Body Membranes and parietal layer ( more superficial

-linings or coverings of body cavities layer)

- Construction:
Functions of body membrane ● Simple squamous epithelium
● Cover body surface - a layer of flat-tile like sheets
● Line body cavities ● Areolar connective tissue
● Form protective sheets around - Universal packing
organs tissue; tissue glue;
Classified according to tissue types: anchors
- Epithelial membranes Specific serous membrane
Body membranes that made of - Peritoneum: lines in the abdominal
epithelial tissue; hallmarks of cavity
epithelial tissue: avascular, apical - Pleura: found around the lungs
surface, basement membrane - Pericardium: found around the heart
● Cutaneous membranes
● Mucous membrane Connective tissue membranes
● Serous membrane Well vascularized; hallmarks:
variations in blood supply, have a
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES characteristic extracellular matrix.
- Simple organs; also called ● Synovial membranes
covering/lining membranes - Line fibrous capsules
- Contains: epithelial tissue layer and surroundings joints
connective tissue layer - Line bursae
Cutaneous membrane - Line tendon sheaths
- Skin; dry membrane - They don’t have
- Outermost protective boundary epithelial tissues: but
- construction are made up of loose
● Epidermis - outer layer; areolar connection
keratinized stratified tissue only.
squamous epithelium - - Secrets a lubricating
heavenly composed of a fluid t cushions
protein called keratin; an organs moving
epithelial layer of the against each other
cutaneous membrane. during muscle
activity; reduces
● Dermis - connective tissue friction.
layer; mostly made up of
dense or fibrous connective Integumentary system
tissue. - Protecting the body
- It consists of the:
Mucous Membrane ● Skin (cutaneous membrane)
- Found in the cavities that line OPEN ● Skin appendages ( S,H,O,N)
TO THE BODY EXTERIOR ● Sweat glands - sudoriferous
SURFACE glands
- Adapted for absorption or secretion ● Hair
- Mucosae; considered as moist ● Oil glands - sebaceous
membranes glands
- construction: ● Nails
● epithelium type depends on
site Other functions:
● Loose connective tissue ● Insulates and cushion deeper body
(lamina propria) organs
● Protects the entire body from:
Serous membranes - Mechanical damage (bumps
- Serosae; lines body cavities that is and cuts)
CLOSE TO EXTERIOR - Chemical damage (acids and
- Occurs in pairs, separated by serous bases)
fluid, with a visceral ( deeper layer) - Thermal damage (heat or
cold)
 - Ultraviolet or UV radiation
(sunlight)
- Microbes (bacteria)
- Desiccation (drying out)
● AIds in loss or retention of body heat
as controlled by the nervous system
● Aids in excretion of urea and uric
acid
● Synthesizes vitamin D
( study the TABLE 4.1)
Structures of the skin
● Two kinds of tissue composed the
skin:
- Epidermis:
- Dermis: dense connective
tissue: deeper layer
● Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
- Not technically a part of Integ
system.
- Mostly composed of adipose
tissue
- Anchors the skin to
underlying organs
- Serves as a shock absorbed
and insulates deeper tissues
Epidermis
- The outer layer of the skin
- Capable of being hard and tough
- keratinocytes ( the most common
cell)
- Produces a fibrous protein called
keratin
- Avascular
- Composed of 5 layers (strata): thick
skin. (outermost to deepest layer: C,
L, G, S, B)
● Stratum basale
● Stratum spinosum
● Stratum granulosum
● Statum lucidium (thick,
hairless skin)
● Stratum corneum
Stratum basale(deepest layer)
- Germinating layer of the skin;
mitotically active- continuous
dividing cells producing more cells
that are pushed upward.
- Lies next to the dermis
- Stratum germinativum
- Wavy borderline with the dermis
anchors the two together
- Cells undergoing mitosis
- Daughter cells are pushed upward to
become the more superficial layers
- Rete pegs: the downward projects
of the epidermis to the dermis; they
increase the surface area of the
epidermis.
- Dermal Papillae: the upward
projections; increase the surface
area of the dermis
Stratum Spinosum
- Cells become increasingly flatter and
more keratinized.
- Keratinization: the most keratin
would be the most superficial layer.
Stratum Granulosum
- Presence of granules in the cells.
Stratum Lucidum
- Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of
the palms and soles of the feet;
semi-clear
Stratum Corneum
- Shingle-like dead cells are filled with
keratin (protective proteins prevent
water loss from the skin); the
outermost layer of epidermis.
What gives colors to the skin
● Melanin
- Is a pigment produced by
melanocytes: stratum basale
- Color: yellow to brown to
black
- Melanin accumulate sin
membrane-bound granules
called melanosomes
- Protection from UV radiation
● Epidermal dendritic cells
- Alert activate immune cells to
a threat (bacterial or viral
invasion)
● Merkel cells
- Associate with sensory nerve
endings
- Serve as touch receptors
called Merkel discs: tactile
receptors; a sense of touch
Dermis
- Connective tissue
- Underlies the epidermis: highly
vascularized
2 layers of the dermis: Papillary, reticular
● Papillary Layer
> dermal papillae; upward projection
- Upper dermal layer
- Indent the epidermis above
- Many projections contain
capillary loops, and others
 house pain and touch
receptors
- On palm and sole surfaces,
papillae increase friction and
gripping ability
● Reticular layer
- Blood vessels
- Sweat and oil glands
- Deep pressure receptors
(lamellar corpuscle)
- Lamellar corpuscle: Pacinian
corpuscle; detects deep
touch sensation and vibration
specifically fast vibrations
- Meissner’s Corpuscle:
detects slow vibrations
Other dermal features:
● Cutaneous sensory receptors
● Phagocytes
● Collagen and elastic fibers
● Blood vessels
Skin Color:
3 pigments that contribute to skin color:
1. Melanin - yellow, reddish-brown or
black pigment
2. Carotene - orange-yellow colors,
observed in the color we eat
3. Hemoglobin - red coloring; in dermal
capillaries. More oxygen content =
increase in redness of the color of
the blood
Skin color
● Redness (erythema) - due to
embarrassment, inflammation,
hypertension, fever, or allergy
● Pallor (blanching) - due to emotional
stress (such as fear), anemia, low
blood pressure, impaired blood flow
to an area
● Jaundice (yellow cast) - indicates a
lives disorder
● Bruises (black or blue marks) -
hematomas
Appendages of the skin
- Cutaneous glands are all exocrine
glans: sebaceous and sweat glands
( eccrine, apocrine)
- Hair, Hair follicles, Nails
Sebaceous Gland (oil gland)
- Produce sebum or oil
- Located all over the skin except the
palms and soles of the feet.
● Makes skin soft and moist
● Prevents hair from becoming
brittle
● Kills bacteria
- Glands are activated at puberty
Sudoriferous Glands (sweat glands)
- Produces sweat
- Widely distributed in the skin
2 types of sweat glands:
1. Eccrine sweat glands
- Open via a duct to sweat pores on
the skin’s surface
- Produce acidic sweat
● Water, salts, vitamin C,
traces of metabolic waste
- Function in Temperature regulation
2. Apocrine sweat glands
- Ducts empty into hair follicles in the
armpit and genitals
- Begin to function at puberty
- Release sweat that also contains
fatty acids and proteins (milky or
yellowish color)
- Play minimal role in temperature
regulation
Hair
- Produces by hair follicle
- Hard keratinized epithelial cells
- Root is enclosed in the follicle
- Shaft projects from the surface of
the scalp or skin
- Melanocytes
- The area where hair grows: matrix of
hair bulb found in the stratum basale
Hair anatomy
- Central medulla (innermost)
- Cortex surrounds medulla
- The cuticle on the outside of the
cortex
● Most heavily keratinized
regions of the hair
Associated hair structures
● Hair follicle
- Composed of an epithelial
root sheath and fibrous
sheath
- Dermal region provides a
blood supply to the hair bulb
(deepest part of the follicle)
- Arrector Pili muscle: smooth
muscles that are connected
to the hair follicle pull hair
upright when we are cold or
frightened.
Nails
- Heavenly keratinized, scalelike
modifications of the epidermis
- Stratum basale extends beneath the
nail bed, which is responsible for the
growth
- Lack of pigment makes nails
colorless; lack melanocytes
Parts of the nails
- Free edge
- Body- the visible attach portion
- Nail folds; the cuticle; proximal edge
- Root of the nail is embedded in the
skin
- Nail matrix
- Lunule
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Skin
● Infections and allergies
- Athlete’s foot - caused by
fungal infection (Tinea pedis)
- Boils (furuncles) and
carbuncles - caused by
inflammation of hair follicles
- Cold sores (fever blisters) -
caused by human
herpesvirus 1
- Contact dermatitis - caused
by exposure to chemicals
that provoke an allergic
response
- Impetigo - caused by
bacterial infection
- Psoriasis - triggered by
trauma, infection, hormonal
changes, or stress
● Burns
- Tissue damage and cell
death caused by heat,
electricity, UV radiation or
chemicals
- Associated dangers?
- Result in loss of body fluids
and infection from the
invasion of bacteria.
- Extent of a burn is estimated
using the rule of nines
> body is divided into 11
areas for quick estimation
> each area represents about
9% o total body surface area.
> the area surrounding the
genitals (the perineum)
represents 1% of the body
surface area.
First-degree burn
- Only epidermis is damaged
- Skin is red and swollen
Second-degree burn
- Epidermis and superficial part of the
dermis are damaged
- Skin is red, painful, and bistered
- Regrowth of the epithelium can
occur
Third-degree burns
- Destroys epidermis and dermis; the
burned area is painless
- Requires skin grafts, as regeneration
is not possible
- Burned area is blanched (gray to
white) or black
Fourth-degree burns
- Extends into deeper tissues (bones,
muscle, tendons)
- Appears dry and leathery
- Requires surgery and grafting
- May require amputation
Criteria for deeming burns critical (if any one
is met):
○ Over 30 percent of body has
second-degree burns
○ Over 10 percent of the body has third- or
fourth-degree burns
○ Third- or fourth-degree burns of the face,
hands, or feet, or genitals
○ Burns affect the airways
○ Circumferential (around the body or limb)
burns have occurred
▷ Skin cancer
○ Most common form of cancer in humans
○ Most important risk factor is overexposure
to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight and
tanning beds
▷ Most common types of skin cancer
○ Basal cell carcinoma
○ Squamous cell carcinoma
○ Malignant melanoma
▷ Basal cell carcinoma
○ Least malignant and most common type
of skin cancer
○ Lesions appear as shiny, dome-shaped
nodules that develop a central ulcer
▷ Squamous cell carcinoma
○ Believed to be induced by UV exposure
○ Lesions appear as scaly, reddened
papules that gradually form shallow ulcers
○ Early removal allows a good chance of
cure
○ Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not
removed
▷ Malignant melanoma 3. Attached skeletal muscle allow
○ Most deadly of skin cancers, but movement - they provide skeletal
accounts for only 5 percent of skin cancers muscle attachment
○ Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood 4. Stores minerals and fats: calcium
vessels and phosphorus; yellow bone
○ Detection uses ABCDE rule for marrow: made up of mostly adipose
recognizing melanoma cells: they store triglycerides
5. Blood cell formation
Malignant melanoma (continued) (hematopoiesis)- produces red bone
○ A = Asymmetry marrow; is a form of connective
○ B = Border irregularity tissue that produces RBC, WBC,
○ C = Color and platelets
○ D = Diameter
○ E = Evolution Classification of Bones:
● The adult skeleton has 206 bones
Developmental Aspects of Skin & Body - 80 from axial skeleton
Membranes - 126 from the appendicular
▷ Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by skeleton
the fifth or sixth month of fetal development ● Two basic types of osseous (bone)
but disappears by birth tissue
▷ Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is 1. Compact bone - a type of
apparent at birth osseous that is dense,
▷ Milia, small white spots, are common at smooth, and homogeneous;
birth and disappear by the third week doesn’t have open spaces
▷ Acne may appear during adolescence 2. Spongy - small needle pieces
▷ In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well like bone and contain many
hydrated small spaces; trabeculae
▷ With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
▷ Skin cancer is a major threat to skin ● Bones are classified on the basis of
exposed to excessive sunlight shape into 4:
▷ Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; 1. Long
both are genetically determined; other 2. Flat
factors that may contribute include drugs 3. Short
and emotional stress 4. Irregular

SKELETAL SYSTEM
● Parts of the skeletal system:
- Bones (skeleton)
- Joints: articulations- phases
between/ articulation of two
bones
- Cartilages: connective tissue
- Ligaments: connective tissue
● 2 Subdivisions of the skeleton
1. Axial skeleton - made up of
80 bones; bones found in the
longitudinal axis of the body
2. Appendicular skeleton - 120
bones; bones found in
appendages or limbs
For adults 206 bones
Functions of the bones:
1. Supports the body- provides a
structural framework for the body
2. Protects soft organs- the skull and
vertebrae: protects the brain and
spinal cord; ribcage; protects the
organs of thoracic cavity
1. Long bones ( L>W, shaft, variable #
of ends)
- Typically longer than they
wide
- Shaft with enlarged ends
- Contain mostly made up of
compact bones; spongy bone
at eds
- All of the bones of the limbs-
appendicular skeleton (
except wrist, ankle, and
kneecap bones) are long
bones
- Examples: femur, tibia, fibula,
humerus, radius and ulna,
fingers and toes (phalanges)
2. Flat bones
- Thin, flattened, and usually
curved; Functions:
protections, provide
extensive purposes for
muscle attachment
 - Two thin layers of compact
bone sandwich a layer of
spongy bone between them
- Examples: cranial bones
(protects the brain),
sternum(breast bone), ribs(
protects organs in the
thorax), scapulae( shoulder
blades)
3. Short Bones (L= W)
- Generally cube-shaped
- Contain mostly spongy bone
with an outer layer of
compact bone
- Sesamoid bones are a type
of short bone that form within
tendons (patella)
- Examples:
> Carpals (wrist bones)
>Tarsals (ankle bones)
4. Irregular bones
- Irregular shape
- Do not fit into other bone
classification categories
- Examples:
> Vertebrae
>Hip bones
> some facial bones
The structure of bones
1. Long bone anatomy
● Diaphysis (shaft)
□ Makes up most of the
bone’s length
□ Composed of compact
bone; usually in the center
● Periosteum
□ Outside covering of the diaphysis
□ Fibrous connective tissue
membrane
□ Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
secure periosteum to the underlying
bone
● Epiphysis (ends)
□ Composed mostly of spongy bone
enclosed by thin layer of compact
bone
● Articular cartilage
□ Covers the external surface of the
epiphyses
□ Made of hyaline cartilage(the
most common type of cartilage)
□ Decreases friction ( at long
bones) at joint surfaces
● Epiphyseal line
□ Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
□ Seen in adult bones
● Epiphyseal plate
□ Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen
in young, growing bone
□ Causes lengthwise growth of a
long bone
● Endosteum
□ Lines the inner surface of the
shaft
□ Made of connective tissue
● Medullary cavity (marrow cavity)
□ Cavity inside the shaft
□ Contains yellow marrow (mostly
fat) in adults
□ Contains red marrow for blood
cell formation in infants until age 6 or
7
2. Bone markings
- Sites of attachments for muscles,
tendons, and ligaments
- Passages for nerves and blood
vessels
● Categories of Bone markings
- Projections or processes—grow out
from the bone surface; serves as
important landmarks for identifying
muscles, tendons that are attached
to the bone; Most of the names start
in, T.
- Depressions or
cavities—indentations; most of the
names start at F.
(study table 5.1)
3. Microscopic anatomy of spongy
bones
- Composed of small, needlelike
pieces of bone called trabeculae and
many open spaces
- Open spaces are filled by marrow,
blood vessels, and nerves
● Microscopic anatomy of compact
bone
> Osteocytes
□ Mature bone cells situated in
bone matrix
- Osteoblast - bone building
 - Osteoclast - bone resorptive
- Osteoprogenitor cells - stem cells
> Lacunae
□ Cavities in a bone matrix that
house osteocytes
- Osteon - the structural and
functional unit of compact
bone
- Cavity where to find the
osteocytes
> Lamellae
□ Concentric circles of lacunae
situated around the central (Haversian)
canal; Circular arrangement or ring-like
arrangement of lacunae
>Central (Haversian) canal
□ Opening in the center of an
osteon: the structural and functional unit of
compact bone (Haversian system)
□ Runs lengthwise through bone
- It carries/houses the blood vessels
and nerves
> Osteon (Haversian system)
□ A unit of bone containing central
canal and matrix rings
> Canaliculi
□ Tiny canals
□ Radiate from the central canal to
lacunae
□ Form a transport system
connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply
> Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
□ Canal perpendicular to the central canal
□ Carries blood vessels and nerves
The Structures of the Bones: Chemical
Aspect
● Bone is relatively lightweight and
resists tension and other forces
● Organic parts (collagen fibers) of
the bone make bone flexible and
have great tensile strength
● Calcium salts deposited in the bone
make bone hard to resist
compression
How bones are formed:
Ossification; the bones are formed
during this process
1. Intramembranous
- Process of bone
development from fibrous
membranes; mostly involved
in the formation of flat bones:
skull, mandible, and clavicles
*MEMORIZE THE PROCESS*
Osteoblast - excretes organic extracellular
matrix: serves as the site for deposition of
calcium and salts to harden bones
2. Endochondral ossification - most
common; replacement of hyaline
cartilage with bone tissue; a process
of bone development in hyaline
cartilage; all of the bones are formed
via Endrochondral except for skull,
mandible, clavicle
*MEMORIZE THE PROCESS*
Bone Formation, Growth, & Remodeling
● Bones are remodeled throughout life
in response to two factors
1. Calcium ion level in the
blood determines when bone
matrix is to be broken down
or formed
2. Pull of gravity and muscles
on the skeleton determines
where bone matrix is to be
broken down or formed
● Calcium ion regulation
- Negative feedback
- PTH & calcitonin
Decrease calcium in blood =
the PTH will release
parathyroid hormone; which
increases calcium levels in
the blood by stimulating
osteoclasts to breakdown
bone and increase calcium
will be into the blood
Increased level of calcium in
blood = stimulates the thyroid
gland that will release
calcitonin it stimulates
osteoblast it will store
calcium in bones and there
will be decreased in calcium
levels in blood
□ Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- Released when calcium ion
levels in blood are low
 - Activates osteoclasts 4. Bone remodeling occurs in
(bone-destroying cells) response to mechanical
- Osteoclasts break down stresses
bone and release calcium
ions into the blood Specific steps:
1st: phagocytes will begin to
□ Hypercalcemia (high blood remove any dead bone
calcium levels) prompts calcium storage to tissue.
bones by osteoblasts 2nd: chondroblast form
fibrocartilage at fracture site;
Bone Fractures bridges the broken ends of
● Fracture: break in a bone the bone
- Types of bone fractures
1. Closed (simple) 3rd: fibrocartilage is
fracture is a break converted to spongy bone
that does not tissue by osteoblasts
penetrate the skin
2. Open (compound) 4th: bone remodeling;
fracture is a broken osteoclasts absorbed dead
bone that penetrates portions of the bone
through the skin Spongy bones will be
3. Partial fracture - converted into a compact
incomplete break bone
across the bone.
- Example:
cracks (study table 5.2)
4. Complete - there is a
complete break
across the bones.
- Example: the
bones are
broken into 2
or more
pieces
● Bone fractures are treated by
reduction and immobilization
1. Closed reduction: bones are
manually coaxed into
position by the physician’s
hands
2. Open reduction: bones are
secured with pins or wires
during surgery
● Healing time is 6–8 weeks

● Repair of bone fractures involves

four major events
1. Hematoma (blood-filled
swelling, or bruise) is formed
2. Fibrocartilage callus forms
- Cartilage matrix,
bony matrix, collagen
fibers splint the
broken bone
3. Bony callus replaces the
fibrocartilage callus
- Osteoblasts and
osteoclasts migrate in