Extra credits

So far, these students have received extra credits.

ID Extra Credit
They did one of the following things related to the class.
5582049 0.20%
1. Raised a “good” question through email or in Q/A
5551181 0.20%
session at the beginning of each lecture.
5434850 0.10%
2. Gave a very good suggestion about my lectures.
5513565 0.10%
3. Helped me with miss-leading information in Canvas.
5514504 0.20%
4. Pointed out a key mistake in my PPT presentation.
5264002 0.10%
5. Etc.
Please actively participate in any activities related to the
class. If it is a constructive one, you will earn extra credit
(ranging from 0.1% to 0.5%) toward your final score.

Note: One mistake in my lecture 2-5 was pointed out

by a student. The correction is posted in Canvas.
 Penalty of handing-in HW’s late

For the HW#2, we already had several students handed-in their HW late
without any good reason along with an advanced notice to us.
From now on please hand-in your HW’s on time. There exists a
reasonable grace period, but do not count on it.

After discussing with TA’s, the following guidelines will be implemented:

1. Handing-in HW’s late, for the first time, TA’s will take away 1 to 3
points off from your score depending on the time of handing-in.
2. After the first time of being late, your HW’s score of the week will be
reduced by 50%.
 Interference between two sound waves
We already discuss superposition of two waves with
a phase difference in general. Two waves are
𝑦! = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 , 𝑦" = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
The resulting wave is given by: 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦# 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2Acos 𝜑⁄2 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑⁄2

One way for two identical waves that

are initially in phase to become out of
phase with one another (i.e., having
𝒓𝟐
a phase difference 𝝋) is to have the 𝒓𝟏
waves travel different distances; that
is, they have different path lengths.
Sound waves provide an excellent
example of a phase shift due to a
path difference.

Two identical speakers driven by a single sound generator.

 Interference between two sound waves
Two waves: 𝑦# = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 , 𝑦$ = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡

The resulting wave is given by: 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦% 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2Acos 𝜑⁄2 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑⁄2

𝝍𝟏 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒓𝟏 − 𝝎𝒕
𝝍𝟐 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒓𝟐 − 𝝎𝒕

Path difference: 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒓𝟏 + ∆𝒓 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝝍𝟏 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒓𝟏 − 𝝎𝒕
𝝍𝟐 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒓𝟏 − 𝝎𝒕 + 𝒌∆𝒓

Path difference leads

to phase difference:

𝒌∆𝒓
Two identical speakers driven by a single sound generator.
 Interference between
two sound waves
Blue: two crests
Red: two troughs
Black: one crest and one trough

Figure 17.17 Two speakers being

driven by a single signal generator.
The sound waves produced by the
speakers are in phase and are of a
single frequency. The sound waves
interfere with each other.

When two crests or two troughs coincide, there is constructive interference, marked by
the red and blue dots. When a trough and a crest coincide, destructive interference
occurs, marked by black dots. The phase difference is due to the path lengths traveled
by the individual waves. Two identical waves travel two different path lengths to a point
P. (a) The difference in the path lengths is one wavelength, resulting in total
constructive interference and a resulting amplitude equal to twice the original amplitude.
 Resonance in a tube closed at one end- sound waves

Fundamental 1 st overtone 2 nd overtone 3 nd overtone

𝜆# = 4𝐿 𝜆$ = 4𝐿⁄3 𝜆& = 4𝐿⁄5 𝜆' = 4𝐿⁄7
𝑓# = 𝑣⁄ 4𝐿 𝑓$ = 3 𝑣⁄ 4𝐿 𝑓& = 5 𝑣⁄ 4𝐿 𝑓' = 7 𝑣⁄ 4𝐿

Figure 17.22 The fundamental and three lowest overtones for a tube
closed at one end. All have maximum air displacements at the open
end and none at the closed end.
 Resonance in a tube open at both ends- sound waves

Fundamental 1 st overtone 2 nd overtone 3 rd overtone

𝜆# = 2𝐿 𝜆$ = 𝐿 𝜆& = 2𝐿⁄3 𝜆' = 𝐿⁄2
𝑓# = 𝑣⁄ 2𝐿 𝑓$ = 𝑣⁄ 𝐿 𝑓& = 3 𝑣⁄ 2𝐿 𝑓' = 2 𝑣⁄ 𝐿

Figure 17.23 The resonant frequencies of a tube open at both ends, including
the fundamental and the first three overtones. In all cases, the maximum air
displacements occur at both ends of the tube, giving it different natural
frequencies than a tube closed at one end.
 Question
A string fixed at both ends resonates at a fundamental frequency of 180 Hz. Which
of the following will reduce the fundamental frequency to 90Hz?
a) Halve the tension and keep the length and the mass per unit length fixed.
b) Double the tension and double the length.
c) Keep the tension and the mass per unit length fixed and double the length.
d) Keep the tension and the mass per unit length fixed and halve the length.
 Question
Musical instruments produce sounds of widely varying frequencies. Which sound
waves have longer wavelengths?
a) The lower frequencies; b) The higher frequencies; c) All frequencies have the
same wavelength; d) None of above.
 Question
As you know that the strings in a guitar
from right to left are getting thicker. Under
the same tension, will the wavelength
which is produced by each string
a) increases; b) decreases; c) it depends
on other factors,
as you pick each string in the mid section?
 Question

The speed of sound in water

is greater than that in air.
The explosion of a depth
charge beneath the surface
of a body of water is
recorded by a helicopter
hovering above the water’s
surface, as shown in Fig.
Along which path A, B or C
will the sound wave take the
least time to reach the
helicopter?
 17.6 Beats
An interesting phenomenon that occurs due to the constructive and destructive
interference of two or more frequencies of sound is the phenomenon of beats. Let us
consider superposition of two harmonic waves having slightly different frequencies.

𝑦# = 𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦$ = 𝐴 cos 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡

Trigonometric identity cos 𝑢 + cos 𝑣 = 2 cos 𝑢 + 𝑣 ⁄2 cos 𝑢 − 𝑣 ⁄2

𝑦 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 + 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 − 𝑘$𝑥 + 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2

Here we are mainly interested in the time dependent part

𝑦 𝑡 ≅ 2𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓()*+(,* 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑥) cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)

The beat frequency 𝑓.*(/ = 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 .

 17.6 Beats
An interesting phenomenon that occurs due to the constructive and destructive
interference of two or more frequencies of sound is the phenomenon of beats. Let us
consider superposition of two harmonic waves having slightly different frequencies.

𝑦# = 𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦$ = 𝐴 cos 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡

Trigonometric identity cos 𝑢 + cos 𝑣 = 2 cos 𝑢 + 𝑣 ⁄2 cos 𝑢 − 𝑣 ⁄2

𝑦 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 + 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 − 𝑘$𝑥 + 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2

Here we are mainly interested in the time dependent part

𝑦 𝑡 ≅ 2𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓()*+(,* 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑥) cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)

The beat frequency 𝑓.*(/ = 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 .

 17.6 Beats
An interesting phenomenon that occurs due to the constructive and destructive
interference of two or more frequencies of sound is the phenomenon of beats. Let us
consider superposition of two harmonic waves having slightly different frequencies.

𝑦# = 𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦$ = 𝐴 cos 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡

Trigonometric identity cos 𝑢 + cos 𝑣 = 2 cos 𝑢 + 𝑣 ⁄2 cos 𝑢 − 𝑣 ⁄2

𝑦 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 + 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 − 𝑘$𝑥 + 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2

Here we are mainly interested in the time dependent part

𝑦 𝑡 ≅ 2𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓()*+(,* 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑥) cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)

The beat frequency 𝑓.*(/ = 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 .

 17.6 Beats
An interesting phenomenon that occurs due to the constructive and destructive
interference of two or more frequencies of sound is the phenomenon of beats. Let us
consider superposition of two harmonic waves having slightly different frequencies.

𝑦# = 𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦$ = 𝐴 cos 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡

Trigonometric identity cos 𝑢 + cos 𝑣 = 2 cos 𝑢 + 𝑣 ⁄2 cos 𝑢 − 𝑣 ⁄2

𝑦 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 + 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 − 𝑘$𝑥 + 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2

Here we are mainly interested in the time dependent part

𝑦 𝑡 ≅ 2𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓()*+(,* 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑥) cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)

The beat frequency 𝑓.*(/ = 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 .

 17.6 Beats
An interesting phenomenon that occurs due to the constructive and destructive
interference of two or more frequencies of sound is the phenomenon of beats. Let us
consider superposition of two harmonic waves having slightly different frequencies.

𝑦# = 𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦$ = 𝐴 cos 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡

Trigonometric identity cos 𝑢 + cos 𝑣 = 2 cos 𝑢 + 𝑣 ⁄2 cos 𝑢 − 𝑣 ⁄2

𝑦 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 + 𝑘$𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2 cos 𝑘#𝑥 − 2𝜋𝑓#𝑡 − 𝑘$𝑥 + 2𝜋𝑓$𝑡 ⁄2

Here we are mainly interested in the time dependent part

𝑦 𝑡 ≅ 2𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓()*+(,* 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑥) cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)

The beat frequency 𝑓.*(/ = 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 . Obtain directly from above wave function.
Eq. 17.17
 17.6 Beats
constructive destructive
interference. interference
.

Figure 17.29 Beats

produced by the
constructive and
destructive interference
of two sound waves
that differ in frequency.
 Beats (for ∆𝒇⁄𝒇𝟏 𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝟐 ≪ 𝟏 )
• One of the sinusoidal functions has Constructive Destructive
frequency which is the average of the superposition superposition
original two.
• But the amplitude is modulated at a
frequency equal to the half of the difference
of the original two.
– Some define the beat frequency to be
Δf/2.
– However, often one observes intensity
and not amplitude.
– Intensity is proportional to the square of
the amplitude, so it oscillates twice as
fast as the amplitude. 𝑦 𝑡 ≅ 2𝐴 cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)
– Beat frequency = Δf! ∗ cos 2𝜋𝑓()*+(,* 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑥)
• Physical origin of the beats: sometimes the
two original waves add constructively and
sometimes destructively. ∆𝑓 = 𝑓.*(/ = 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 . Eq. 17.17
 Demo (3B60.20)

A dual function generator is

connected to a scope. The
frequencies are slightly
different in order to
produce beats.
 A tuning fork
A tuning fork is an acoustic resonator in the
form of a two-pronged fork with the prongs
(tines) formed from a U-shaped bar
of elastic metal (usually steel). It resonates at a
specific constant pitch when set vibrating by
striking it against a surface or with an object
and emits a pure musical tone once the
high overtones fade out. A tuning fork's pitch
depends on the length and mass of the two
prongs. They are traditional sources of
standard pitch for tuning musical instruments.
 Demos (3B60.10)

A microphone is placed
between two tuning forks with
the same frequency. One of
the forks has adjustable
masses such that the note can
be changed slightly. One fork
is struck with a rubber mallet,
then the other. Beats can be
heard.
 Demos
(3B60.10)
A microphone is
placed between two
tuning forks with the
same frequency.
One of the forks
has adjustable
masses such that
the note can be
changed slightly.
One fork is struck
with a rubber
mallet, then the
other. Beats can be
heard.
 Demo

PIRA Classification: 3B33.21

Description:
Two transparencies have black
bars printed on them. One set of
bars is 93% the size of the
other. When one set is moved
relative to the other, the
resulting 'waves' travels faster
than the individual set of bars.
PIRA Demo
Classification: 3B
33.21

Description: Tw
o transparencies
have black bars
printed on them.
One set of bars
is 93% the size
of the other.
When one set is
moved relative
to the other, the
resulting 'waves'
travels faster
than the
individual set of
bars.
 Sound Beats

Resulting wave function is

𝑦 𝑡 ≅ 2𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓()*+(,* 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑥) cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)

Beat frequency 𝑓.*(/ = 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 . Eq. 17.17

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 𝟐
The sound we hear is related
to the sound intensity 𝐼 ∝ 𝑦(𝑡) $. 𝑻/𝟐

𝑦 𝑡 ∝ cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)
𝑻
𝐼 ∝ cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥) $ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕
∝ cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)

Thus, the beat frequency from the

interference of sound is 𝑓# − 𝑓$ .
 Sound Beats

Resulting wave function is

𝑦 𝑡 ≅ 2𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓()*+(,* 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑥) cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)

Beat frequency 𝑓.*(/ = 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 . Eq. 17.17

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 𝟐
The sound we hear is related
to the sound intensity 𝐼 ∝ 𝑦(𝑡) $. 𝑻/𝟐

𝑦 𝑡 ∝ cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)
𝑻
𝐼 ∝ cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ ⁄2 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥) $ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕
∝ cos 2𝜋 𝑓# − 𝑓$ 𝑡 + 𝜑 - (𝑥)

Thus, the beat frequency from the

interference of sound is 𝑓# − 𝑓$ .