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Anatomy of Wear Debris

Bennett Fitch, Noria Corporation

This article is the fourth part of a series of “anatomy” lessons within Machinery Lubrication. In this
issue, the various modes by which wear debris is created will be examined along with the physical
characteristics of each type of wear particle. In addition, microscopic analysis and similar
instrumentation will be used to provide an in-depth look at these particles’ unique appearances and
how they are formed.

Mechanical equipment deteriorates over time. Depending on the type of work and environmental
conditions a machine endures, internal mechanical deterioration can occur in the form of fatigue,
rubbing, sliding, abrasion and corrosion.

From a macroscopic perspective, the wear debris produced from these deterioration processes may
appear as insigni�cant specks of mass that mostly act and look the same. However, on a microscopic
level, this wear debris has a unique morphology (shape and size) and surface topography (roughness,
texture and surface pattern) based on the deterioration process or wear mode by which it was
produced.

If clearly understood, the morphology and topography can offer clues that can be used to prevent
imminent machine failure.

Wear debris can be de�ned as particles produced from the breakdown of surfaces within a machine.
These particles can range from a submicron size to chunks of metal as large as can be imagined.
Wear debris analysis generally focuses on the small, destructive particles, many of which are too
small for the human eye to see.

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These particles may be less than 1 micron to 200 microns

in size. If you have particles larger than 200 microns, you
probably don’t need anyone to tell you that there is a
serious issue within the machine.

Wear Debris Sampling and

Analysis
There are many wear debris analysis techniques (see
Table 1). Some of these methods can even analyze wear
debris right from the oil sample. Analytical ferrography
requires wear debris to �rst be isolated from the collected
oil sample.

Photomicrograph images of the ferrograms or �ltergrams

are then studied using an optical microscope. The main
advantage of analytical ferrography is its ability to
determine particle shapes, sizes and textures as well as
identify elements.

Ferrography utilizes either magnetism or membrane �ltration to collect particles. ISO standards, such
as ISO 16232, ASTM D7670 and D7690, are used to properly prepare these samples and analyze the
particles’ visual characteristics. These observed characteristics shed light on where and how these
particles were generated.

Ferrograms
As an oil sample �ows down a specially designed
glass slide called a ferrogram, a magnet is
positioned underneath to trap the ferrous particles.

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The particles tend to collect in strings along the

magnetic �eld. While many of the non-ferrous
particles will �ow past and not become trapped,
some will be held up by gravity or by contact with
the trapped ferrous particles. Both bottom and top
lighting can be used to help characterize the
particles’ critical features.

.
In this ferrogram, ferrous particles are
aligned along magnetic �elds.

Filtergrams
In contrast with ferrograms, �ltergrams do not have any
bias toward ferrous particles. As the oil sample is forced
through a �lter membrane, any particles greater than the
pore size are randomly trapped on the membrane surface.
However, bottom light transmission during analysis is
poor due to the opaqueness of the �lter membrane.
Particles collect at random
Wear Modes on a �ltergram.

Rubbing (Break-In) Wear (Abrasive Wear)

As the most common type of wear, rubbing wear
occurs whenever there is surface sliding contact
within a machine. During initial surface contact,
this type of “break-in” wear should be expected. It
usually results in a smoother, low-wearing surface.
Particles produced from rubbing wear typically
have a platelet (two-dimensional) morphology and
smooth topography.

Cutting
Wear
(Abrasive Wear)
This abnormal wear is produced when two surfaces penetrate
one another. As its name suggests, particles are generated from
one surface gouging the other surface, creating long, ribbon-like
chunks. This wear mode is often compared to machining swarf
.
from a lathe but on a much smaller scale.

Rolling Wear (Surface Fatigue)

Rolling surface contact produces surface fatigue. Particles generated from surface fatigue tend to

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come in the form of spalls, spherical or laminar

particles. The formation of pits and spalls as a
result of high load and a low-contact surface area
leads to the shaping and sizing of these particles
as they are forced out of their original setting. This
type of wear typically occurs with components of
rolling motion contact, such as in the case of ball
bearings.

Rolling and Sliding Wear

Combined (Surface Fatigue and Abrasive Wear)
This abnormal combination of wear modes is
caused by fatigue and scu�ng. It is commonly
associated with gear systems, particularly along
the pitchline of gear teeth as well as in conditions
with too high of a load or speed and excessive
heat generation. For example, the surface
contact of gear teeth is a combination of rolling
and sliding motion. This combined wear mode
region, along with the effects of lubricant
contaminants, can generate a complex fusion of
wear debris.

Severe Sliding Wear

A severe level of wear occurs in excessive loads and high
speeds between contacting surfaces. When surface
stresses are too great because of increased load and/or
speed on the surface contact area, the area becomes
unstable and large particles break away, further increasing
the wear rate.

Chemical/Corrosive Wear
Corrosive wear is frequently labeled as fretting corrosion,
erosion, stress fatigue, etc. These particles are often too small to distinguish individually and are
usually the result of improper �uid properties or heavy contamination from water, acid, salt or
bacteria. Heat also plays a major role in corrosion. Most lubricants have rust/corrosion-inhibiting
additives to combat the effects of chemical wear.

Particle Morphology and Topography

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Since wear particles detach from internal machine

surfaces in a variable manner, their morphology and
topography are unique. However, they also �t certain
patterns based on the actions by which they become
detached.

Platelet-
shaped
Particles
These two-
dimensional
particles are
generally �at
with a rough
perimeter.
Their thickness typically is about one-tenth to one-thirtieth their lateral dimension. They can be further
described as having either a laminar or wedge shape. One of the most common ways platelet-shaped
particles can occur is by normal and tangential forces through contacting asperities.

Spherical Particles
As their name implies, these particles are fundamentally
spherical. Normally less than 10 microns, they appear in
small numbers and are sometimes fused together. As
wear debris, spherical particles have been associated with
rolling-element bearings and are often a precursor to
fatigue failure.

It must be noted that spherical particles are frequently

found as contaminants rather than as wear debris. This type of spherical-shaped contaminant likely
will be larger than 10 microns and often is a byproduct of welding and grinding processes.

Wire or Curl-shaped Particles

Typically long and skinny, these particles may resemble a wire, splinter or ribbon shape. While they
can have smooth sides and edges, they normally will have a rougher appearance. Another common
characteristic is how they are curled, which is similar to a shaving curl in a wood-planing process. For
this reason, the particle may be rough on one side and smooth on the other.

These types of particles have been linked to cutting wear where one of the contacting surfaces
possesses an asperity or lodged particle that is plastically rigid compared to the other surface from
which the ribbon-shaped particle is gouged out.

Chunks or Irregular Particles

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The
adhesion
theory
offers a
possible
explanation
for why
particles
produce
irregular
shapes. During surface adhesion, the asperities of two
contacting surfaces �atten each other, creating a
fracture on one of the surfaces. The surface interaction
transfers fragment material, which adheres to the
opposing surface.

This can result in the formation of particles that have

unusual shapes and are a mixture of elements. The
shapes often are di�cult to de�ne, as several wear modes may be at work concurrently within the
system. As these wear particles act as abrasive contaminants between continually contacting
surfaces, they transform into unusual shapes.

Non-Ferrous Corrosion Particles

Corrosion particles typically are extremely small
(submicron). Magnetic collection techniques can be
effective in gathering these particles, which are too
small to view in individual detail.

Ferrous Oxide Particles

Oxide particles, which are either red or black iron
oxides, are produced from chemical reactions between
iron and oxygen. Red oxides are an indication of
moisture in the system, while black oxides indicate inadequate lubrication and excessive heat
generation in the system.

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Other Particles
The particles described previously comprise only those generated from wear-induced causes, but a
mechanical system can contain an assortment of other particles from environmental contaminants
like water, dust, etc., to human-agency contaminants such as machining byproducts.

Even some lubricant additives can be mistaken for wear particles during wear debris analysis.
Nevertheless, wear debris analysis is quite useful for discovering which degrading actions are
occurring within a machine or how a machine failed.

This illustration shows how the various types of wear particles are associated with the different wear
modes.

Although analysis techniques such as observations from precise heat treatments or adding speci�c
chemicals can help in determining the elemental composition of particles, spectrometric analysis is
generally more effective in providing the elemental composition of contaminants within an oil sample.
Analytical ferrography remains the best technique for determining the morphology and topography of
wear debris, which is essential in identifying the root cause of the particles.

References
Anderson, Dan P. (2012). Wear Debris Atlas. Jim C. Fitch (Technical Editor). Tulsa, OK: Noria
Corporation.

Rigney, David A. (1981). Fundamentals of Friction and Wear of Materials. Metals Park, OH: American
Society for Metals.

Thibault, Ray. (2006, Nov.-Dec.). “Improving Predictive Maintenance Through Wear Debris Analysis.”
Lubrication & Fluid Power.

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About the Author

Bennett Fitch
Bennett Fitch is the Chief Strategy O�cer at Noria Corporation and part of the services team as a
senior technical consultant. He is a mechanical engineer who holds a Machine Lubricant Analyst...
Read More

Machinery Lubrication (10/2013)

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