Nervous System
- Two main regions can be recognized, the Gray matter and
- The nervous system is distributed throughout the body.
- the brain.
It functions to:
● collect stimuli from the external and internal environments
● transform the stimuli into the nervous impulses
● pass the stimuli to highly organized reception and correlation
areas where they are interpreted and transmitted to various
effector structures where appropriate responses to the stimuli
result.
●
All of these functions are carried out by highly specialized cells called
Neurons
Two Major Divisions of the Nervous System
1. Central nervous system
- Lies deep within the body and is surrounded and protected by
bone
- It’s composed of the following:
● Brain - enclosed by the skull
● Spinal cord - extends from the brain downward
through the vertebral canal where it terminates
between the first and second lumbar vertebrae.
Functionally, the CNS receives thousands of pieces of “information”
from different sensory structures located inside and outside the body
and then integrates the information to determine the appropriate
response.
2. Peripheral nervous system
Meninges
- Can both be seen in the brain and cross section of spinal cord
The living brain is covered by 3 layers of membranous tissue
called Meninges
Dura mater
- Latin dura “hard” mater “mother”
- Is a tough, opaque membrane that is bound to the surface of
the skull.
Arachnoid membrane
- Underneath the dura mater
- Is a delicate, semi transparent middle membrane
- Called as such because of its spidery lacelike appearance
Pia mater
- Very thin, vascular membrane, forms an intimate covering of
the brain and dips into all of its clefts and fissures
Subarachnoid space
- Between the arachnoid membrane and pia mater
- Contains delicate strands that connect the dura mater and pia
mater
- This space is filled with Cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid
White matter, which extend through the entire cord and into
Gray Matter
- Is grayish in color because it consists primarily of nerve cell
bodies and unmyelinated axons and dendrites of motor and
connecting neurons
White Matter
- Surrounds the gray matter
- Whitish because the majority of the nerve fibers, which extend
up and down the cord, are myelinated
Central canal
- Surrounded by ependymal cells
- Is found at the central region of the transverse section of the
spinal cord.
Ventral column
- Found at the corner of the trapezoidal gray matter
- Much broader than the dorsal column
- Contain the large motor cells
Ventral fissure
- Nearly separates the spinal cord into two symmetrical halves
which continues as the ventral septum
- It is deeper and encloses the ventral spinal artery
(istg wtf is wrong with the wording, get ur shit str8 doc)
Dorsal fissure
- Shallow and is continuous by a narrow septum composed of
loose tissue toward the central canal.
Brain
Cerebrum (Telencephalon)
- Forms the greater part of the brain
- Divided into 2 Cerebral hemispheres by a deep longitudinal
Cerebral fissure
Olfactory
● Olfactory bulb - are elongated and located at the anterior
end of the cerebral hemispheres
● Olfactory tracts - Extend from the posterior end of each of
the olfactory bulbs are the: Medial, lateral, and middle O.T
● Olfactory nerves - from the nasal mucosa, enters the brain
through the olfactory bulbs
Diencephalon (Twixt brain)
- Depressed area posterior to the cerebral hemisphere
- Made up of the structures that surround the third ventricle (a
fluid filled cavity in the brain)
Dorsally, this includes:
● Pineal gland - with a knoblike prominence
● Endocrine gland - involved with regulating biological rhythms
Ventrally, this includes:
● Optic chiasma - most prominent. X-shaped structure from
which the optic nerves extend to the eyes.
● Pituitary gland - located behind the optic chiasma. Attached
to the brain by the ----
● Infundibulum ←----
Mesencephalon (Midbrain)
- Immediately posterior to the twixt brain, which is a pair of
optic rounded bodies, the optic lobe (this doesn’t make
fucking sense wtf is wrong with the wording, i didn’t know
books were supposed to be treated like fucking riddles)
Metencephalon (Cerebellum)
- Fourth part of the brain
- When viewed dorsally, consists of:
● Cerebellum - has a series of transverse ridges.
Which is divided into:
○ Median vermis
○ Pair of cerebellar hemispheres
- When views ventrally, consists of:
● Pons - seen as major portion of metencephalon
Myelencephalon (Medulla oblongata)
- Fifth and last part of the brain
- Surrounds the large, diamond-shaped Fourth ventricle
- When viewed ventrally, the Median Ventral Fissure can be
seen extending the length of the medulla
Phylum Protozoa
General Characteristics of Phylum Protozoa
1. Kingdom: Protista
2. They are known as acellular and or non-cellular organisms.
a. A protozoan body consists of only the mass of
protoplasm, so they are called acellular or non-cellular
animals.
3. Habitat: mostly aquatic, either free living or parasitic or
commensal
4. Grade of organization: Protoplasmic grade of organization.
Single cell performs all the vital activities thus the single cell
acts like a whole body.
5. Body of protozoa is either naked or covered by a pellicle
6. Locomotion: locomotory organ are pseudopodia (false foot)
or cilia or absent
7. Nutrition: nutrition are holophytic (like plant) or holozoic (like
animal) or saprophytic or parasitic
8. Digestion: digestion is intracellular, occurs in food vacuoles.
9. Respiration: through the body surface
10. Osmoregulation: contractile vacuole helps in osmoregulation
11. Reproduction:
● Asexual reproduction is through binary fission or
budding
● Sexual reproduction is by syngamy conjugation

Classification Locomotory organ: Flagella

Animal Diversity Phylum Protozoa

Free living or parasite
Body covered with cellulose, chitin,
Animal evolution began in the ocean over 600 million years
Class Mastigophora or silica
ago with tiny creatures that probably do not resemble any living
organism today. Order Euglenoidida Reproduction: Asexual
● Since then, animals have evolved into a highly diverse reproduction by longitudinal fission
kingdom. Family Euglenoidae
No conjugation
Genus Euglena
Although over 1 million extant (currently living) species of animals
have been identified, scientists are continually discovering more Species Euglena viridis Examples: Giardia, Euglena,
species as they explore ecosystems around the world.
Trypanosoma
● The number of extant species is estimated to be between 3 Common name euglena
and 30 million

So, what are animals? Classification Locomotory organ: Cilia

Animals vary in complexity, and scientists are faced with the Nuclei 2 types i.e macronucleus
Phylum Protozoa
difficult task of classifying them within a unified system. and micronucleus
They must identify traits that are common to all animals as Class Ciliata Body covered by pellicle
well as traits that can be used to distinguish between related
groups of animals. Order Hymenostomatida Reproduction: Asexual
reproduction by binary fission
Family Parameciidae
The Animal Classification System characterizes animals based on Sexual reproduction by conjugation
their anatomy, morphology, evolutionary history, features of Genus Paramecium
embryological development, and genetic makeup.
● This classification scheme is constantly developing as new Species Paramecium Examples: Paramecium, Varicella,
information about species arises. caudatum Balantidium
Common name paramecium
Understanding and classifying the great variety of living species help
us better understand how to conserve the diversity of life on Earth.
 Phylum Porifera Phylum Cnidaria/Coelenterata
General Characteristics of Phylum Porifera General Characteristics of Phylum Coelenterata
1. Kingdom: Animalia 1. Kingdom: Animalia
2. Habitat: aquatic, mostly marine, few are terrestrial 2. Habitat: aquatic, mostly marine
3. Habit: they are solitary or colonial 3. Habit: they are solitary or colonial. Each individual is known
4. Grade of organization: cellular grade of body as a zoid
5. Shape: Body shape is variable, mostly cylindrical shaped 4. Grade of organization: tissue grade of organization
6. Symmetry: Asymmetrical or radially symmetrical 5. Symmetry: radially symmetrical
7. Germ layer: Diploblastic animals. 6. Germ layer: Diploblastic animals.
a. The adult body wall contains 2 layers: outer dermal a. 2 layers: outer ectoderm & inner ectoderm
layer & inner gastral layer - Mesogloea separates the 2 layers
- In between these two layers, there is a 7. Coelom: gastrovascular cavity or coelenteron
gelatinous and non-cellular mesoglea 8. The body has a single opening called hypostome surrounded
containing numerous free amoeboid cells. by sensory tentacles
8. Coelom: absent; acoelomate but spongocoel is present 9. Nematocyst: organ for capturing and paralyzing prey, present
9. Surface of the body has numerous perforation called ostia in tentacles
(for the entry of water) and a large pore at the apex called the 10. Digestion: is both intracellular and extracellular
osculum (for the exit of water) 11. Respiration & Excretion: simple diffusion
10. Water canal system is present 12. Many forms exhibit polymorphism i.e Polyp and medusa
11. Endoskeleton: either calcareous spicules (calcium 13. Polyps are sessile, asexual stage
carbonate) or siliceous spicules (silica) or spongin fibers 14. Medusa are free swimming, sexual stage
(protein) 15. Metagenesis: asexual polypoid generation alternate with
12. Nutrition: holozoic sexual medusoid generation
13. Nervous system: absent 16. Nutrition: holozoic
14. Circulatory system: absent 17. Nervous system: poorly developed
15. Fertilization: internal 18. Circulatory system: absent
16. Reproduction: 19. Fertilization: internal or external
● Asexual: by budding or gemmule or regeneration 20. Development: indirect with larval stage
● Sexual: gamatic fusion 21. Koilos: Hollow,
22. Enteron: Cavity
23. Reproduction:
● Asexual: by budding
Classification Habit: Solitary in nature
● Sexual: gamatic fusion
Habitat: exclusively marine
Phylum Porifera
(deep sea)
Classification Habit: some are solitary, some are
Class Hyalospongiae Endoskeleton: six-rayed
colonial
siliceous spicules Phylum Cnidaria
Subclass Hexasterophora Habitat: mostly marine, few are
Symmetry: Radially Class Hydrozoa
Order Lyssacinosidae fresh water
symmetrical
Order Anthoathecata Asexual Polyps is dominant form
Family Euplectellidae Shape: Cylindrical shape
Medusa possess true velum
Family Hydridae
Genus Euplectella Mesogloea is simple and acellular
Genus Hydra Mesogloea is usually cellular
Species Euplectella
aspergillum Examples: Hydra, Obelia,
Species Hydra oligactis
Common name Venus flower basket Physalia physalis, Tubularia,
Common name Brown hydra

Classification Habit: solitary or colonial

Classification The spicules are monaxon or
Habitat: exclusively marine
tetraxon but never six-rayed Phylum Cnidaria
Phylum Porifera Medusa stage is absent
Canal system is complicated
Class Anthozoa Mesogloea contains fibrous
Class Demospongiae Habitat: Mostly marine and some
Order Alcyonacea connective tissue and amoeboid
Subclass Keratosa are freshwater
cells
Endoskeleton: Siliceous spicules Family Tubiporidae
Order Dictyoceratida
or sponging fibers or both or none
Genus Tubipora Examples: Metridium, Telesto,
Family Songiidae Symmetry: asymmetrical
Species Tubipora musica Tubipora, Xenia
Genus Euspongia Shape: irregular
Common name Organ pipe
Species Euspongia
officinalis

Common name Bath sponge

 Phylum Platyhelminthes Phylum Nemathelminthes
General Characteristics of Phylum Platyhelminthes General Characteristics of Phylum Nemathelminthes
1. Platys: flat, helminthes: worms 1. Habitat: mostly parasitic, few are free living in sea water or
2. Kingdom: Animalia freshwater
3. Habitat: mostly parasitic, few are free living in sea water or 2. Shape: cylindrical, elongated, slender worm like and tapers at
freshwater both ends
4. Grade of organization: Organ-system grade of organization 3. Grade of organization: Organ-system grade of organization
5. Symmetry: bilateral symmetry and body is dorso-ventrally 4. Symmetry: bilateral symmetry
flattened 5. Germ layer: Triploblastic animals.
6. Germ layer: Triploblastic animals. Ectoderm is very 6. Body is unsegmented
specialized with distinct epidermis 7. Body cavity is filled with muscle. They are pseudocoelomate
7. Coelom: absent (acoelomate) i.e body cavity is not lined by mesodermal layer
8. Digestive system: incomplete or absent 8. Internal cephalization is present but externally there is little
● No mouth differentiation between the anterior and posterior regions.
● No true stomach structure 9. Distinct head is lacking. However, mouth is present in anterior
● In tapeworms, direct absorption of soluble nutrients by region
cells and tissues 10. Body is covered with tough and resistant cuticles.
9. Excretory system: Protonephridia with Flame cell ● It’s cast off periodically or which molts only during the
10. Respiration: simple diffusion of gases through body surface period of growth.
11. Circulatory system: absent ● It protects the body against the action of digestive
12. Fertilization: internal juice
13. Life cycle is complex involving one or more hosts 11. Digestive system: complete and straight with both mouth
14. Reproduction: and anus
● Asexual: by regeneration and fission ● Mouth is terminal and surrounded by lips bearing
● Sexual: gamatic fusion in hermaphrodite species sense organ
12. Excretory system: consist of intracellular canal or lateral
excretory ducts.
13. Respiratory system: absent
Classification Hooks and sucker usually absent
● Respiration occurs through the general body surface.
Mostly free-living freshwater ● Respiration is aerobic in free-living forms and
Phylum Platyhelminthes
organism anaerobic in parasitic form
Class Turbellaria 14. Nervous system: not developed
Body: dorsoventrally flattened
● Nervous system consists of circum-pharyngeal nerve
Order Tricladida rings and longitudinal nerve cords.
Examples: Planaria, Bipalium, 15. Fertilization: internal, may be cross or self
Family Planariidae
Otoplana, Notoplana 16. Sense organs are poorly developed in the form of papillae,
Genus Planaria which are well defined as amphids (in mouth) and phasmid (in
anus)
Species Planaria 17. These are unisexual i.e sexes are separate with sexual
maculata dimorphism
18. Development may be direct or indirect
Common name Flatworm
19. Various lateral lines and pores are present on the surface of
the body
Classification Hooks and sucker are present
Mostly parasitic Classification They are endoparasites
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Body: dorsoventrally flattened Body is bilaterally symmetrical and
Phylum Nemathelminthes
Class Trematoda leaf like vermiform
Class Rhabditea Body is covers in complex cuticle
Order Diplostomida
Examples: Fasciola hepatica Order Ascaridida Sexes are separate
Family Schistosomatidae
(Liver Fluke), Diplozoon Family Ascarididae
Genus Schistosoma Examples: Ascaris (roundworm),
Genus Ascaris Ancylostoma (hookworm),
Species Schistosoma
japonicum Species Ascaris Enterobius (pinworm)
lumbricoides
Common name Blood fluke
Common name Roundworm
 Phylum Mollusca
General Characteristics of Phylum Mollusca
1. Mollis/Mollusc: soft
2. Kingdom: Animalia
3. Habitat: mostly aquatic and few are terrestrial
4. Body is soft, without segmentation
5. Grade of organization: Organ-system grade of organization
6. Symmetry: bilateral symmetry
7. Germ layer: Triploblastic animals.
8. The body is divided into head, muscular foot, and visceral
mass
9. The body is covered by a mantle and a shell
10. Digestive system: complete and developed
11. Excretory system:air of metanephridia (kidney)
12. Respiration: by gills (actinidia) in the mantle cavity, lungs in
terrestrial forms
13. Circulatory system: closed type
14. Nervous system: consist of 3 pairs of ganglia (cerebral,
visceral, and pedal)
15. Heart consists of 1 or 2 auricle and 1 ventricle
16. Fertilization: external or internal fertilization
17. Sexes: Dioecious and few are hermaphrodite
18. Development: direct or indirect by trochophore larvae.
19. Reproduction:
● Sexual: gamatic fusion in hermaphrodite species
Phylum Annelida
General Characteristics of Phylum Annelida
1. Annelus: little ring
2. Kingdom: Animalia
3. Habitat: mostly aquatic and some are terrestrial
4. Habit: free living
5. Grade of organization: Organ-system grade of organization
6. Symmetry: bilateral symmetry
7. Germ layer: Triploblastic animals.
8. Coelom: coelomate (body cavity is true coelom, often divide
by internal septa)
9. Body is metamerically segmented
10. The body possesses 3 separate sections, a prostomium, a
trunk, and a pygidium
11. Digestive system: complete and developed
12. Respiration: by general body surface
13. Circulatory system: has a true closed circulatory system
14. Nervous system: anterior nerve ring, ganglia, and a ventral
nerve cord
15. Fertilization: external or internal fertilization
16. Excretion: By nephridia
17. Development: direct with no larval stages
18. Reproduction:
● Sexual and gonochorisitc or hermaphroditic

Classification Clitellum present

Classification Posses a spiral shell Habitat: mostly terrestrial and few
Habitat: either aquatic or terrestrial Phylum Annelida
Phylum Mollusca are freshwater
Foot is large and flat Class Clitellata Body metamerically segmented
Class Gastropoda Head is well-developed with
Subclass Oligochaeta Hermaphrodite but cross
Order Stylommatophora tentacle and eyes fertilization occur
Order Haplotaxida
Family Achatinidae Fertilization: external
Examples: Hilex (Snail), Limax Family Lumbricidae Cocoon formation occur
Genus Achatina (Slug), Pila (Apple snail)
Genus Lumbricus
Species Achatina fulica Examples: Pheretima posthuma
Species Lumbricus
Common name African snail terrestris (Earthworm), Lumbricus, Stlaria,
Tubifex
Common name Earthworm
Classification Are adapted for swimming
Habitat: mostly marine
Phylum Mollusca Classification Habitat: primarily freshwater
Foot is modified into 8 to 10 long annelids but some are marine,
Class Cephalopoda Phylum Annelida
tentacle in the head region terrestrial and parasitic
Order Octopoda The shell is either external, Class Clitellata The body has definite number of
internal, or absent Order Arhynchobdellida segments
Family Octopodidae
The tentacles, parapodia, and
Genus Octopus Family Hirudidae
Examples: Octopus, Loligo, Sepia, setae are totally absent
Species Octopus vulgaris Spirulina, Nautilus Genus Hirudo They are hermaphrodite

Common name Octopus Species Hirudo Fertilization: internal and a larval

medicinalis stage is absent
Common name leech Examples: Hirudinaria (leech)
 Phylum Arthropoda Classification Habitat: mostly terrestrial and rarely aquatic
Body divided into 3 regions: head, thorax
General Characteristics of Phylum Arthropoda Phylum Arthropoda
and abdomen
1. Arthros: kointed, podos;foot
Class Insecta Thorax has 3 segments, each bearing a pair
2. Kingdom: Animalia
3. Habitat: mostly terrestrial, also aquatic of legs and a pair of wings found on the
Order Orthoptera
4. Insects are the most successful life form on the planet, second and third segments
making up more than half of all living organisms on Earth Family Acrididae Abdomen has 7-11 segments without
5. Body has a 3-parts: head, thorax, and abdomen appendages
6. Body is metamerically segmented Genus Schistocerca
Respiration: by tracheae, gills
7. 3 pairs of jointed legs (6 legs)
8. Compound eyes which contain several thousand lenses to a Species Schistocerca Excretion: malpighian tubules
americana
larger field of vision. Examples: Pieris, Periplaneta, Tabernus,
9. They possess two antennae Common name Grasshopper Mosquitoes, ants, etc.
10. Grade of organization: Organ-system grade of organization
11. Symmetry: bilateral symmetry
12. Germ layer: Triploblastic animals. Classification Habitat: mostly terrestrial and rarely
13. Coelom: haemocoel aquatic
14. Chitinous (hard) exoskeleton, no bones or a skeleton Phylum Arthropoda
Body is usually divided into
15. Respiratory system: by general body surface, by gills,
tracheae or book lungs Class Arachnida cephalothorax and abdomen
16. Circulatory system: open type with dorsal heart There are 4 pairs of legs attached to
Order Scorpiones
17. Nervous system: dorsal brain with ventral nerve cord the cephalothorax
18. Fertilization: internal fertilization Family Scorpionidae Respiration: by tracheae or book
19. Sexes are separate. Sexual dimorphism is present
lungs or gills
20. Excretion: malpighian tubules or green gland Genus Pandinus
Excretion: malpighian tubules or
21. Development: direct or indirect with larval stages
Species Pandinus coxal gland or both
imperator
Examples: Aramea, Palamnaeus,
Classification Habitat: mostly aquatic, few are terrestrial,
and v fer r parasitic Common name Emperor scorpion Limulus
Phylum Arthropoda
Cephalothorax: head is often fused with
Class Malacostraca thoracic segments to form cephalothorax
Thorax and abdomen have a pair of
Order Decapoda
biramous appendage in each segment
Family Cancridae Respiration: through the gills or general
body surface
Genus Cancer
Excretory organs are modified
Species Cancer coelomoducts which may either maxillary
productus
glands or antennary glands
Common name Red crab Examples: Cancer, Palaemon, Daphnia

Classification Habitat: mostly terrestrial

Many appendages: body is long
Phylum Arthropoda
with numerous segments each
Class Chilopoda having 1 or 2 pairs of legs
Head is distinct with antennae, a pair
Order Scolopendromorpha
of eyes and 2 to 3 pairs of jaws.
Family Scolopendridae Excretion: malpighian tubes
Respiration: by trachea
Genus Scolopendra

Species Scolopendra Examples: Julus, Scolopendra,

morsitans
Spirobolus
Common name centipede
 Phylum Echinodermata Phylum Chordata
General Characteristics of Phylum Echinodermata General Characteristics of Phylum Chordata
1. Echinos: spines; derma: skin 1. Noton: back and chorda; cord
2. Kingdom: Animalia 2. Kingdom: Animalia
3. Habitat: exclusively marine 3. Presence of a notochord
4. Grade of organization: Organ-system grade of organization 4. They are backboned animals (vertebrates)
5. Symmetry: adults are radially symmetrical while the larvae 5. Most of the living chordates are familiar vertebrate animals
are bilaterally symmetrical 6. Presence of dorsal hollow nerve cord
6. Germ layer: Triploblastic animals. 7. Blood vascular system: present, closed type
7. Coelom: present (coelomate) 8. Ventral heart, hepatic portal system, and RBC are present
8. Body without segmentation 9. Symmetry: bilateral symmetry
9. Shape: flat, star-like, spherical or elongated 10. Germ layer: Triploblastic animals.
10. Head is absent 11. Coelom: present well-developed
11. Presence of tube feet 12. Presence of gill (pharyngeal) slits
12. Presence of water vascular system 13. Presence of post anal tail
13. Mouth is present on ventral side while anus is present on
dorsal side
14. Respiration: by papule, gills or cloacal respiratory tree
15. Circulatory system: is reduced, heart is absent
16. Nervous system: absent, they are brainless organisms
17. Blood has no pigment
18. Digestive system: complete
19. Excretory system: absent
20. Sexes: mostly dioecious, rarely monoecious
21. Fertilization: external fertilization
22. Reproduction:
● Sexual: by gamatic fusion
● Asexual: regeneration
23. Development: indirect with characteristic larvae

Classification Respiratory organ: papulae

Body is flattened star-shaped with
Phylum Echinodermata
5 arms
Class Asteriodea Presence of calcareous plates and
Order Valvatida movable spines
They possess tube feet with a
Family Archasteridae
sucker
Genus Archaster

Species Archaster typicus Examples: Asterias, Astropecten,

Zoroaster, Oreaster
Common name Sand star

Classification Respiratory organ: Bursae

Body is flattened with pentamerous
Phylum Echinodermata
disc
Class Ophiuroidea They possess a long arm which is
Order Ophiurida sharply demarcated from the
central disc
Family Ophiodermatidae
Anus and intestine are absent
Genus Ophiothrix They possess tube feet without a
Species Ophiothrix sucker
spiculata Examples: Ophiderma, Ophiothrix,
Common name Brittle star Astrophyton, Amphuria