Integumentary System
- Is the organ system that protects the body from damage
- Comprising the skin and its appendages (hair, scales,
feathers, hooves, and nails)
Functions:
1. Serve to waterproof, cushion, and protect the deeper
tissues
2. Excrete waste and regulate temperature
3. Attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain,
sensation, pleasure, and temperature
4. In most terrestrial vertebrates, it provides for vitamin
D synthesis
- Consist of the largest organ in the human body (skin)
- First line of defense against: bacteria, viruses, and other
pathogens
- Components of the skin: hair, nails, sweat glands, oil glands,
blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, and muscles.
A. Amphibian Skin
Epidermis
- Outermost layer of the epidermis are thin and flattened and
lie parallel to the surface
- Underlying cells are cuboidal, and the cells in the basal layer
are columnar (longer in the direction that is perpendicular to
the skin surface)
Stratified squamous epithelium
- Gradation from columnar to squamous cells
Germinativum Layer
- Continually produce cells, which are pushed toward
the surface as new cells are formed
- Becoming flattened and harder (more
cornified) as they move (Cornium)
- During the summer, a new layer of epithelium
forms under the old one, the old skin is
molted/ sloughed off.
Dermis
- Nerve and muscle fibers are also present but can’t be easily
seen
Mucous/Slime gland & Poison glands
- Lined by a layer of secretory cells and produce fluids
that are secreted onto the surface of the epidermis
through ducts.
- Found in the stratum spongiosum (laxum)
- Upper layer of the dermis
Poison glands
- Can be identified by its larger size and the
granular-appearing material in the lumen
(cavity)
“If the frog is roughly handled the
poison glands discharge a thick,
whitish secretion that causes a
burning sensation.”
Mucous/Slime glands
- Secrete a colourless, watery fluid that keeps
the skin moist, glistening, and sticky.
- The surface openings of the mucous glands
can be widened/narrowed by the contraction
of stoma cell (regulates the amount of
mucous discharged)
Stratum Compactum
- Lower layer of the dermis contains a large number of
small blood vessels that transport food and carbon
dioxide to the skin and take back oxygen absorbed
through surface layers from the air
Chromatophores
- Is a prominent layer of pigment cells
- Found in the stratum spongiosum
- Located between the epidermis and dermis
“Frog skin changes a lot, china oil”
- The skin darkens when the pigment granules in the
chromatophores spread out and cover other elements in the
skin, and it lightens when they shrink
“Changes in color are caused by both external and internal
states; low temperatures = darkening
high temperatures = lighten
B. Mammalian Skin
Epidermis
- consists of stratified squamous epithelium, usually
composed of several more layers of cells than that of the
frog and having more flattened keratinized layers at the
surface.
- Predominant pigment in human skin is melanin, which is
produced by melanocytes (located in the basal layers of the
epithelium)
Keratin is a tough proteinaceous material that serve
several functions
- Relatively waterproof substance and
therefore prevents water from entering the
body through the skin
- Prevents water loss
- Protects the underlying epithelial layers from
damage through ordinary wear
- Protective on the palms of the hands and
soles of the feet
Dermis
- Composed mainly of densely interwoven connective tissue
(note the small blood vessels)
- The blood vessels of the dermis provide nutrients to the skin
and help regulate body temperature.
Hair follicles & Sweat & Sebaceous glands
- Located at various levels in the dermis
Hair follicles
- The root of the hair develops into the hair
shaft (free end that protrudes from the
surface of the skin)
Sebaceous glands
- One or more sebaceous glands are located
in the dermis and open into the sebum (hair
follicle substance)
- The sebum lubricates the hair and the
surface of the epidermis and also prevents
evaporation of moisture during cold weather
(thus conserving heat)
Subcutaneous Layer
- Beneath the dermis
- Important as insulating layer
- Composed of adipose tissue (fat cells)
- The number of adipose tissue present varies
according to the body part and the nutrition of
the organism
“The fat cells on your slide will look
empty because the method used to
prepare the slide dissolved the fat
droplet in each cell, leaving only a
thin film of cytoplasm with its
compressed nucleus.”
- The fat cells are held together by fine,
fibrous, connective tissue
 Skeletal System
- Supports and protects the body while giving it shape and
form
- Composed of connective tissue including bone, cartilage,
tendons, and ligaments
- Nutrients are provided to this system through blood vessels
that are contained within the canals in the bones.
Functions:
1. Stores minerals, fats, and produces blood cells
2. Provide mobility
- The tendons, bones, joints, ligaments, and
muscles work in concert to produce various
movements
A. Axial Skeleton
1. Skull
- Anterior part of the axial skeleton
- Houses the brain and the olfactory, optic, and
auditory capsules for the organs of smell,
sight, and hearing
- Attached to the anterior end of the vertebral
column
Divided into
I. Cranial Region
- Containing the brain and inner ear
Cranium
- Roofed by the frontoparietal bones, nasal
bones, prootics, and the exoccipital bones
● Nasal bones cover the nasal capsules
● Prootics house the inner ears
● Exoccipital bones each of which has rounded
occipital condyles
- The two condyles fit depressions in the first
vertebra, permitting slight movements of the
head on the spinal column
- Between the condyles is a large opening
(foramen magnum) through which the spinal
cord passes.
- Between the prootics and the maxilla are
the squamosal and pterygoid bones, which
form the larger borders of the skull
II. Facial Region
- Forms the jaws, and encloses the eyes,
nose, and part of the ear
Upper Jaw
- Consists of the small premaxillary bones in
front and the larger maxillary bones that
extend posteriorly to join with the pterygoid
Ventral Surface
● Maxillary teeth located on the margin
of the upper jaw
● Vomerine teeth located on the roof of
the mouth
● Sphenethmoid bone (found on each
side of the parasphenoid bone)
which connects with the frontoparietal
bone dorsally, and the parasphenoid
bone ventrally
● Palatines are a slender rod-shaped
bone anterior to the parasphenoid to
the upper jaws
● Pterygoids (tri-radiate) are the
posterior bones on the sides of the
skull ventral to the squamosals which
make up the anterior part of the
cranium
Lower Jaw (mandible)
- Is a Metro-Meckelian (small bone located
anteriorly)
- consist of a rod-like ossified part of
the Meckel’s Cartilage encased by
the dentary and Angulo-Splenial
which are united with the
quadratojugal bone
● Dentary = thin portion that lies on the lateral
surface of the middle of the lower jaw
● Angulo-Splenial = stout component of the
lower jaw inner and posterior to the dentary
● Quadratojugal bone = small bone forming
the posterior end of the upper jaw to which
the posterior piece of the squamosal is
attached
2. Hyoid Bone
- Located in the floor of the buccal cavity
between the two arms of the mandibular
arch
- On the two anterolateral sides of the body
hyoid, there’s a pair of flat wing-like alary
processes
- A pair of long, flat, and thin Anterior Cornua
arise from the anterior margin of the body of
hyoid
- The Anterior Cornua form an arch towards
the outer side and extend backward to join
below the fenestra ovalis of the auditory
capsule
- A pair of short and more or less cylindrical
Posterior Cornua arise from the posterior
margin of the body of hyoid
- The Posterior Cornua are the only bones of
the hyoid apparatus
Hyoid Apparatus
Chiefly formed of
I. Dorsoventrally flattened plate of Hyaline
cartilage
II. A pair of rod-like cartilage bones
Body of Hyoid
- The broad central part of hyoid apparatus
lying beneath the tongue
3. Vertebral Column
- There are 9 separate vertebrae and a narrow
blade-like urostyle
1. Centrum
- Solid, cylindrical
- At the base of the vertebra
- Concave in front and convex behind
(procoelous type)
2. Neural Arch
- Dorsal to the centrum that which
encloses the neural canal, the
opening through which the spinal cord
passes
3. Neural Spine
- Projects dorsally from the arch
- For muscle attachment
4. Transverse Processes
- 2; lateral to the centrum and neural
arch
 B. Appendicular Skeleton
5. Prezygapophyses
- Have articulatory surfaces that project
anteriorly towards the midline and
dorsally
- Associated with the concave centrum
in a procoelous type
6. Postzygapophyses
- Project posteriorly outward and
ventrally
- Associated with the convex centrum
in a procoelous type
- Atlas (first vertebra) lacks transverse processes and
is modified anteriorly to receive the two occipital
condyles on the skull. By which the latter articulates
with the vertebral column
- The 9th or Sacral vertebra has enlarged transverse
processes to which the pelvic (hip) girdle attaches.
- Between adjacent neural arches are the foramina
(openings) through which spinal nerves connect to
the nerve cord
- The vertebral column terminates in a long bone
(urostyle)
4. Sternum
Scapula
- The bone passing dorsally from humerus
- Short flat bone that contains the glenoid
fossa
- Has a broad extension called that
suprascapular (a pair of flattened structures
at the dorsal part of the girdle)
Coracoid
- The bone posterior to the clavicles
- Ventrally and posterior to the clavicle (a pair
of slender boned on the anterior median
ventral part of the girdle)
Fenestra
- The empty space between the clavicle and
coracoid
Epicoracoid Cartilage
- Found between the two ends of the coracoid
and extending between two clavicles unites
the two halves of the pectoral girdle ventrally
Sternum
- Located at the point of junction of the two
clavicles
- Continues anteriorly as the omosternum and
episternum (both absent in toad)
- Continues posteriorly as the mesosternum
and xiphisternum (both present in toad)
Mesosternum is the bony portion
behind the epicoracoid cartilage
Xiphisternum is the posterior
cartilaginous notch
- Most vertebrate animals have some form of paired
appendages supported by pectoral (shoulder) and
pelvic (hip) girdles
- Among vertebrates, there are many modifications
in the girdles, limbs, and digits that enable the
animals to meet the requirements of their special
modes of life.
- The 2 pubes that unite at the mid-ventral portion
forms the pubic symphysis
- The 2 ischia are fused at the mid-ventral portion
forming the ischiac symphysis
Humerus and femur
- Single strong bones closest to the body in the
legs of a frog
Humerus
- in the anterior limb
- Is attached to the pectoral girdle at the
glenoid fossa (cup-shaped structure where
the head of the humerus fits) by the
ligaments
Femur
- in the posterior limb
- Head of the femur attaches to the pelvic
girdle in a socket, the acetabulum, the
ilium, ischium and the pubis.
● acetabulum is formed by the fusion
of 3 bones of the pelvic girdle
● ilium is a long, slender, anterior bone
that articulates with transverse
processes of the sacral vertebra
● ischium is a short, posterior flat bone
which forms the border of the
acetabulum
● pubis is a triangular bone which
forms the ventral border of the
acetabulum
- Distal to the humerus and femur are the
radioulnar and the tibiofibular
Radioulnar
- Fusion of the radius and the ulna
- Found in the forelimb
Tibiofibular
- Fusion of the tibia and fibula
- Found in the hindlimb
Feet and Hands
- are built according to a common pattern, with
a number of carpal (wrist) or tarsal (ankle)
bones followed by a group of elongated
metacarpal (hand) and metatarsal (foot)
bones, and the phalanges (bones of the
fingers/toes)
- The astragalus (inside the foot which is slender and
shorter) and the calcaneum (bigger, longer, and
outside the foot) joins the tibiofibular to the tarsal
bone.
Why do we dissect?
- Performing dissections in class has a lot to do with the
understanding of the body and the wider world
Reasons:
● Seeing these organs and understanding how they work
within a single animal allows students to understand how
these systems work within many other animals, including
themselves.
● In addition to learning about themselves, students can learn
about ecology and evolution through frog dissection.
● Dissection is a valued educational tool thanks to its
hands-on nature. It is thought of that if students see and feel
these organ systems for themselves, they will take more out
of the lesson than if the teacher just lectured or assigned
readings about it.
● Also, some teachers express the hope that by learning
about their own bodies through dissection, students will
come to respect how their bodies work, and think about how
they treat them and what they put into them.

Other fun facts

● One reason frogs are often chosen to be dissected is that
their bodies provide a good overview of the organ systems
of a complex living thing
○ The organs present in a frog, and the way they are
laid out in the body are similar enough to humans to
provide insight for students about how their bodies
work.
○ Certain body structures and adaptations can be seen
in frogs that illustrate how they evolved over time
and how they fill particular niches in the ecosystems
they belong to
“For example, the tongue of a frog has adapted to
have a great length, strength, and speed in order to
effectively catch insects in flight”
“The role that this tongue allows the frog to fulfill
consuming insects as its primary food source—is
important in the balance of many ecosystems the
frog is a part of.”
● There are practical advantages in using frogs:
- They’re an appropriate size for dissection in the
classroom and make the process manageable for
students and teachers
- Frogs have a relatively short life span to begin with,
and while some species of frogs are rare, others are
abundant and are therefore prime candidates for use
in dissection.