Consumables Corner: Heat input and

its effects on material properties

Q: How does heat input from welding affect the mechanical performance of
welded joints? Do preheat and interpass temperature have any effect on them as
well?

A: For many applications that involve thin plain carbon steel such as A36 or similar
grades, these variables have minimal effect on the final welded joint. The variables
become much more important when you are welding higher-strength or alloyed base
materials, so we will focus on those applications.

To produce high-strength materials with good toughness properties, there are two
types of material that have different mechanisms used in their manufacture: high-
strength, low-alloy (HSLA) and thermo-mechanically controlled processed (TMCP)
steel.

HSLA steel is produced by micro alloying, which is adding small amounts of alloy
such as manganese, molybdenum, chromium, and nickel along with niobium,
titanium, and vanadium.

TMCP is produced through carefully controlled temperatures and rolling pressures

during steel production. In some cases, both methods are used to produce high-
strength, quality steel with good toughness properties.

To answer your original question, welding heat input calculation is defined by

voltage, amperage, and travel speed, and it is generally expressed as kilojoules per
linear inch of weld (kJ/in.).

The general heat input range recommended for welding various types of carbon steel
and specialty alloys is 30 to 70 kJ/in. However, not all materials are bound by that
range.

Heat input from welding can have a serious effect on the mechanical toughness
properties of the base material in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the weld metal
itself. As a rule of thumb, the higher the strength and/or corrosion resistance of the
base material, the higher level of precaution should be taken during welding.

In most cases, problems arise when the heat input is too low or too high. Heat input
that is too high, either through excessive voltage, excessive amperage, or slow travel
speed, can slow your cooling rate, resulting in excessive grain growth. This excessive
grain growth shows up in changed mechanical properties, mainly a decrease in the
material’s cold weather toughness.

Using incorrect welding parameters such as excessive voltage can cause small
amounts of alloy to be lost in the arc, directly reducing the effective mechanical
properties of the welded joint. This is also true with stainless steel, the result being
degradation in corrosion resistance. For stainless steel, restricting heat input to 50
kJ/in. or less should prevent this from happening.

Slow travel speed usually occurs when you attempt to fill a large joint with only a few
weld passes. This raises the heat input drastically. The solidification rate of the weld
pool occurs at a slower rate, promoting grain growth in the weld metal and HAZ.
Large grain size tends to produce a weaker microstructure but is largely dependent on
filler metal and base metal chemistry, percentage of dilution, and peak temperatures.

Some HSLA steels have trace amounts of other elements added that act as grain
refiners, such as boron or titanium, and can maintain good mechanical properties with
acceptable weld heat input as high as 115 kJ/in.

For welding on TMCP or quench and tempered (Q&T) steels such as A514, limiting
heat input and carefully controlling maximum interpass temperatures are critical to
maintain the parent metal properties. Steel that gains better mechanical properties
from the Q&T process are much more likely to lose these gains in strength and
toughness if those values are excessive. Preheat and maximum interpass temperatures
will be determined by material thickness, but the heat input should be limited to no
more than 60 kJ/in.

Excessive travel speed with low welding parameters can produce heat input values
that are too low. Issues arise if this happens because of rapid solidification of the weld
bead. The resulting weld can have a very unrefined grain structure and produce a weld
deposit with excessive yield and tensile strength values that overmatch the base
material. To prevent this from happening, maintain a heat input value greater than 20
kJ/in.

Preheating is done for two primary reasons. First is the desire to slow the cooling rate
of the weld metal and HAZ to prevent undesirable microstructures from forming, such
as martensite. Second is to drive off condensate, which is found on the material’s
surface, from ending up in the weld joint and causing porosity or increasing the
potential for hydrogen cracking. Preheating can also assist in reducing the amount of
residual stresses in the weld metal and weld joint. In some applications this can
eliminate the need for postweld heat treat (PWHT).

Controlling interpass temperature is important because it ensures that the weld’s

cooling rate will be fast enough to deliver the required mechanical properties. For
example, A514 interpass temperature should be kept under 400 degrees F, while
NiCrMo steel such as 4340 can be as high as 650 degrees F. Keeping in mind these
values are thickness-dependent.

To gain a better understanding of the metallurgy that determines the various possible
outcomes, getting familiar with time-temperature-transformation diagrams or
continuous-cooling-transformation diagrams will provide a good visual for the phase
changes occurring in the weld metal and HAZ.
Stiffeners
Stiffeners are secondary plates or sections which are attached to beam webs or flanges
to stiffen them against out of plane deformations.

Almost all main bridge beams will have stiffeners. However, most will only have
transverse web stiffeners, i.e. vertical stiffeners attached to the web. Deep beams
sometimes also have longitudinal web stiffeners. Flange stiffeners may be used on
large span box girder bridges but are unlikely to be encountered elsewhere.

Guidance on the design of stiffeners is given below and in Guidance Notes GN 2.04
and GN 2.05.

Bearing, jacking and internediate web stiffeners

River Eden Bridge, Temple Sowerby Bypass

Types of stiffener
There are two principal types of stiffener:

 Longitudinal web stiffeners, which are aligned in the span direction

 Transverse stiffeners, which are aligned normal to the span direction of the beam.

 types of stiffeners

Stiffeners on I-section girders

Stiffeners on box girders

Longitudinal and transverse stiffeners in a box girder

(Image courtesy of Atkins)
 Transverse web stiffeners are usually provided at bearing positions and these
are known as bearing stiffeners. For future maintenance it is good practice to
provide bearing stiffeners at jacking points (for when girders have to be raised
to free bearings for replacement). Other transverse stiffeners are called
intermediate transverse web stiffeners.

Transverse web stiffeners

(Image courtesy of Arup)

Box girders usually have diaphragms at the positions of supports instead of stiffeners.
These are usually solid plates across the inside of the box.

Stiffener sections
Stiffener sections

A variety of sections have been historically used as stiffeners, however the simple flat
stiffener is the type almost always used in modern designs. Stiffeners can be attached
on one side of the plate (single sided), or on both sides (double sided). Usually
bearing stiffeners are double sided, while intermediate web stiffeners are single sided.
Stiffeners can also be doubled up, or even trebled, to form multi-leg stiffeners.

What are stiffeners for?

Stiffeners have one or both of the following functions:

 Controlling local buckling

 Connecting bracing or transverse beams

Controlling local buckling

Local buckling occurs when a cross section is slender enough for buckling to occur
within the cross section, due either to compression or shear. The webs of bridge
beams are usually vulnerable to local buckling, but flanges are usually much thicker
and inherently more resistant to buckling.

Local buckling can occur due to transverse compression load e.g. a web subjected to a
bearing reaction, longitudinal compression load e.g. from bending, or from shear.
In all cases the addition of a relatively small stiffener to a slender plate can increase
the resistance to local buckling substantially.

Reasons for transverse stiffeners

Reasons for longitudinal stiffeners

Connecting bracing or transverse beams

The easiest way to brace steel beams together is by fixing the bracing to transverse
stiffeners. Thus stiffener positions almost always coincide with bracing positions.

In a ladder deck the webs of transverse beams can be connected directly to the main
beam stiffeners, so stiffener spacing matches transverse beam spacing. In a multi-
girder bridge with cross bracing the bracing members are usually connected to the
main beam stiffeners, so that stiffener spacing is the same as bracing spacing.

Examples of stiffeners connecting bracing

Designing stiffeners for local buckling

There are two stages in the design of stiffeners. First the design needs to identify
where stiffeners are needed for the main beams to be adequate. Then the stiffeners
themselves need to be designed.

Bearing stiffeners

EN 1993-1-5[1], clause 5.1 (2) gives a criterion for when bearing stiffeners are
mandatory. Most bridge beams will require bearing stiffeners according to this
criterion. Even if bearing stiffeners are not required by this clause they may still be
provided if desired - this may benefit the shear resistance as calculated by EN 1993-1-
5[1] clause 5.3.

End posts

At end supports, if bearing stiffeners are to be provided, then a decision has to be

made as to whether to provide a “rigid end post”, as shown in EN 1993-1-5[1],
Figures 5.1 and 9.6. A rigid end post will benefit the shear resistance as calculated by
EN 1993-1-5[1] clause 5.3. Although older riveted girders in the UK may have a rigid
end post end detail, more recent UK practice has not been to provide rigid end posts
but to provide a “non-rigid end post”. If a rigid end post is required then minimum
stiffener requirements are given in EN 1993-1-5[1] clause 9.3.1.

Having decided that bearing stiffeners are to be provided, to verify the design of
bearing stiffeners, determine the effective stiffener section in accordance with EN
1993-1-5[1] clause 9.1 (2). Note that multi-leg stiffeners must be split into separate
effective cross sections and the loads divided between them. Guidance on design of
bearing stiffeners is given in Section 8.3.2 of SCI P356.

The loads to be considered for the design of bearing stiffeners are given in PD 6695-
2[2] clause 16. The majority of the loading on the stiffener will be the vertical loading
from the bearing reaction. There will be horizontal loading to consider to resist FS
forces as given in PD 6695-2[2] clause 10, there may also be horizontal loading from
the bearing if it is fixed. These loads may generate bending moments in the stiffener
section.
Having determined the loading, verify the chosen stiffener size by checking the
adequacy of the effective stiffener section to act as a column for combined axial load
and bending moment as required by EN 1993-1-5[1] clause 9.4.

Intermediate transverse web stiffeners

It is usually necessary to provide intermediate stiffeners on main beam webs for the
practical purpose of connecting torsional bracing between the beams. If so, the chosen
bracing positions will determine the positions of at least some of the stiffeners.
However, for beams with no bracing , such as transverse girders in a ladder deck
bridge, or if plan bracing is being used, there may be no practical necessity for
intermediate stiffeners at all. The requirement for intermediate transverse web
stiffeners is determined by the verification of the shear resistance - this will indicate
where stiffeners are needed, and where stiffeners extra to those for bracing are
needed.

Verification of the shear resistance of the beam is carried out in accordance with EN
1993-1-5[1], clause 5.2 (1) and 5.3 (1). Note that the strength contribution from the
web which comes from EN 1993-1-5[1] clause 5.3 (3) and EN 1993-1-5[1] Annex
A.3 is function of the existence and the spacing of intermediate stiffeners, and
whether those intermediate stiffeners are classified as rigid. As a first step in design, it
is suggested that initially it is assumed there are no intermediate stiffeners at all; if
this proves the beam to be adequate in shear then the benefit of any intermediate
stiffeners for bracing attachment will be a bonus.

If the above procedure determines that intermediate stiffeners are required, then the
designer will need to choose the positions and spacing of these stiffeners, and to
decide whether they need to be rigid. Verification of the stiffener size is similar to that
for bearing stiffeners, starting with determining the effective stiffener section in
accordance with EN 1993-1-5[1] clause 9.1 (2). To test whether the stiffener is rigid,
verify that the requirement in EN 1993-1-5[1] clause 9.3.3 (3) is satisfied.

The loads to be considered for the design of bearing stiffeners are given in PD 6695-
2[2] clause 15. Loads on intermediate stiffeners are usually much less than for bearing
stiffeners but stiffeners may be still subject to forces and moments due to interaction
with transverse beams or bracing. For example, in a ladder deck bridge, the shear in
the transverse beams will cause an axial force in the main beam stiffener. There may
also be horizontal loading to consider from the bracing which may generate bending
moments in the stiffener section. Having determined the loading, verify the chosen
stiffener size by checking the adequacy of the effective stiffener section to act as a
column for combined axial force and bending moment (if any) as required by EN
1993-1-5[1] clause 9.4.

If there is no direct loading on the stiffener from any of the above, it is only necessary
to ensure the effective stiffener section satisfies the stiffness criterion given in EN
1993-1-5[1] clause 9.2.1 (5). Further guidance on design of intermediate stiffeners is
given in Section 8.3.1 of SCI P356.

Longitudinal stiffeners
As noted before, most bridges do not have longitudinal stiffeners. Longitudinal
stiffeners should not be necessary on any part of a section that is never in compression
nor on any part of the section that is classified as class 1, 2 or 3 in accordance with
EN 1993-1-1[3] clause 5.2.2 (8). Even if the part of the section is classified as class 4,
longitudinal stiffeners may still not be required. To determine if the beams have
sufficient bending strength without longitudinal stiffeners, the procedure is to follow
EN 1993-1-5[1] clause 4.4. To determine if longitudinal stiffeners are required on the
web to give the main beams sufficient shear strength, the procedure is as for
intermediate stiffeners, i.e. to verify the shear resistance of the beam to EN 1993-1-
5[1] clauses 5.2(1) and 5.3(1).

Continuous and discontinuous longitudinal stiffeners

If they exist, longitudinal stiffeners can be continuous or discontinuous, depending on

whether they are continuous through transverse stiffeners and diaphragms.
Discontinuous longitudinal stiffeners stop and start again either side of the transverse
stiffener so that they do not pick up global longitudinal stresses from the web or
flange to which they are attached. They are there simply to resist buckling to the web
or flange. Continuous longitudinal stiffeners, however, do pick up global stresses and
add to the cross section.

If longitudinal stiffeners are to be provided they are to be verified by checking the

adequacy of the effective stiffener section to act as a column as required by EN 1993-
1-5[1] clause 9.2.2 (3).

Stiffener detailing
Bearing stiffeners

At bearings, the stiffeners usually have to be quite substantial to resist the high
compressive forces and may possibly have to be multi-leg stiffeners. Usually a double
sided stiffener is required to avoid a high eccentricity of loading. Bearing stiffeners
are usually thicker than the web.

It is important to make sure the stiffener is “fitted” to the bottom flange, which means
the stiffener is ground to make good contact with the flange. This means the stiffener's
share of the axial force in the effective stiffener section can be transmitted through
direct contact between the flange and stiffener. A simple way to determine the
stiffener's share of the axial force is to calculate the stress at its centroid, taking into
account eccentricity of axial force on the effective section, and then multiply this
stress by the stiffener area.

Welds are almost always continuous fillet welds all round both sides of the stiffener.
A simple 6mm leg length weld may be adequate but often may have to be 8mm or
10mm. The weld has to be sized so as to be able to transmit the stiffener's share of the
bearing load into the web.

Intermediate stiffeners

Stiffener widened to allow room for connections

For intermediate transverse web stiffeners, the stiffener probably does not need to be
very big. Typically a single sided 150x15mm plate has adequate strength and
stiffness. Sometimes the stiffener size will have to be increased to accommodate
connections. This can be done by increasing the plate size to 200x20mm or perhaps
250x 5mm. Alternatively, the stiffener width can be locally increased to provide
connection area, as shown.

Traditionally the stiffener width to thickness ratio has been limited to no more than 10
to avoid local buckling. However, the Eurocodes have no restriction on this ratio, and
more slender stiffeners are permitted, although checks may need to be made that they
will not be at risk from local buckling. It does not matter if the stiffener if thicker than
the web, so generally thicker stiffeners are recommended.
To give a clean appearance to the bridge, it is normal to design the outer beams such
that the intermediate transverse stiffeners are on the inner face of the web and hence
not visible on the elevation.

Unless there is a substantial axial force on the stiffener, a simple weld detail such as a
6mm leg length continuous fillet weld all round both sides of the stiffener should be
sufficiently strong and durable.

Further guidance on connection of bracing is given in Guidance Note 2.03.

Connections to the flange

Stiffener to flange connections

Transverse web stiffeners are sometimes welded to the flange, and sometimes stopped
just short of either or both flanges.

The necessity for a connection to a flange depends on whether forces need to be

transferred to the flanges. If there is a significant axial force to be transferred to the
stiffener from one of the flanges it will be necessary to weld the stiffener to that
flange. Hence bearing stiffeners must be connected to the bottom flange if part of the
bearing reaction is to be transferred to the stiffener. If there is bracing connected to
the stiffener then it is likely that it is necessary to weld the stiffener to the
compression flange to transfer the lateral shear force. A connection to the top flange
also prevents a fatigue problem in the top flange to web weld as the deck tries to
rotate over the beam due to traffic loads. The advantage of stopping the stiffener short
of the flange is that it avoids a potential water trap on the upper surface of the bottom
flange. This is particularly important to avoid on weathering steel bridges.

Where a stiffener is to be welded to a flange, normal construction tolerances would

result in a small gap between the stiffener and the flange, unless the stiffener is fitted;
all the forces will therefore be transferred through the welds. However, if a stiffener is
fitted to the flange, the fabricator will grind the stiffener end so as to make a good fit
with the flange over a substantial proportion of the stiffener area. This exercise
requires additional work (and cost) so stiffeners should only be fitted when necessary,
e.g. for bearing stiffeners and for stiffeners at a change in flange direction. Also, it is
not practically possible to fit a stiffener to both flanges so the fitted end will be at the
end where the greatest force is to be transmitted, usually the bottom flange.
Stiffener to flange connections

Cope holes

Snipe and cope hole details

At the corner of a transverse web stiffener where the stiffener plate meets the web to
flange weld, it will be necessary to shape the stiffener to avoid the weld. There are
two options, either snipe the stiffener to suit the web to flange weld and weld up all
the interfaces, or provide a cope hole. Although the first option requires welding one
weld on top of another, this detail may be easier to fabricate than the second, because
it is difficult to satisfactorily complete continuous welds around cope holes and apply
paint to all of the surfaces.

References
· BS EN 1993-1-5:2006+A2:2019. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Plated structural elements.
BSI
· · PD 6695-2:2008+A1:2012 Recommendations for the design of bridges to BS EN 1993. BSI

· BS EN 1993-1-1:2005+A1:2014, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. General rules and rules for
buildings, BSI

Resources
  Iles, D.C. (2010) Composite highway bridge design. (P356 including corrigendum, 2014). SCI
 Hendy, C.R.; Iles, D.C. (2015) Steel Bridge Group: Guidance Notes on best practice in steel
bridge construction (6th Issue). (P185). SCI

o Guidance Note 2.03 Bracing and cross beam connections

o Guidance Note 2.04 Bearing stiffeners
o Guidance Note 2.05 Intermediate transverse web stiffeners

See also
 Multi-girder composite bridges
 Ladder deck composite bridges
 Box girder bridges
 Weathering steel
 Bridges - initial design
 Design of beams in composite bridges
 Fatigue design of bridges
 Bracing systems
 Connections in bridges
 Bridge articulation and bearing specification
 Design for steel bridge construction

External links
 Highways England DMRB (Design Manual for Roads and Bridges)
 Highways England MCDHW (Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works)
 The Steel Bridge Group (SBG)