CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023

■ Protected as in floats in a bath

BASIC FEATURES OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Subsystems of the NS
● Central Nervous System
○ Parts:
■ Brain (in the skull)
■ Spinal Cord (in vertebral
column)
○ Encased in bone
○ Needs help from the PNS
■ Structures outside of the brain
and spinal cord that bring
information to these
of CSF contained within the
subarachnoid space
■ CSF surrounding the brain and
spinal cord reduces shock to the
CNS caused by sudden head
movement
ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS
**Early anatomists named most brain structures
according to their similarity to commonplace objects.
● Amygdala → almond shaped
● Hippocampus → seahorse
● Cortex → tree bark

● Peripheral Nervous System Neuraxis

○ Cranial nerves ● Imaginary line drawn through the length of the
○ Spinal nerves CNS, from the lower end of the Spinal Cord up
○ Peripheral ganglia to the front of the brain
● More complicated to draw on humans
Brain ○ Due to standing upright → neuraxis
● Made up of neurons, glia, and other supporting bends (top of head is perpendicular to
cells the back)
● Most protected organ of the body
○ Encased in a tough, bony skull
○ Floating in a pool of cerebrospinal fluid DIRECTIONS
(CSF)
● Receives abundant supply of blood and Anterior or ○ front end
chemically guarded by BBB Rostral ○ Also known as rostral when
○ Receives approx. 20% of the blood flow referring to the brain
from the heart continuously
○ Posterior or ○ Toward tail
● Can store only a small amount of its fuel Caudal ○ Also known as caudal when
(primary glucose) referring to the brain
○ Cannot temporarily extract energy
without oxygen (unlike muscles) Dorsal ○ Top of the head and the back
○ Makes oxygen necessary for energy ○ Dorsum means “back”
○ Impacts of interrupted blood flow to the
brain Ventral ○ Front surface facing the ground
■ 1 second → uses up most of the ○ Ventrum means “belly”
dissolved oxygen
■ 6 seconds → unconsciousness Lateral ○ Towards the side
■ Few minutes → permanent
damage Medial ○ Towards the middle
● Soft and Jelly-Like
○ Weights approx. 1400 grams ADDITIONAL TERMS
■ Brain cannot support its weight
well Superior ○ “Above”
■ Net weight is 80g only since ○ refers to the brain
immersed in fluid
○ Necessitates protection from shock Inferior ○ “Below”
■ Difficult extracting without
damaging it from a corpse
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023

**there is a need for 2 arterial systems because there

○ Structures on the same side of
are 2 smaller arteries that join/connect together
Ipsilateral the body
● If one route goes wrong, there will still be
■ What originates from the
another path to supply blood for the brain
left terminates at the left

○ Structures on opposite sides of

Contralateral the body
■ What originates from the
left terminates at the right

Planes of the Human Nervous System

1. Cross/Frontal Sections
a. Transversely cut (like slicing a loaf of
bread)
b. Divide the brain into front and back
halves
c. Because of our upright posture, cross
sections of the spinal cords are parallel
to the ground

2. Horizontal Sections
a. Parallel to the ground
b. Cutting off the upper half of the brain

3. Sagittal Sections
a. Perpendicular to the ground and parallel
to the neuraxis
b. Midsagittal Plane
i. Divides brain into two
symmetrical right and left halves MENINGES

Meninges
● Protective sheaths around the brain and spinal
cord
● Singluar: Meninx; Greek for “membrane”
● Has 3 layers:
○ Dura Mater
■ Durable, thick, tough
■ Flexible but unstretchable
■ Outermost
○ Arachnoid Membrane
■ Middle layer of the meninges
■ Name from weblike appearance
of the arachnoid trabeculae that
protrude from it
● Greek arachne meaning
“spider”; trabecula
meaning “track”
Internal Carotid Artery ■ Soft and spongy
● Provides blood for the anterior part of the brain ■ Lies beneath the dura mater
○ Pia Mater
Vertebral Artery ■ Closely attached to the brain
● Big artery that supplies blood for the back part of and spinal cord
the brain
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023

■ Follows every surface

convolution
■ Smaller surface blood vessel of
the brain and spinal cord are
contained within this layer
● Subarachnoid Space
○ Gap between pia mater and arachnoid
membrane
○ Space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)
● The PNS is covered with 2 layers of meninges Choroid Plexus
○ Outside CNS, dura mater and pia mater ● Special tissue with a rich blood supply that
fuse and form a sheath that covers the manufactures CSF
spinal and cranial nerves of the ● Protrudes into all four of the ventricles
peripheral ganglia ● Produces CSF several times a day → there’s a
● The CNS is covered with arachonid membrane continuous supply of CSF from CP
with its associated pool of CSF ● Kinda looks like pouches that have blood
vessels beneath it
○ CP acts like a filter to the blood
■ Filters blood to make CSF
THE VENTRICULAR SYSTEM AND PRODUCTION ● The CSF actually
OF CSF comes from blood

Ventricles
● Series of hollow, interconnected chambers filled
with CSF
● “Little bellies”
● The VS of the brain consists of ventricles
● Role in producing and containing CSF

Parts of the Ventricular System

1. Lateral ventricles
○ Largest chambers
○ Connected to the third ventricle
○ Constitutes the first and second
ventricles but are never referred to as
such

2. Third Ventricle
○ Located at the midline of the brain
○ Walls divide the surrounding part of the
brain into symmetrical halves

3. Massa Intermedia
○ Bridge of neural tissue
○ Crosses through the middle of the third
ventricle
○ Serves as a convenient reference point

4. Cerebral Aqueduct
○ Long tube that connects the third
ventricle to the fourth ventricle
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
● Reason why we don’t feel the spinal cord and
brain
● Produced continuously
○ Total volume of CSF is approx. 125ml
○ Half-life of 3 hours
○ Thus, must have a mechanism for
removal of CSF
● Process:
1. CSF produced by choroid plexus of the
lateral ventricle flows into the 3rd
ventricle via the foramen of Monro
2. More CSF is produced in the 3rd
ventricle, then flows through the
cerebral aqueduct to the 4th ventricle
a. Where still more CSF is
produced
3. CSF leaves the 4th ventricle through
small openings that connect with
subarachnoid space around CNS
4. CNS is reabsorbed into the blood supply
through the arachnoid granulations
Arachnoid Granulations
● Pouch-shaped structures
● Protrude into the sagittal sinus
○ A vein
○ drains into the heart for oxygen, serving
the brain
Occasionally, the flow of CSF is interrupted at some
point in its route of passage.
● Typically occurs in occlusion (blocking of an
organ)
○ Results in greatly increased pressure
within the ventricles
■ Because choroid plexus
continues to produce CSF
■ Walls then expand and produce
obstructive hydrocephalus
Obstructive Hydrocephalus
● Hydrocephalus – “water head”
● walls of the ventricles expand as CSF is
continuously produced
○ Growing tumor → blockage of a
ventricular structure→ too much of CSF
→ increases pressure in the brain,
which may suffocate other parts of the
brain
■ Case of suffocation and lack of
flow, thus disrupting the
processes (not enough blood
supply, etc)
● If the obstruction remains or intracerebral
pressure is not reversed:
○ Blood vessels will be occluded
○ Permanent (and possibly fatal) brain
damage will occur
● Temporary solution/peration procedure:
○ Drill hole through skull and insert shunt
tube into one of the ventricles
■ Shunt acts as a diversion
○ Tube is placed beneath skin and
connected to a pressure relief valve
implanted in abdominal cavity
■ Must be inside the body
because of the possibility of
infection
○ Pressure becomes excessive → valve
permits CSF to escape into abdomen
■ Eventually reabsorbed into
blood supply
● Best option: remove obstruction if possible
● Why do you want the pressure to stay stable or
be enough?
○ If it isn’t, brain structures could be
pushed against the skull (especially the
brain stem)
■ BS could herniate (herniation)
● Could happen
anywhere
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023

● When structures go into

cavities that it does not
belong in
○ Could
strangulate
certain
structures
● Once it herniates, its
over

21st day Ridges touch each other and fuse

after together, forming the neural tube
conception ● Tube that gives rise to the brain
and spinal cord

Top part of the ridges break away from

the neural tube and become the ganglia
of the autonomic nervous sytem

Brain Infection
● Obstruction of CSF Flow
● Swollen or inflamation → blocking passage of
CSF 28th day 1. Neural tube is closed
● Stroke after 2. Rostral end has developed three
○ 2 Ways it can occur: conception interconnected chambers
■ Bleeding a. Chambers become ventricles
● Blood goes out → clots b. Tissue that surrounds ventricles
→ blockage → cells die becomes the forebrain,
before it goes through midbrain, and hindbrain
inflammation
■ Blockage

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

18th day Beginning of the CNS Development

after
conception Ectoderm (outer layer) of the back of the
embryo thickens and forms a plate
● Edges of the plate form ridges
that curl toward each other
along a longitudinal line
(rostral-caudal direction)
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023

Rostral Chamber (Forebrain)

● Divides into 3 separate parts
○ 2 lateral ventricles
■ Telencephalon (end brain)
● Region around the
lateral ventricles
○ Third ventricle
■ Diencephalon (interbrain)

Final Form 1. Mecencephalon (chamber inside

midbrain) becomes narrow
a. Forms cerebral
aqueduct
2. 2 structures develop in the
hindbrain:
a. Mentecephalon
(after brain)
b. Myelencephalon
(Marrowbrain)

***IMAGES: Left: Dorsal views. Right: Cross section at
levels indicated by dashed lines.
PRENATAL BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
Cerebral Cortex
● Approx. 3mm thick
● Surrounds cerebral hemispheres
○ Layer of grey matter on top of
cerebellum
● CC is larger in humans than in any other species
● Circuits of neurons in CC play a role in
perception, cognition, and control of movement
● Develops from the inside out
Process of CC Development
1. First cells produced migrate a short distance and
establish the first and deepest layer
2. Next wave: newborn cells pass through 1st layer
and form the second one
3. Process repeats until all 6 layers have been
formed
○ Last cells to be produced must pass
through all cells before them
**Stem cells that line the inside of the neural tube give
rise to the cells of the CNS.
● CNS Development
○ Plate of cells → hollow tube →
maintains basic shape after full
development
Progenitor Cells
● Stem cells that give rise to the cells of the brain
● Term “Progenitor”
○ Direct ancestor of a line of descendants
● During 1st phase of development
○ PC in the Ventricular Zone (VZ) divide,
making new progenitor cells and
increasing the size of the VZ
■ VZ location: outside the wall of
the neural tube
○ Symmetrical Division
■ Phase where some PC migrate
a short distance away from the
VZ
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023
● Continue to divide into
more PC and establish the
Subventricular Zone (SZ)
■ The division of each PC
produces 2 new PC
● Increases the size of the
VZ and SZ
● 7 Weeks After Conception
○ PC receive signal to begin Asymmetrical
Division
■ Phase when 2 PC form 2
different kinds of cells as the
divide
● 1 PC and 1 Brain Cell
■ Type of BC Developed
● Radial Glia
○ 1st brain cells
produced via AD
○ Cell bodies remain
close to the wall of the
neural tube (in VZ and
SVZ), but extend
fibers radially outward
from VZ
■ Fibers end in
cuplike feet that
attach to the pia
mater
■ CC becomes
thicker → fibers
grow longer and
maintain
connections
with pia mater
○ About 1B neurons
migrate along radial
glial fibers on a given
day
■ Lasts about 3 months
● Migration path of neurons:
○ Earliest neurons – 1
day
■ Shortest time
○ Neurons that produce
outermost layer – 2
weeks
■ Must pass
through 5 layers
of neurons
● End of Cortical Development
○ Occurs during Apoptosis
■ Phenomenon when PC receive
a chemical signal that causes
them to die
● Molecules of the chemical
bind with receptors that
activate killer genes within
the cells
○ All cells have these
genes, but only some
possess the receptors
that respond to the
chemical signal that
turn them on
■ Radial Glia are then
transformed into astrocytes
■ Neurons have migrated to their
final locations
● Begin forming connections
with other neurons
Development of Neural Connections
1. Neurons grow dendrites
2. Growth forms synaptic connections with TB from
axons of other neurons
3. Connections lead to the growth of axons of their
own
○ Some neurons extend their dendrites and
axons laterally
■ Connects adjacent columns of
neurons or establish connections
with other neurons in distant
regions of the brain
○ Growth is guided by physical and chemical
factors
4. Once the growing ends of the axons (growth
cones) reach their targets, they form numerous
branches
a. Each branch finds a vacant place on the
membrane of the appropriate type of
postsynaptic cell
5. Once found, they grow a TB and establish a
synaptic connection
a. Different types of cells or different parts
of a single cell secrete different
chemicals
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023
i. Chemicals attract different types
of axons
ii. Cell must contribute its parts of
the synapse
**The Ventricular Zone gives rise to more neurons than
are needed
● Neurons must compete to survive
○ “Pruning”
■ 50% of neurons do not find
vacant postsynaptic cells →
dies from apoptosis
■ Involves a chemical signal
● When a presynaptic
neuron establishes
synaptic connections, it
receives a signal from
the postsynaptic cell
that permits it to survive
■ Safest strategy for brain
development
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPLEX BRAINS
The evolutionary process brought about genetic changes
that were responsible for the development of more
complex brains, with more parts and more
interconnections.
COMPLEXITY
Genetic Duplication
● Important factor of the evolution of complex
brains
● Genes can sometime duplicate themselves
○ If duplications occur in cells that give
rise to ova or sperms, the duplication
can be passed on to the organism’s
offspring
○ Offpring will have
■ 1 gene to perform the important
functions
■ 1 gene to experiment with
SIZE
The ultimate size of the brain is determined by the
size of the Ventricular Zone (Rakic, 1988 & 2009)
● Each symmetrical division doubles # of PC →
doubles size of brain
● Human brainis 10x bigger than rhesus macaque
monkey
○ 3-4 additional SD of PC accounts for
brains’ size difference
○ SD lasts about 2 days longer in humans
■ Provides enough time for 3
more divisions
○ AD is longer
■ Accounts for the fact that human
cortex is 15% thicker
● Delays in the termination of the SD and AD
could be responsible for the increased size of
the human brain
SURFACE
Small Brains i.e. smaller mammals like rodents
- Relatively smooth outer surface
- Limits size of CC that cover them
Larger Brains i.e. those of larger primates
- Have convoluted brains (surface covered with
grooves and bulges)
- Increase the surface area of of the CC
- Cortex of convoluted brain
contains many more neurons
than that of a smooth brains
- More neurons in the
convoluted human brain
→ makes possible the
complex circuitry in our
brains
Development of Convoluted Brains (CB)
● Subventricular Zone of CB is thicker than
smooth brains
○ SVZ can be divided into: inner and outer
■ Inner: closer to awll of neural
tube
■ outer: closer to surface of the
brain
● Smooth-brain’s cells
○ All of the cells in smooth brains derive
from PC located in VZ and SVZ
■ Cell bodies of radial glia are
locked in place → surface of
developing cortex remains
parrallel to the wall of the NT
● Will remain smooth
● PC of Convoluted Brains
○ Some PC migrated into the inner SVZ
■ Positioning themselves between
the fibers of the radial glia
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023

(whose cell bodies WERE

anchored in place) Stereopsis
■ Unattached PC undergo
asymmetrical division
● Sending neurons into
the upper layer of the
developing cortex
○ This source of
neurons
increase # of
cells in CC →
forces it to bend
and fold into
convolutions
POSTNATAL BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
Human brain continues to develop for at least 2 decades
Subtle changes continue to occur throughout life.
● Form of depth perception
○ Each eye gets a slightly different view of
the world
○ Obtained from a stereoscope or 3D
movie
○ Particular neural circuits necessary for
stereopsis will not develop unless an
infant has experience viewing objects
with both eyes during a critical period in
early life
● If eyes do not move together properly, they
never develop stereoscopic vision (even if eye
movements are later corrected by surgery)
○ Typically those with cross-eyed eyes
● Occurs between ages 1-3
● Been tested o lab animals
● Conclusion: sensory input affects the connect
ions established between cortical neurons

Neural Rewiring in the Adult Brain

● Certain amount is possible even in adulthood
○ Examples
■ Amputees being able to
sensitively feel their
surroundings from adjacent
areas of the body
■ Musicians playing guitar have
larger cortical region devoted to
analysis of sensory info
■ Braille reading→ enlarged
Primary Factors that Control Pattern of Development region of the CC is activated
1. Genetics
2. Experience
3. Neurogenesis
NEUROGENESIS
● Once believed to occur in adult brains
GENETICS ○ Later on debunked

Science behind Neurogenesis in Adult Brains (AB)

Some of the specialization is undoubtedly programmed ● AB contains some stem cells that can divide and
genetically. produce neurons
● PC in different regions of the developing brain ● Evidence of Neurogenesis in the AB
are themselves different ○ Hippocampus
○ Neurons they produce will reflect these ■ Training on a learning task →
differences enhances neurogenesis in
○ Neurons produced by the asymmetrical Hippocampus
division of a particular PC follow a ○ Olfactory Bulb
particular radial glial fiber ■ Exposure to new odors →
■ End up above the PC Increase survival rate of new
neurons in OB
● There is no evidence that growth of new
EXPERIENCE neurons can repair effects of brain damage
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■ Sulci (small grooves)

■ Fissures (large grooves)
■ Gyri (bulges between adjacent
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE CNS sulci or fissures)
○ ⅔ of the CC surface is hidden in the
grooves
○ Longitudinal fissure
■ Divides the brain into right and
left hemispheres
○ Central Sulcus
■ Divides the brain from posterior
and anterior
● Frontal and parietal
lobes
FOREBRAIN ■ Aka Sulcus of Rolando
○ Lateral fissure
● Develops from the rostral end of the neural tube ■ Divides the brain between the
● 2 major components: fronto-parietal and temporal
○ Telencephalon lobes
○ Diencephalon ○ Horizontal Fissure
■ Divides horizontally
■ Separates cerebral cortex and
cerebellum
■ Aka transverse fissues
● Dimensions
○ Total surface area: approx. 2350 cm^2
(2.5ft^2)
○ Thickness: approx. 3 mm
● Consists mostly of:
○ Glia
○ Cell bodies, dendrites, and
interconnecting axons of neurons
● Gray Matter
○ Because Cell Bodies predominate, it
ives CC a grayish-tan appearance
● White Matter
TELENCEPHALON
○ Beneath CC
● Includes most of the 2 symmetrical cerebral ■ millions of axons that connect
hemispheres that make up the cerebrum the neurons of the CC with
● Includes those located elsewhere in the
○ cerebrum/cerebral cortex brain
○ Limbic system ○ Large concentration of myelin gives this
○ Basal ganglia tissue an opaque white appearance

Cerebral Hemispheres Lobes of the CC

● Covered by the cerebral cortex **named for the bones of the skull that cover them
● Contain limbic system and basal ganglia
○ Primarily in the subcortical regions
NAME LOCATION
■ Those located deep within it,
beneath the CC
Frontal Lobe Includes everything in front of
“front” the central sulcus
Cerebral Cortex
● Greatly convoluted, which enlarges the surface
Parietal Lobe Located on the side of the CH;
area of the cortex “wall” just behind the central
○ Consists of:
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023

sulculus, caudal to frontal lobe

Somatosensory Association
Temporal Lobe Forward from the base of the Cortex
“temple” brain, ventral to frontal and ● Posterior to Prim. Som. Cor.
parietal lobes ● Bordman area 9 10 11

Occipital Lobe Very back of the brain; caudal Occipital Primary

Latin “ob”, meaning to parietal and temporal lobes Vision ● Fissure in the occipital lobe
‘in back of’, and ○ Calcarine fissure
“caput” for ‘head’ ● Brodmann area 17

Association
● Bordman area 1819
● Extends until the inferior part of
the temporal lobe

Temporal Primary
Auditory ● Hidden gyrus: transverse gyri of
Heschl

Association
● Everything except Heschl is the
association portion (mostly
superior)
● Inferior Part
○ Also part of the visual
association cortex

Sensory Cortex
● Includes 3 areas of the CC that receive
information from sensory organs

NAME DETAILS
Cortices
Primary Visual ● Receives visual information
Cortex or Striate ● Located in the occipital lobe
LOBE Cortex
Cortex ○ Inner surface of the
cerebral hemispheres
Frontal Lobe Primary Motor Cortex
○ Primarily on the upper
Motor and ● Pre-frontal gyrus (anterior to
and lower banks of the
movement central fissure)
calcarine fissure
behavior
■ Calcarine means
Motor Association Cortex
“spur-shaped”
● Includes prefrontal and predator
● VISUAL SYSTEM:
cortices
○ Eyes (photoreceptors →
● Anterior to primary motor cortex
cranial nerve → thalamus
● Also known as “Brodmann area
→ PVC
# 4”
Primary ● Receives auditory information
Parietal Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Auditory Cortex ● Located in the temporal lobes
Somatosensory ● Post-central gyrus, posterior to
○ Lateral fissure
; body senses central fissure
■ Lower surface of a
● Bordman area 123
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PSYC 21: Physiological Psychology | 2nd Year | A.Y. 2022-2023

● Examples
deep fissure in the
○ primary somatosensory cortex of the left
side of the brain
hemisphere learns what the right hand
is holding
Primary ● Receives information from
○ left hemisphere learns what the right
Somatosensory the body senses
hand is holding
Cortex ● Vertical strip of cortex caudal
○ the left primary visual cortex learns what
to the central sulcus in the
is happening toward the person’s right
parietal lobe
● Base of the SS cortex +
insular cortex
○ Hidden from view by the
frontal and the temporal
lobes
○ Receives information
concerning taste

CORTEX NAMES

Primary Motor ● Brodmann Area 4 Sensory Association Cortex

Cortex ● Precentral Gyrus
○ Before central fissure
Motor Association ● Brodmann Area 6, 8, 44
Cortex ● Broca’s Area
○ Brodmann Area 44
Primary ● Brodmann Areas 1,2,3
Somatosensory ● Post-central gyrus
Cortex ○ After central fissure
Somatosensory ● Brodmann Area 9,10,11
Association Cortex
Primary Visual ● Brodmann Area 17
Cortex ● Calcarine Fissure (literal na
fissure mismo)
Visual Association ● Brodmann Area 18, 19
Cortex
Central Sulcus
● Provides dividing line between the rostral and
caudal regions of the CC
○ Rostral Region
■ Involved in movement-related
activities
● Planning and executing
behaviors
○ Caudal Region
■ Involved in perceiving and
learning
**Each primary sensory area (PSA) of the CC sends
information to Sensory Association Cortex (SAC)
● Circuits of neurons in SAC analyze the
information received from the PSA
○ For analysis and storage
● Regions of the SAC located closest to the PSA
receive information from only 1 sensory system

Primary Auditory ● Brodmann Areas 41,42 Somatosensory Association Cortex Damage

Cortex ● Transverse Gyri of Heschl ● If sustained damage to SAC, deficits are related
(yummy pakinggan) to somatosensation and to the environment
● Destruction to P. Visual Cor. → blindness
Motor Association ● Brodmann Area 22 ○ damage to visual association cortex will
Cortex ● Superior temporal gyrus not become blind
■ They will be unable to recognize
objects by sight
**Sensory info from the body/environment (except ● Damage to Auditory Assoc. Cor → difficulty
olfaction and gustation) is sent to the primary sensory perceiving speech or producing meaningful
cortex of the contralateral hemisphere. speech of their own
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● Damage to Assoc. Cor. at the junction of the

three posterior lobes → difficulty reading or
writing

Motor Cortex
● Directly involved in the control of movement
● Located in front of the primary somatosensory
cortex
● Neurons in this cortex are connected to muscles
in different parts of the body
○ Connections are controlateral
● Like a piano; each part controls different
movement of a certain body part

Motor Association Cortex

● Also known as premotor cortex
● Located just rostral to the primary motor cortex
● Controls primary motor cortex
○ directly controls behavior
● Like a “piano player” of the motor cortex **SENSORY PORTION: the more sensitive a body
Aphasia structure, the bigger the # of neurons and representation
● Primary cortex work, but there is a damage in it has in the brain.
the association cortex
● Can receive information, but cannot process it **MOTOR PORTION: The bigger the representation, the
right more motor neurons → more movement
● If motor → Broca’s / Non-Fluent Aphasia - More complex the part → more motor neurons
● If auditory → Wernicke’s /Fluent Aphasia → finer structure → more movement

Prefrontal Cortex
● Rest of the frontal lobe, rostral to the motor
association cortex
● Less involved with the control of movement
● More involved in formulating plans and
strategies

Sensory-Motor Humunculus

Lateralization in the Cerebral Cortex

Some functions are lateralized— located primarily on
one side of the brain.

Left Hemisphere
● Participates in the analysis of information
○ Extraction of the elements that make up
the whole of an experience
● Makes this hemisphere good at recognizing
serial events and controlling sequences of
behavior
○ Events whose elements occur one after
the other
○ Serial functions
■ Verbal activities
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● Talking
● Understanding speech
of others
● Reading
● Writing
○ Such abilities are disrupted by damage
to the hemisphere
Right Hemisphere
● Putting isolated elements together to perceive
things as whole
○ Ex. ability to draw sketches, read maps,
construct complex objects out of smaller
elements
○ Ability is dependent circuits of neurons
in this hemisphere
● Damage to the hemisphere → disrupted abilities
Corpus Callosum
● Large band of axons that connect corresponding
parts of the CC of the left and right hemispheres
○ Left and right [parietal, temporal, etc.]
lobes are connected by this
● Each region of the Assoc. Cor. knows what is
happening in the corresponding region of the
opposite side of the brain
● makes a few asymmetrical connections that link
different regions of the hemispheres
Limbic System
Neocortex
● The CC that covers most of the surface of the
cerebral hemispheres
○ Including the lobes
● “New” cortex – relatively recent evolutionary
origin
Limbic Cortex
● Outermost part
● “Limbus” meaning ‘border’
● Cingulate Gyrus
○ Important region of this cortex
○ Occupies the regions in the center of the
brain
Limbic System
● A set of interconnected brain structures formed
a circuit whose primary function was motivation
and emotion (Papez, 1937)
○ Includes other structures surrounding
the core of the forebrain
● MacLean: coined term
○ Said that the evolution of this system
appears to have coincided with the
development of emotional resonses
● Most important parts of the LS
○ Hippocampus (seahorse)
○ Amygdala (almond)
■ Located next to the lateral
ventricle in the temporal lobe
○ Fornix (arch)
■ Bundle of axons that connects
hippocampus with other regions
of the brain
○ Mammillary Bodies (breast-shaped)
■ Protrusions of the base of the
brain that contains parts of the
hypothalamus
Hippocampus
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● Between thalamus and cerebrum ○ Hypothalamus

● Associated with learning and memory
○ Storage of new information Thalamus
○ However, learning and memory is not
● Greek “Thalamos” or ‘inner chamber’
confined to the hippocampus only
● Makes up dorsal part of diencephalon
○ Situated near middle and cerebral
Amygdala
hemispheres
● More involved with emotion; control of sexual
■ Immediately medial and caudal
behavior, aggression, etc.
to the basal ganglia
○ Emotion heavy
● Has 2 lobes, connected by massa intermedia
○ Pierces the middle of the third ventricle
Basal Ganglia ○ Bridge of gray matter
● Collection of nuclei below the cortex of the ○ Not very important because it is not in
forebrain all human brains
● Set of structures involved in processing motor ○ Serves as a useful reference point
movement ● Most neural input to the CC is received from
● Communciates with other structures for here
movement-related brain structures (such as the ○ Much of the cortical surface can be
forebrain) divided into regions that receive projects
○ If they share certain functions, they are from specific parts of the thalamus
connected ● Like a “traffic officer” that directs information to
○ Nuclei where it should go
■ Groups of neurons of similar ○ Anything coming up from the PNS that
shape goes to the CNS must pass through the
■ Nucleus thalamus first
● Can refer to the inner ■ It will segregate where
portion of an atom, to information must be processed
the structure of a cell
that contains Projection Fibers
chromosomes ● Sets of axons that arise from cell bodies located
● Involved in the control of movement in 1 region of the brain and synapses on
○ Ex: Parkinsons neurons located within other regions
■ Degeneration of neurons ○ They project to other regions
located in the midbrain that
send axons to the caudate Redefining Nuclei
nucleus and ptuamen ● Group of neurons that have the same function
● Damage to Basal Ganglia
○ Inability to walk properly, move, etc. Nuclei Divisions of Thalamus
● Some nuclei receive sensory info from sensory
Major Parts of the BG systems. Neurons in these nuclei relay sensory
1. Caudate Nucleus info to specific sensory projection areas of the
2. Putamen CC
3. Globus Pallidus ○ Receives information from the lateral
a. “Nucleus with a tail”, the “shell”, and the and segregates information via the
“pale globe” divisions of thalamus
○ Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
■ Receives information from the
eye and sends axons to the
DIENCEPHALON primary visual cortex
● Major component of the forebrain ■ Eye → optic nerve → lateral
● Situated between telencephalon and geniculate nucleus of the
mesencephalon thalamus → primary visual
○ Surrounds 3rd ventricle cortex
● Most important structures:
○ Thalamus
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● Some nuclei project specific regions of the

cerebral cortex, but does not relay sensory
information
○ Ventrolateral Nucleus
■ Receives information from
cerebellum and projects to
primary motor cortex
● Other nuclei receive info from 1 region of the CC
and relay it to another region
● If damaged:
○ Inability for certain information from the
PNS to be properly processed in the Endocrine System
CNS ● Controlled by hormones produced by cells in the
■ Information may go somewhere hypothalamus
else ● A special system of blood vessels directly
connects the hypothalamus with the anterior
Hypothalamus pituitary gland
● Lies at the base of the brain, under thalamus ● Neurosecretory cells
○ Situated on both sides of the ventral ○ Hypothalamic hormones secreted by
portion of the 3rd ventricle specialized neurons
● Controls autonomic nervous system and ○ Located near the base of the pituitary
endocrine system stalk
● Organizes behaviors related to the survival and ○ Stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to
body maintenance of the species secrete its hormones
○ 4Fs: Fighting, feeding, fleeing, and ■ Ex. Gonadotropin-releasing
fucking (mating!) hormone → causes Ant. Pit.
● Important functions induced by hypothalamus Gland to secrete gonadotropic
○ Survival necessities hormones
■ Too cold → shiver
■ Hunger and appetite (Satiety)
● Autonomic nervous system is involved as well
○ Parasympathetic → Life sustaining
actions
○ Sympathetic nervous system involves
the hypohalamus
■ Fight or flight
● Connects nervous system with the endocrine
system
○ Hypothalamus, benign part of the
nervous system, tells the endocrine
system what to do

Pituitary gland
● Attached to the base of the hypothalamus via
puituitary stalk

Optic Chiasm **if there is so much of the hormone, there will be a

● In front of pituitary stalk
● Where half of the axons in the optic nerves from
one side of the brain to the other
feedback effect on the pituitary gland to secrete less.
Anterior Pituitary Gland
● Been called the body’s “master gland”
● Most hormones secreted by this control other
endocrine glands
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○ Hormones affect cells throughout the

body, including some in the brain
● Types of Ant. Pit. Gland Hormones
○ Prolactin
○ Somatotropic Hormone (Growth)
**they do not control other glands but act as final
messengers

Posterior Pituitary Gland

● Hypothalamus also produces hormones of this
gland and controls their secretion
○ Includes oxytocin
● Hormones are carried in vesicles through the
axolasm of these neurons and collect in the TB
in the posterior pituitary gland
○ When axons fire, the hormone
contained within the TB enters the
circulatory system
Tecum
● “Roof”
● Location: dorsal portion of the mesencephalon
● Principle Structures
○ Superior Colliculi
■ part of visual system
■ From the eyes, information goes
through optic nerve, to
thalamus, to superior colliculi
○ Inferior Colliculi
■ part of auditory system
** appear as four bumps on the dorsal surface of
the brain stem.
** primarily involved in visual reflexes and
reactions to moving stimuli for mammals

Brain Stem
● Includes midbrain and hindbrain
● Looks literally like a stem

Tegmentum
● “Covering”
● Consists the portion of the mesencephalon
beneath the tectum
● Includes:
○ rostral end of the reticular formation
○ Several nuclei controlling eye
movements
○ Periacqueductal gray matter
○ Red nucleus
○ Substantia nigra
MIDBRAIN
○ Ventral tegmental area
● Also known as “mesencephalon”
● Surrounds the cerebral aqueduct Reticular Formation
● Consists of 2 major parts: ● Large structure consisting of many nuclei that
○ Tectum extends until the medulla oblongata
○ Tegmentum
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● Characterized by a diffuse, interconnected
networks of neurons with complex dendritic and
axonal processes
● Reticulum – ‘little net’
○ It catches certain information and makes
you aware of it– if it is relevant to you
● Occupies the core of the brain stem
● Involved in consciousness and awareness
● Receives sensory information by means of
various pathways and projects axons to the CC,
thalamus, and spinal cord
● Role in
○ Sleep and arousal
○ Attention
○ Muscle tone
○ Movement
○ Various vital reflexes
Periaqueductal Gray Matter
● Consists mostly of cell bodies of neurons that
surround the cerebral acqueduct as it travels
from 3rd to fourth ventricle
● Contains neural circuits that control sequences
of movements that constitute species-typical
behaviors
○ I.e. mating and fighting
● Opiates decrease sensitivity to pain by
stimulating receptors in this region
● Involved with pleasure and pain sensation
○ A lot of opioid receptors here
Red Nucleus
● Bundle of axons that arises from RN constitutes
one of the 2 major fiber systems that bring motor
information from the CC and cerebellum to the
spinal cord
Substantia Nigra
● Contains neurons whose axons project to the
caudate nucleus and putamen
● Important for motor system
● Producer of dopamine
○ Thus associated with Parkinsons
Disease
HINDBRAIN
● Surrounds 4th ventricle
● 2 major divisions
○ Metencephalon
○ Myelencephalon
Mecensephalon
● Consists of:
○ Cerebellum
○ Pons
Cerebellum
● Important for coordinating movements
● “Little brain”
○ With its 2 hemispheres, resembles mini
cerebrum
■ Each hemisphere is attached to
the dorsal surface of the pons
by cerebellar peduncles
● Bundles of axons
● “Little feet”
● Covered by the cerebellar cortex
○ Nuclei receive projects from the
cerebellar cortex
○ Sends projections out of the cerebellum
to other parts of the brain
● Has a set of deep cerebellar nuclei
● Damage to Cerebellum impairs walking,
standing, or performing coordinated movements
● Receives visual, auditory, vestibular, and
somatosensory information
○ Also receives info about individual
muscle movements being directed by
the brain
● Cerebellum Processing:
○ Cerebellum integrates this information
and modifies the motor outflow
■ Exerting a coordinating and
smoothing effect on the
movements
● Cerebellar Damage → jerky, poorly coordinated
movements
○ Etensive cases → inability to stand
Pons
● Large bulge in the brain stem
○ Bridge between midbrain to medulla
oblongata
■ Thats why it is also important in
sleep and wakefulness
○ Immediately vental to cerebellum
● “Bridge” (but doesnt look like one)
● Involved in sleep and wakefulness
● Contains a portion of the reticular formation
○ Including some nuclei important i sleep
and arousal
● Also contains large nucleus that relays info from
CC to the cerebellum
Myelencephalon
● Consists of:
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○ Medulla oblongata
Medulla Oblongata
● The MAIN structure responsible for
life-sustaining actions
○ Everything else is just support
● Usually just called medulla
● Most caudal portion of the brain stem
○ Lower border is rostral end of the spinal
cord
● Must be extremely protected
○ If damaged, consciousness will also be
damaged
○ Death by hanging
■ Not just asphyxia but also
destroying the brain stem
● Contains parts of the reticular formation
○ Including nuclei that control vital
functions
■ I.e. regulation of cardiovascular
system, respiration, and skeletal
muscle tone
THE SPINAL CORD
Spinal Cord
● Long, conical structure
● Approx. as thick as little finger
● Principal function
○ Distribute motor fibers to the effector
organs of the body (glands and
muscles)
○ Collect somatosensory information to be
passed on to the brain
● Has a certain degree of autonomy from teh brain
○ Various reflexive control circuits are
found in this structure
● Protected by the vertebral column
○ Composed of 24 individual vertebrae of
the cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), and
lumbar (lower back) regions
■ +++ fused vertebrae that make
up the sacral and coccygeal
portions of the column (in pelvic
region)
■ There are gaps in between for
movement + flexibility and for
entry and exit passages to
spinal nerves
● In between are
ligaments for flexibility
○ The SC passes through the spinal
foramens
■ hole in each vertebrae
○ Out of 31 pairs of spinal nerves, there
are 5 levels of Vertebrae
■ Cervical (8)
■ Thoracic (12)
■ Lumbar (5)
■ Sacral (5)
■ Coccyx (1)
○ SC is is only about ⅔ as long as the
vertebral column
■ Rest of the space is filled by a
mass of spinal roots composing
cauda equina (horse’s tail)
Embryological Development
● Early in the development
○ Vertebral column and spinal cord are the
same length
● Progression of Develoment
○ VC grows faster than spinal cord
■ Differential growth rate causes
spinal roots to be displaced
downward
■ Caudal roots travel the farthest
before they emerge through
openings between vertebrae
● Thus composing cauda
equina
Production of Caudal Block
- Sometimes used in pelvic surgery or childbirth
- local anesthetic can be injected into the CSF
contained within the sac of dura mater
surrounding the cauda equina
- drug blocks conduction in the axons of the
cauda equina
Spinal Roots
● How spinal nerves connect to the spinal cord
○ Has dorsal and ventral root
■ Dorsal Root → needed for
sensory (Afferent)
■ Ventral Root → movement
(Efferent)
● Small bundles of fibers on dorsolateral and
ventrolateral surfaces
○ Groups of these bundles fuse together
and become 31 paired sets of dorsal
roots and ventral roots
■ They join together as they pass
through the intervertebral
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foramens and become spinal ■ Complex structures that contain

nerves extensive neural circuitry
■ Still part of the brain

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PNS

● Consists of
○ Cranial Nerves
○ Spinal Nerves

CRANIAL NERVES

● 12 pairs of CN are attached to the ventral (German Filipino: Oh Oh Oh, To Touch And Feel, AVa
surface of the brain Ganda, Vow, So Hot.)
○ Most serve sensory and motor functions
of the head and neck region Some Say Big Butts Bring Bitches, But She’s Born
○ 2nd: Optic Nerve Beautiful, Bright, and Busy.
○ 10th pair: Vagus Nerve
■ Regulates functions of organs in SPINAL NERVES
the thoracic and abdominal
cavities ● 31 pairs (62 on each side; left and right)
■ “Wandering” nerve ● Begin at the junction of the dorsal and ventral
● Its branches wander roots of the spinal cord
throughout the thoracic ● They leave the vertebral column and travel to
and abdominal cavities the muscles or sensory receptors they supply
Nerve Fibers ○ Branches repeatedly as they go
● Efferent fibers → Motor ○ Branches often follow blood vessels
● Afferent fibers → sensory (especially those htat innervate skepetal
○ Cell bodies of afferent fibers that enter muscles)
brain and spinal cord are located
outside CNS
○ Somatosensory information (+ taste) is
received via cranial nerves
○ Olfactory Bulbs
■ Receives olfactory information
from the olfactory receptors in
the nose
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○ Axonal stalk divides close to the cell

body
■ Sends one limb into the spinal
cord and the other out to the
sensory organ
**not all axons in dorsal root convey
somatosensory information.

● Efferent Axons
○ Axons that leave the SC via ventral
roots
○ Control muscles and glands
○ Outward direction; away CNS
○ Cell bodies that give rise to the ventral
root are located within the gray matter of
the spinal cord
■ Axons of these neurons leave
spinal cord via ventral root,
which joins dorsal root to make
a spinal nerve

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

● 2 Branches of the PNS
○ Somatic NS
■ Receives sensory information
from sensory organs
■ Controls movements of skeletal
muscles
■ Aka skeletal system
○ Autonomic NS
■ Regulation of smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands

Autonomic Nervous System

● Smooth muscle
○ Found in:
■ Skin (hair follicles)
■ Blood vessels
■ Eyes Controlling pupil sie and
Pathways of Entering and Exiting of Information via lens accommodation)
Spinal Cord ■ Walls and sphincters of gut,
gallbladder, and urinary bladder
● Afferent Axons ● Function of the system: regulation of vegetative
○ Incoming axons proceses in the body
○ The direction of information is inward ● Consists of anatomically separate systems
(toward CNS) ○ Sympathetic division
○ Dorsal Root Ganglia ○ Parasympathic division
■ Cell bodies that give rise to
afferent axons reside in this
ganglia
■ Rounded swelling of the dorsal SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
root ● Aka thoracolumbar system
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● Involved in activities associated with expenditure

of energy from reserves stored in body
● Cell bodies of sympathetic motor neurons are
located in the gray matter of the thoracic and
lumbar regions
○ Fibers of these neurons exit via ventral
roots
○ After joining spinal nerves, fibers branch
off and pass into sympathetic ganglia
DISCUSSION NOTES (don’t mind it this part!)
Motor
- Is it voluntary or involuntary?
Sensory
- Is it conscious or not conscious?

Preganglionic Neurons SOMATIC

● Axons that leave the spinal cord through the - Conscious sensory and voluntary motor
ventral root
● SPA enter the ganglia of the sympathetic chain AUTONOMIC
- Before it could even make a sympathetic or
Postganglionic Neurons parasympathetic response, there must be a
● Neurons with which these form synapses STIMULUS that triggers it unconsciously
● Sends axons to the target organs - Involuntary motor
- Also incudes unconscious sensory but is often
Sympathetic Ganglion Chain overlooked
● Individual sympathetic ganglia are connected to - Ex. blood pressure
neighboring ganglia - Its motor reaction is to
vasoconstrict blood vessels and
Adrenal Medulla let heart pump faster
● controlled by the sympathetic nervous system - Does not only apply to blood pressure; it
● Set of cells located in the center of the adrenal can also be external events such as
gland witnessing emergencies
● Closely resembles sympathetic ganglion - Sensing changes
● Innervated by preganglionic axons - Psychological image seen by
○ Secretory cells are very similar to the eyes
postganglionic sympathetic neurons - (eyes → brain → brain
■ Secretes epinephrine and understands schema →
norepinephrine when stimulated brain sends message to
○ TB of preganglionic axons secrete respond to such
acetylcholine schema → involuntary
motor responses)

PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION Sympathetic → fight or flight

- Sympathetic response of the heart: increase
● Supports activities that are involved with heartrate
increases in the body’s supply of stored energy
○ Activities include Parasympathetic → rest and digest
■ Salivation - Parasympathetic response → beat normally
■ Gastric and intestinal motility
○ Secretion of digestive juices Benzodiazepam
○ Increased blood flow to the - GABA agonist
gastrointestinal system
● Locations of cell bodies that give rise to Fentanyl and Morphine
preganglionic axons - Opioid and narcotic
○ Nuclei of some cranial nerves - Anaesthetic
○ Intermediate horn of gray matter in the - Has other addictive properties
sacral region of the spinal cord
Often referred as the craniosacral system Propofol
- No hangover effect but very potent
- Going into respiratory depression
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- An anesthetic and sedative

- GABA Agonist

Ayonamine
- A cardiac drug that makes one extremely awake