very similar at molecular level
2. Same molecules transfer momentum, energy and mass, through
viscosity, thermal conductivity and diffusivity
3. These mechanisms frequently occur simultaneously in nature
4. Basic equations describing these transfer processes should be closely
related
5. Close similarity of these equations also lead to “analogies”
6. Mathematics required to solve the three transfer processes equations
is also very similar
 INTRODUCTION, contd. - 2
THREE LEVELS OF STUDY OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
1. Macroscopic Level
2. Microscopic Level
3. Molecular Level

Integral Analysis Macroscopic Level

A Macroscopic Balance of
1. Mass
2. Momentum
3. Energy
Due to various inputs & outputs
from our control volume
A job of practicing engineers
No attempt to understand
the details of what is going
on within the control
volume
Mainly used for the global
assessment of the problem
 INTRODUCTION, contd. - 3
Differential Analysis Microscopic Level

A Microscopic Balance of
1. Mass
2. Momentum
3. Energy
Due to various inputs & outputs
from our control volume
An attempt to understand the
details of what is going on
within the control volume
Mainly used to get profiles info of
1. Velocity
2. Temperature
3. Concentration

Used to understand the process and optimize it

A job for research and practicing engineers/scientists

 INTRODUCTION, contd. - 4
Molecular Level

To seek the fundamental understanding of the process of

1. Mass transfer
2. Momentum transfer
3. Energy transfer
In terms of molecular structure & intermolecular forces

A job primarily for

1. Theoretical Physicists
2. Physical Chemist
Some times Engineers/applied scientists do get involved in cases of
3. Complex molecules
4. Extreme temperatures/pressures
5. Chemical Reacting Flows
 INTRODUCTION, contd. - 5
Each of these levels involve typical length scales

Macroscopic Level Order of cm or m or even km

Microscopic Level Micron to cm range
Molecular Level 1 to 1000 nanometers

Requirements For Good Understanding of This Subject

MATHEMATICS, Differential Equations, Vectors, Calculus

Physical Interpretation of key mathematical results

Get into the habit of relating physical ideas to equations
Comparison of intuition and results obtained
Understanding of dimensional analysis
 VISCOSITY, MOMENTUM TRANSFER
MECHANISM
CONCEPT OF VISCOSITY

Cricket
Stadium
Gate

 Friction is felt only when you move either slower or faster than the
other spectators.
 Extent of friction depends on the type of clothes they are wearing.
 It is this type of clothes that gives rise to the concept of viscosity.
 Viscosity and Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Example of two parallel plates

• Top layer stationary,

• Bottom layer moves with constant velocity V
• A fluid is filled between the plates
• No slip condition between fluid and plates at both the plate surfaces

Shear force acting on the second

molecular layer of fluid is due to
the difference in the velocities of
the two adjacent layers
 Viscosity & Newton’s Law of Viscosity, contd. -2
Fluid initially at
Y t<0
y rest Common sense suggests the following.
x
1. A constant force F is required to
t=0 Lower plate maintain the motion of lower plate
y set in motion
x V 2. This force is directly proportional to
Velocity buildup 1. Area of plates
vx(y, t) small t
y in unsteady flow 2. Velocity of lower plate
x V 3. This force is inversely proportional
vx(y) Final velocity to
y large t distribution in 1. Distance between the plates
x V steady flow
Mathematical Interpretation Of Common Sense
Note, directions of V & y

V/Y is the gradient or slope

The force applied, F is the shear force
 Viscosity & Newton’s Law of Viscosity, contd. -3
The flux of momentum in the x-direction exerted on a fluid surface
of constant y by the fluid in the region of lesser y is designated as

Momentum flux OR Shear Stress τ yx

Bulk momentum flux transferred as
shear force on unit area perpendicular
as shear stress to the y-direction
The shear stress is moving in the
direction of y because the bottom layer
of fluid exerts a shear stress on the next
layer which then exerts a shear stress
on subsequent layer
Direction of actual
bulk momentum
Shear stress is induced by the
motion of the plate. Shear stress
can also be induced by a pressure
gradient or a gravity force
Pressure force is a force acting on a
surface while the gravity force is the
force acting on a fluid volume

Remember this bulk momentum is transferred by the mere random

motion of the molecules NOT by the bulk motion of molecules
Viscosity and Newton’s Law of Viscosity, contd. -4
The shear stress/momentum flux is a function of
1. Velocity gradient
2. Properties of the fluid

If this functional dependence is linear:

fluids are called Newtonian Fluids

Where, vx = fluid velocity in the x-direction

μ = fluid viscosity, a property of the fluid, not the physical system
The viscosity of Newtonian fluids is constant

Behaviour Of Gases At Moderate Pressures

Viscosity Is Independent Of Pressure Increases With Temperature

The temperature dependence is between T0.6 and T. Some theories are available.
Viscosity and Newton’s Law of Viscosity, contd. -5
Behaviour Of Liquids

Viscosity Is Independent Of Pressure Decreases With Temperature

Units of viscosity is g/cm/sec (poise) or Pa-s.

Magnitudes:

Air @ 20C 0.00018 g/cm/sec

Liquid water @ 20 C 0.001 Pa-s, 0.01 g/cm/s
 Non-Newtonian Fluids
For non-Newtonian fluids
• Functional dependence between shear stress and velocity
gradient is more complex.
• Can be written in the most general format:

non-Newtonian

Newtonian

non-Newtonian
 Non-Newtonian Fluids, contd. -2
Mathematically one can write for Non-Newtonian Fluids in the form

Where,
η = Apparent Fluid Viscosity, a function of either τyx / dvx/dy / both

Effects of η

1. Apparent fluid viscosity is dependent on the current state of fluid

2. If apparent viscosity decreases with increasing rate of shear (-dvx/dy)
1. The behaviour is termed pseudoplastic
3. If apparent viscosity increases with increasing rate of shear (-dvx/dy)
1. The behaviour is termed dilatant
 Non-Newtonian Fluids, contd. -3
Models of Non-Newtonian fluids

Bingham model: applicable for fine suspensions and pastes Bingham

Ostwald-de Waele model: e.g. used for CMC in water Ostwald

Eyring model: derived from the Eyring kinetic theory Eyring

Ellis model: CMC in water Ellis

Reiner-Philippoff model Reiner

 Non-Newtonian Fluids, contd. -4
Graphical representation of two-parameter model

Things To Remember

These models are empirical, that

is the parameters of the models
are obtained by curve fitting

The parameters are function of T,

P and composition

These model equations should

not be used outside their range of
validity.
 Prediction of Viscosity of Gases & Liquids
Empirical correlations for viscosity of gases at low density

Viscosity of gases at low density

(Molecular theory of gases)

END OF CHAPTER ONE

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids - 1
Models of Non-Newtonian fluids - 2
Models of Non-Newtonian fluids - 3
Models of Non-Newtonian fluids – 4
Models of Non-Newtonian fluids – 5
 MOMENTUM TRASNFER
SHELL BALANCE
AND
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS
IN
LAMINAR FLOW
TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
BY
BIRD, STEWART AND LIGHTFOOT
 SHELL BALANCE
SHELL BALANCE
A mathematical expression showing the balance of rate of change of
momentum and forces acting on the control volume.
(NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF MOTION)
2. Balance is made on a small shell of dimensions ∆x, ∆y, ∆z
3. All quantities are written in terms of fluxes
4. Solution gives velocity distribution leading to maximum velocity,
average velocity, flow rates and stresses at surfaces etc
5. This procedure of analysis is called analysis through first principle
6. Generally can be applied to simple geometries and idealized flow
situations
7. A combination of these simple analysis lead to complex
geometries and flow systems
8. Simple system analysis help in understanding complex systems
 SHELL BALANCE BY 1st PRINCIPLE
PROCEDURE OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA ANALYSIS
1. Draw a physical diagram.
2. Identify all transport mechanisms
3. Set a frame of coordinates and draw the direction of all transport
processes identified in step 2.
4. Draw a shell, whether it be one, two or three dimensional
depending on the number of transport direction, such that its
surfaces are perpendicular to the transport direction.
5. Carry out the momentum shell balance as below:

This should give a first-order ODE in terms of shear stress

SHELL BALANCE BY 1st PRINCIPLE, contd. - 2
Procedure Of Transport Phenomena Analysis, contd.
• If the fluid is Newtonian, apply the Newton law. However, if the
fluid is non-Newtonian, apply any appropriate non-Newtonian law
empirical equation.
This should give a second order ODE in terms of velocity.
• Impose physical constraint on the boundary of the physical system.
• This gives rise to boundary conditions.
Note that the number of boundary conditions must match the order
of the differential equation.
9. Solve the equation for the velocity distribution.
10. Then obtain the mean velocity, flow rate and the shear force.
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Common Boundary Conditions in Fluid Mechanics
NO-SLIP AT THE WALL
• Also called boundary condition of the first kind (Dirichlet BC)
• At solid-fluid interface, fluid velocity equals to velocity of the solid
surface

• What about the fluid fluid interface ? SLIP / NO-SLIP

• Can there be slip at the solid fluid interface

SYMMETRY
• At plane of symmetry, the velocity field is same on either side of the
plane of symmetry
• velocity must go through a peak/valley at the plane of symmetry
• Hence, 1st derivative of velocity is zero at the plane of symmetry
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS, contd. - 2
STRESS CONTINUITY
When fluid form a surface with another fluid, then stress is continuous
from one fluid to another, there are two possibilities
1. Viscous fluid in contact with an inviscid or almost inviscid fluid
1. At the boundary, stress in the viscous and inviscid fluids is same
2. As inviscid fluid cannot support shear stress (µ = 0), means
stress is zero at this interface
3. E.g fluid such as a polymer and air, would lead to a shear stress
in the polymer at the interface equal to zero

2. Two viscous fluids meet and form a flow boundary

3. Stress in one fluid is equal to stress in the other at the boundary

This is called Boundary Condition of 2nd kind OR the Newmann BC

 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS, contd. - 3

VELOCITY CONTINUITY
When a fluid forms one of the boundaries of the flow then along with
stress at the boundary, the velocity is also continuous from one fluid
to another.

This is also called Boundary Condition of Fourth Kind

 SHELL BALANCE, EXAMPLE-1
Example 1: Flow on flat plate

Examples: wetted-wall towers, evaporation, gas-absorption, and

coating
SHELL BALANCE, EXAMPLE-1
Example 1: Flow on flat plate

Step 1: Draw the physical diagram

y
x Shell
z

Direction of
Transport


L x

W x+x
 Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 2
Step 2: Possible transport mechanism
 Across the thickness of the film by shear
Along the film by convection
y
x
z

 L

W
Step 3: Frame of coordinates and direction of transport
 Choose a frame of coordinate (x,z) with x across the film and
z along the film.
 The direction of transport is in the x-direction.
Step 4: Draw a shell
 The shell is 1-D as there is only one transport direction.
 The shell is drawn such that the surfaces are at x and x+∆x, which
are perpendicular to the direction of transport.
 Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 3
Step 5: Momentum balance
Rate of z-momentum in at the surface at x = x

shear (force/area) at
surface area
the surface x
Rate of z-momentum out at surface x = x + ∆x

shear (force/area) at
surface area
the surface x+ ∆x
Gravity force in the z-direction acting on the volume of the shell
=

Volume of Shell gravity force per unit volume in z-

direction
 Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 4
Momentum balance equation

Divide the equation by the volume of the shell and make the shell
as thin as possible:
Definition of derivative:

The momentum balance equation is finally a differential equation

(valid at any point in the fluid film)
Linear

Upon deriving this equation nothing has been said about the fluid behavior.
Hence, it is applicable to Newtonian as well as non-Newtonian fluids.
Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 5
From this step onward,
we have to decide that Step 6: Apply the Newtonian law
what kind of fluid we are
using

second-order ODE in
terms of velocity
Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 6
At solid-fluid interface
the velocity is zero Step 7: Impose physical constraint
 is zero at the gas-
liquid interface

x=0

x=

Step 8: Solve ODE for velocity distribution

 Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 6

Is the velocity This is the velocity distribution in the film. It is

distribution parabolic in shape (only for Newtonian fluids)
of any use to us? Sort of
Step 9: Useful quantities
Maximum velocity Average velocity

volumetric flow rate Shear force acting

on solid surface
 Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 6
Maximum velocity

Average velocity
(defined as the mean velocity when multiplied by the cross
section area will give the volumetric flow rate)

Volumetric flow rate

Shear force acting on solid surface

 Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 6
What if the fluid is non-Newtonian

Step 6: Apply the Appropriate Non-Newtonian

model
Let us try the Ostwald-de Waele model for non-Newtonian fluids

Momentum Equation

Step 7: physical constraint

A Nonlinear ODE
 Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 6
Step 8: Solving for Velocity Distribution

Maximum velocity

Average velocity

Volumetric flow rate

 Example 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. - 6
For 3% CMC in water, n= 0.566

Compare with
Newtonian Fluids

1.2

1
Stronger than parabolic
0.8
dependence

V/Vmax
0.6

Implication of this example: 0.4

This study of thin film is useful in 0.2

the analysis of: 0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

1. wetted wall tower x/

2. evaporation and gas absorption n=1.0 n=0.566 n=0.4

3. coating to paper n=0.2 n=0.1 #REF!

4. drainage from plate

EX-2: Flow Of Incompressible Fluids IN A Circular
Tube
Differences in Problem Definition as compared to Flat Plate

Flat plate Circular tube

Laminar flow Laminar flow
No end effects No end effects
Rectangular Cylindrical
Gravity as the Gravity force &
driving force Pressure force

The procedure of solving the flat plate problem is used here to

solve this problem.
Example-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd. -2
Step 1: Draw the physical diagram

Convective transport of momentum

Diffusive transport of momentum

r
R
0 z r
r+r

z z+z Shell
L
Example-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd. -3
Step 2: Transport mechanism
1. Transport of rate of momentum in the r-direction.
2. Transport of rate of momentum in the z-direction.

Step 3: Frame of coordinates

Chosen as shown in the diagram
Typical for any system having cylindrical geometry

Step 4: Draw a shell

 Shell in this case is an annulus having surfaces perpendicular to
the direction of momentum transport.
 Shell is at the position (r,z) and has thicknesses ∆r and ∆z in the
r and z coordinates, respectively.
Example-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd.
-4
Step 5: Momentum shell balance

Rate of z-momentum in the shell across the cylindrical surface at r =

Surface contact area shear (force/area) at the

surface r

Rate of z-momentum out across the cylindrical surface at r+ ∆r =

Surface contact area shear (force/area) at the

surface r + ∆r
Example-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd.
-5
Rate of z-momentum in across the annular surface at z =

Mass flow rate

Cross-sectional area
Volumetric flow rate

Rate of z-momentum out across the annular surface at z+z =

Example-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd.
-6
Pressure force acting on the z surface:

Cross-sectional area Pressure along z

Pressure force acting on the z+z surface:

Gravity force acting on the shell volume along z direction:

Volume of the shell Weight force of the fluid in shell

Ex-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd.
-7
1. Add all the terms
2. Divide through out by the volume of shell
3. Take the limits by making the shell as thin as possible

Momentum balance equation after making shell as thin as possible

Independent of r
equal to zero as vz is independent of z
1. the fluid is incompressible
2. The tube area is constant

First-order ODE in terms of shear

stress
Ex-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd.
-8
Final momentum balance equation

C1 is zero because the shear

stress must be finite at r = 0

applicable to any fluids

shear stress is a linear function of r

Ex-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd.
-9
Step 6: Newtonian law

Step 7: Physical constraints

 Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube, contd. – 9.1
Parabolic velocity
distribution

Linear momentum
flux distribution
Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube, contd. -10
Step 8: Velocity distribution

Parabolic profile

Step 9: Useful quantities

Maximum Force of fluid

velocity Average Volumetric on wetted wall
velocity flow rate
 Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube, contd.
-11
Maximum velocity, at r = 0

Volumetric flow rate differential volumetric flow rate

Integrate the differential
volumetric flow rate

Can be measured easily

Measured
Calculated
 Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube, contd.
-12
HPE
Famous Hagen-Poiseuille equation
Often used to determine fluid viscosity

Average velocity

Force exerted by the flowing fluid on the walls of tube

Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube, contd. -13

Inner Surface area of tube Shear Stress at the wall

Results obtained are for Newtonian fluids.

For non-Newtonian fluids, substitute the appropriate model
equation after step-5.

FOR NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Step 6: Apply the Appropriate Non-Newtonian

model
Let us try the Ostwald-de Waele model for non-Newtonian fluids
Ex.-2: Flow Through a Circular Tube, contd. -14

For n = 0.566

Compare with
 Ex.-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd.
-15
Try the Bingham model for non-Newtonian fluids

The shear is zero at center of the

tube and maximum at surface of the
tube; thus, one expects a plug flow
region in the central part of the
tube.
Max finite shear at wall r=R
zero slip at wall

shear Velocity
stress profile
profile

zero shear at r=0 Physical Constraints of Bingham fluids

 Example-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd.
-16
Velocity distribution of a Bingham fluid flow in a circular tube

FOR, r  ro

FOR, r < ro

Critical radius ro and o

where dvz/dr = 0

The fluid in the tube does not move when

Shear in such tube is not large enough to overcome the yield stress
A property of flow of a Bingham fluid
Example-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, contd.
-17
For Volumetric flow rate

For practice do examples of

1. Annular flow
2. Flow of two immiscible liquids

END OF CHAP-2