- Mucous is being secreted by

Anatomy and Physiology the goblet cells

 Serous Membrane
BODY MEMBRANES
- Composed of a layer of simple
- Cover surfaces, line body squamous resting on a thin
cavities, and form protective layer of areolar connective
sheets around organs tissue
- Lines cavities that are close to
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANE
the exterior
- Covering and lining - Isolate the lungs and the heart
membranes - Occur in pairs
- Simple organs - Parietal layer – lines a specific
portion of the walls of the
 Cutaneous Membrane ventral body cavity
- Epidermis = superficial layer - Visceral layer – covers outside
composed of stratified of the organ of that cavity
squamous epithelia - Serous fluid – separates the
- Dermis = underlying layer serous layer; allows organs to
composed of dense fibrous slide easily
connective tissue - Peritoneum – lines the
- Exposed to the air and is a dry abdominal cavity and cover its
membrane organs
- Plura/Plurae – membranes
 Mucous membrane surrounding the lungs
- Composed of epithelium - Pericardia/Pericardium –
resting on a loose connective membranes surrounding the
tissue called lamina popria heart
- Lines all cavities that open to
the exterior CONNECTIVE TISSE
- Contain either stratified MEMBRANE
squamous and simple columnar  Synovial membrane
- Moist membranes - Can be called Synovial
- Function: stop pathogens from stratum / Synovium / Stratum
entering the body and prevents Synoviale
dehydration
 - Composed of loose areolar  Dessication (drying out) –
connective tissue and contain contains water-resistant
no epithelial cell glycolipid and keratin
- Line small sacs of connective
tissue called bursae and tube- - Aids in body heat loss and heat
like tendon sheath retention
- Synoviocyte cells – secretes  Heat loss – activating sweat
synovial fluid glands and by allowing blood
to flush into to the skin
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
capillary
- The skin and appendages  Heat retention – not allowing
- Keeps water and other precious blood to flow into skin
molecules in the body capillary bed

FUNCTIONS: - Aids in secretion of urea and

- Protection uric acid
 Mechanical damage –  Contained in perspiration
physical barriers contains produced by sweat glands
keratin; fat cells for cushion;
- Synthesizes vitamin D
pain receptor to alert the
 Modified cholesterol molecules
nervous system
in skin covert to vitamin D in
 Chemical damage –
the presence of sunlight;
impermeable keratinized cells;
calcitrol is the activated form
contain pain receptors
of Vitamin D
 Microbe damage – phagocytes
ingest foreign substances and STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN
pathogens
 Epidermis – outer layer made
 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation -
up of stratified squamous
melanin produced by
making them hard and tough
melanocytes offers protection
 Dermis – made mostly of
from UV damage
dense connective tissue; fairly
 Thermal damage – contains
tear resistant
heat/cold/pain receptors
 Hypodermis – essentially
adipose tissue; anchor skinto
 underlying organs; nutrient - Cytoplasms are full or granules
storage; shock absorber;
insulates deeper tissues  Stratum lucidum
- Cells die in this layer
- Can be seen in the palm of the
EPIDERMIS
hands and soles of the feet
- Keratinocytes produce keratin - Secrete a water-repellent
- Keratinization – production of gylcolipid
keratinocytes - The more superficial, the less
- Keratin makes the skin a tough adequate nutrients and oxygen
protective layer  Stratum corneum
- Connected by desmosomes - Outermost layer
- Avascular; no blood supply - Prevents abrasion and
dehydration
5 LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS - Provide durable “overcoat” for
the body
 Stratum basale
- Deepest layer close to the MELANIN
dermis - Pigment that ranges in color
- Adequately nourished - Produced by special spider-
- Also called stratum shaped cells called
germinativum melanocytes
- Responsible for mitosis - Genetics andsunlight
- Wavy borderline with the - Eumelanin – tan (brown and
dermis anchor the two together black)
- Pheomelanin – red/yellow
 Stratum spinosum (sunburns)
- Spiky cells or prickle cell
layers Epidermal Dendritic Cells
- Flatter and more keratin - Important “sentries” that alert
- Keratinization begins and activate system cells to a
threat
 Stratum granulosum
- Can also be called Langerhans
- Waterproof of the skin
Cells (immunity)
Merkel Cells - Blood vessels, sweat, oil
glands, and deep pressure
- Associated with sensory nerve
receptors called lamellar
endings and serves as a touch
corpuscles
receptors called Merkel Discs
- Lamellar corpuscles – nerve
- Merkel Ranvier Cells
ending responsible for
- Mechanoreceptor – is a
sensitivity of vibration and
sensory receptor that responds
pressure
to mechanical pressure or
- Rich in nerve supply
distortion

DERMIS
SKIN COLOR
- Strong stretchy envelope that
 Melanin
helps to bind the body together
- Exposure to sunlight stimulated
- Connective tissue that makes
melanocytes to produce more
up the dermis
melanin pigment
 Papillary layer - Acccumlates in their cytoplasm
- Superficial layer of the dermis in membrane bound granules
- Areolar connective tissue called melanosomes
- Uneven and has peglike - Lot of melanin = brown-toned
projections from its superior skin
surface is called dermal - Less melanin = light skin
papillae
- Dermal papillae contains loops
 Carotene
which furnish nutrients to the
- Deposited in stratum corneum
epidermis
and subcutaneous tissue
- Ridges of the fingertips are
- Orange-yellow pigment
well provided with sweat pores
- Carotene-rich foods make the
and leave unique, identifying
skin have a yellow-orange cast
films called fingerprint
 Reticular layer
- Deepest skin layer  Hemoglobin
- Dense irregular connective - Pigment in red blood cells
tissue
 - Crimson color of oxygenated
haemoglobin in the dermal
blood supply flushes through
the transparent cell layers
above and gives the skin a rosy
glow
+ Emotions influence skin color and
alteration in skin color signal certain
diseases
 Redness or erythema –
indicate embarrassment, fever,
hypertension, inflammation, or
allergy
 Pallor or blanching –
emotional stress, anemia, low
blood pressure, or impaired
blood flow
 Jaundice or yellow cast –
abnormal skin tone that
signifies liver disorder
 Bruises – black and blue marks
that reveal sites where blood
has escaped in the circulation
and has clotted (hematoma);
deficiency in Vitamin C and
haemophilia
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
- Maintains body homeostasis
CUTANEOUS GLANDS
- Are all exocrine glands
- Release their secretion to the
skin via ducts
- Found in the stratum basale
 Sebaceous (oil) glands
- Found all over the skin except
on the palm of hands and the
soles of the feet
- Usually empty into a hair
follicle but some directly open
onto the skin surface
- Sebum:
 Product of the sebaceous
gland
 Mixture of oily substance
and fragmented cells
 Makes the skin soft and
moist and prevents the hair
from becoming brittle
 Contains chemical that can
kill bacteria
 Very active when androgens
are produced in increase
amounts during adolescents
 Components: trigylcerides,
fatty sebum, cholesterol,
squaline
 Acne
- Sebaceous gland ducts are
blocked sebum
- An active infection of the
sebaceous gland
 Blackhead
 - Accumulated material oxidizes
and when it dries, it darkens
 Whitehead
- Material does not dry or darken
 Apocrine glands
 Saborrhea
- Caused by overactivity of the
sebaceous gland
- Gradually form a yellow-brown
crust that sloughs off oily
scales and dandruff
- Careful washing to remove the
excessive oil often helps
SWEAT GLANDS
- Also called
sudoriparous/sudoriferous
glands
- Widely distributed in the skin
 Eccrine glands
- Function: thermoregulation,
excretion, protection
- Produce acidic sweat that is
primarily water plus some salts,
Vitamin C, traces of metabolic
wastes and lactic acid
- Reaches the skin surface via
ducts that open eternally as a
funnel-shaped sweat pores
- Body’s heat-regulating
equipment
- Supplied with nerve endings
that cause them to secrete sweat
- When sweat evaporates, it
carries large amount of body
heat
- Largely confined to the axillary
and genital areas
- Larger than eccrine glands, and
their ducts empty into hair
follicles
- Secretes fatty acids and
proteins; when bacteria that
lives on the skin use its proteins
and fat, it can take on a
unpleasant odor
- Begins to function during
puberty
- Minimal role in
thermoregulation
- Activated by nerve fibers
during pain and stress and
during sexual arousal
HAIR
- Flexible epithelial structure
- The hair is enclosed in the hair
follicle called the root
- The part projecting from the
surface of the scalp or skin is
calls the shaft
- Hair forms by divisions of the
well-nourished stratum basale
 epithelial cells in the matrix of
the hair bulb
- Central core is called the
medulla, consisting of large
cells and air spaces, surrounded
by a bulky cortex layer
composed of layer of flattened
cells
- The cortex is enclosed by an
outermost cuticle formed by
single layer of cells that overlap
like shingles on a roof
- The cuticle is the most heavily
keratinized region
- Hair pigment is made by
melanocytes
- Fast growing tissue in the body
- Protective function: guarding
the head from bumps, shielding
the eyes, keep foreign particles
out of the respiratory out of the
respiratory system, attract
sexual partners
 Hair shaft
 Oval – smooth, silky, and wavy
 Flat and ribbon-like – curly or
kinky
 Perfectly round – straight and
tend to coarse
HAIR FOLLICLES
- The inner epithelial root
sheath is composed of
epithelial tissue and forms the
hair
- The outer fibrous sheath is
actually dermal connective
tissue
- The hair papilla provides
blood supply to the matrix in
the hair bulb
- The hair bulb is the deepest part
of the follicle
- Arrector pili – connect each
side of the hair follicle to the
dermal tissue; goosebumps
happen during contraction
NAIL
- Made of alpha keratin
- Scalelike modification of the
epidermis
- Free edge, body, and root
- The borders of the nails are
overlapped by folds of the skin
called nail folds
- Edge of the thick proximal nail
fold is commonly called cuticle
- Stratum basale of the epidermis
extends beneath the nail as nail
beds
- Nail matrix is responsible for
nail growth
- Transparent and nearly
colorless
- The region over the thickened
nail matrix that appears as a
 white crescent is called the  Impetigo
lunule - Pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions
that develop a yellow crust and
eventually rupture
INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES
- Caused by highly contagious
 Athlete’s foot staphylococcus or
- Itchy, red, peeling condition of streptococcus infection
the skin between the toes
- Infection of fungus Tinea pedis  Psoriasis
- Reddened epidermal lesions
 Boils and carbuncles covered with dry, silvery scales
(furuncles) that itch, burn, crack, and bleed
- Boils are caused by - Autoimmune disorder in which
inflammation of hair follicles the immune system attacks a
- Carbuncles are cluster of boils person’s on tissue, leading to
caused by staphylococcus the rapid over production of the
aureas skin cells
- Triggered by trauma, infection,
 Cold sores (fever blisters) hormonal changes, or stress
- Small fluid-filled blisters tha
titch and sting caused by
BURNS
human herpesvirus 1 infection
- Localizes in a cutaneous nerve - Tissue damage and cell death
- Remains dormant until caused by intense heat,
activated by emotional upset, electricity, UV radiation, or
fever, or UV radiation certain chemicals
- Body loses its precious supply
 Contact dermatitis of fluids containing proteins
- Itching, redness, and swelling and electrolytes
of the skin, progressing to - This can lead to the shutdown
blisters of kidney and circulation
- Exposure of the skin to shocks
chemical that provoke allergic - Burned skin is sterile for about
response 24 hours
- Rules of Nines – divides the
body into 11 areas
- Facial burns are dangerous
because of the damage in the
respiratory tract
- Joint injuries limits joint
mobility
CLASSIFICATION OF BURNS
 First-degree burn
- Superficial epidermis is
damage
- Area becomes red and swollen
- Not usually serious and
generally heal in two to three
days
 Second-degree burn
- Injury to the epidermis and
superficial part of the dermis
- Red, painful, and blistered
- Regrowth/regeneration can
occur
- No permanent scarring if care is
taken
 Third-degree burn
- Destroy both the epidermis and
the dermis and often extend
into the subcutaneous tissue
- Full thickness burn
- Blisters are present and the
burned area appeared blanched
or blackened
- Nerve ending are destroyed and
is not painful
- Regeneration is not possible
and skin grafting must be done
 Fourth-degree burn
- Extend into deeper tissues
- Burns appear dry and leathery,
and require surgery and
grafting to cover exposed tissue
- Severe cases, amputation may
be required to save the patient’s
life
CRITICAL:
- 30% of the body has second-
degree burn
- 10% of the body has third or
fourth-degree burn
- Third or fourth-degree burns of
the hand, face, feet, and
genitals
- Burns affect the airway
- Circumferential burns have
occurred
SKIN CANCER
- Most common type of cancer in
humans
- Overexposure to UV radiation
- Infections, chemicals, or
physical trauma
- Benign – neoplasm (trauma)
has not spread
- Malignant – neoplasm has
invaded other body area
 Basal Cell Carcinoma
- Least malignant and most
common skin cancer
- Cells of the stratum basale are
altered so they cannot produce
keratin, no longer honor the
boundary between epidermis
and dermis
- Occur in sun-exposed areas of
the face and appear as shiny,
dome-shaped nodules that later
develop a central ulcer with
“pearly” beaded edge
- Relatively slow-growing, and
metastasis seldom occurs
before lesions is noticed
- Removed surgically
 Squamous Cell Carcinoma
- Arises from the cells of the
stratum spinosum
- Lesions appear as scaly,
reddened papules that gradually
form shallow ulcers
- Appears on the scalp, ears,
back of the hands, and lower lip
- Grows rapidly and mestastizes
to adjacent lymph nodes
- Induced by UV exposure
- Removed by surgery or
radiation therapy
 Malignant Melanoma
- Cancer of melanocytes
- Often deadly
- Can appear wherever there is
pigment
- Arises from accumulated DNA
damage in a skin cell and
usually appears as brown-black
patch
- Chance of survival is 50%
- Wide surgical excision along
with immunotherapy; radiation
or chemotherapy after surgery
ABCD RULE
 Asymmetry – any two side do not
match
 Border irregularity – not smooth
but exhibit indentation
 Color – pigmented spot contains
different color
 Diameter – larger than 6
millimetre in diameter
 Evolution – ABCD is evolving or
changing