MC 1 LECTURE (ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY) CHAPTER 4

● Nails
CHAPTER 4: SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES
Functions of the Integumentary System
Body Membranes - Insulates and cushion deeper body organs
● Functions of body membranes - Protects the entire body from:
- Cover body surfaces
- Line body cavities
- Form protective sheets around organs ● Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
● Chemical damage (acids and bases)
Classified according to tissue types: ● Thermal damage (heat or cold)
● Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight)
1. Epithelial membranes ● Microbes (bacteria)
- Cutaneous membranes ● Desiccation (drying out)
- Mucous membranes ● Aids in loss or retention of body heat as controlled by
- Serous membranes the nervous system
● Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
2. Connective tissue membranes ● Synthesizes vitamin D
- Synovial membranes
Structure of the Skin
Epithelial Membranes Two kinds of tissue compose the skin:
- Epithelial membranes are simple organs ● Epidermis
- Also called covering and lining membranes ● Dermis
These membranes contain: ● Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
- Epithelial tissue layer - Anchors the skin to underlying organs
- Connective tissue layer - Not technically part of the integumentary
system
● Cutaneous membrane = skin - Composed mostly of adipose tissue
- Dry membrane - Serves as a shock absorber and insulates
- Outermost protective boundary deeper tissues
- Construction
● The epidermis is composed of keratinized ● Epidermis—outer layer
stratified squamous epithelium - Capable of being hard and tough
● The dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) - Stratified squamous epithelium
connective tissue - Keratinocytes (the most common cell)
● Mucous membranes (mucosae) produce a fibrous protein called keratin
- Moist membranes - Avascular
- Line all body cavities that open to the exterior
body surface ● Composed of five layers (strata)
- Adapted for absorption or secretion
- Construction Summary of layers of the epidermis from deepest to most
● Epithelium type depends on site superficial
● Loose connective tissue (lamina propria) ● Stratum basale
● Serous membranes (serosae) ● Stratum spinosum
- Line open body cavities that are closed to the ● Stratum granulosum
exterior of the body ● Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only)
- Occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with a ● Stratum corneum
visceral and parietal layer
- Construction ● Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)
● Simple squamous epithelium - The deepest layer of the epidermis
● Areolar connective tissue - Lies next to dermis
● Specific serous membranes - Wavy borderline with the dermis anchors the two
- Peritoneum - Abdominal cavity together
- Pleura - Around the lungs - Cells undergoing mitosis
- Pericardium - Around the heart - Daughter cells are pushed upward to become the
more superficial layers
Connective Tissue Membranes ● Stratum spinosum
● Synovial membranes - Cells become increasingly flattered and more
- Loose areolar connective tissue only (no epithelial keratinized
tissue) ● Stratum granulosum
- Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints ● Stratum lucidum
- Line bursae - Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata
- Line tendon sheaths - Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of
- Secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion organs hands and soles of feet
moving against each other during muscle activity ● Stratum corneum
- Outermost layer of epidermis
Integumentary System - Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin
● The integumentary system consists of the: (protective protein prevents water loss from skin)
- Skin (cutaneous membrane)
- Skin appendages Structure of the Skin
● Sweat glands ● Melanin
● Oil glands - Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes
● Hair
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MC 1 LECTURE (ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY) CHAPTER 4
- Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale of
the epidermis
- Color is yellow to brown to black
- Melanin accumulates in membrane-bound
granules called melanosomes
- The amount of melanin produced depends upon
genetics and exposure to sunlight
● Epidermal dendritic cells
- Alert and activate immune cells to a threat
(bacterial or viral invasion)
● Merkel cells
- Associated with sensory nerve endings
- Serve as touch receptors called Merkel discs
● Dermis
- Connective tissue
- Underlies the epidermis
● Two layers of the dermis:
● The papillary layer (upper dermal region)
contain projections called dermal papillae
- Indent the epidermis above
- Many projections contain capillary loops,
and others house pain and touch
receptors
- On palm and sole surfaces, papillae
increase friction and gripping ability
- Fingerprints are identifying films of
sweat
● Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)
- Blood vessels
- Sweat and oil glands
- Deep pressure receptors (lamellar
corpuscles)
● Other dermal features
- Cutaneous sensory receptors
- Phagocytes
- Collagen and elastic fibers
- Blood vessels
Skin Color
● Three pigments contribute to skin color:
1. Melanin
- Yellow, reddish-brown, or black pigments
2. Carotene
- Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
3. Hemoglobin
- Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries
- Oxygen content determines the extent of red
coloring
● Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment,
inflammation, hypertension, fever, or allergy
● Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress (such as
fear), anemia, low blood pressure, impaired blood
flow to an area
● Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver disorder
● Bruises (black and blue marks)—hematomas
Appendages of the Skin
● Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands
- Sebaceous glands
- Sweat glands
● Hair
● Hair follicles
● Nails
● Sebaceous (oil) glands
- Located all over the skin except for palms and
soles
- Produce sebum (oil)
- Makes skin soft and moist
- Prevents hair from becoming brittle
- Kills bacteria
- Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles;
others open directly onto the skin surface
- Glands are activated at puberty
● Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
- Produce sweat
- Widely distributed in the skin
● Two types of sudoriferous glands:
1. Eccrine glands
2. Apocrine glands
● Eccrine glands
- Open via a duct to sweat pores on the skin’s
surface
- Produce acidic sweat (water, salts, vitamin C,
traces of metabolic waste)
- Function in body temperature regulation
● Apocrine glands
- Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit and
genitals
- Begin to function at puberty
- Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and
proteins (milky or yellowish color)
- Play a minimal role in body temperature
regulation
● Hair
- Produced by the hair follicle
- The root is enclosed in the follicle
- Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or skin
- Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
- Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
- Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in
stratum basale
● Hair anatomy
- Central medulla
- Cortex surrounds medulla
- The cuticle on the outside of the cortex - The most
heavily keratinized region of the hair
● Associated hair structures
● Hair follicle
- Composed of an epithelial root sheath and
fibrous sheath
- Dermal region provides a blood supply to
the hair bulb (deepest part of the follicle)
- Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair
follicle to pull hairs upright when we are
cold or frightened
● Nails
- Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of the
epidermis
- Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed,
which is responsible for the growth
- Lack of pigment makes nails colorless
● Parts of a nail
- Free edge
- The body is the visible attached portion
- Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges of
the nail; the cuticle is the proximal edge
- The root of the nail is embedded in the skin
- Growth of the nail occurs from the nail matrix
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
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MC 1 LECTURE (ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY) CHAPTER 4
Infections and allergies
● Athlete’s foot
- Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis)
- Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes
● Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
- Caused by inflammation of hair follicles
- Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by
bacteria
● Cold sores (fever blisters)
- Caused by human herpesvirus 1
- Blisters itch and sting
● Contact dermatitis
- Caused by exposure to chemicals that
provoke allergic responses
- Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
● Impetigo
- Caused by bacterial infection
- Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions around
mouth/nose
● Psoriasis
- Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal
changes, or stress
- Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry,
silvery scales that itch, burn, crack, or
sometimes bleed
● Burns
- Tissue damage and cell death caused by
heat, electricity, UV radiation, or
chemicals
- Associated dangers
- Protein denaturation and cell death
- Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
- Circulatory shock
- Result in loss of body fluids and infection
from the invasion of bacteria
The extent of a burn is estimated using the rule of nines
- The body is divided into 11 areas for quick
estimation
- Each area represents about 9 percent of the total
body surface area
- The area surrounding the genitals (the perineum)
represents 1 percent of body surface area
● First-degree burn (superficial burn)
- Only the epidermis is damaged
- Skin is red and swollen
● Second-degree burn (partial-thickness burn)
- The epidermis and superficial part of the
dermis are damaged
- Skin is red, painful, and blistered
- Regrowth of the epithelium can occur
● Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
- Destroys epidermis and dermis; the
burned area is painless
- Requires skin grafts, as regeneration is
not possible
- Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or
black
● Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
- Extends into deeper tissues (bone,
muscle, tendons)
- Appears dry and leathery
- Requires surgery and grafting
- May require amputation
Criteria for determining burns critical (if anyone is met):
- Over 30 percent of the body has second-degree
burns
- Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-
degree burns
- Third- or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands,
or feet, or genitals
- Burns affect the airways
- Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns
have occurred
● Skin cancer
- The most common form of cancer in
humans
- The most important risk factor is
overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation
in sunlight and tanning beds
Cancer can be classified two ways:
1. Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not
spread
2. Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded other
body areas
Most common types of skin cancer
- Basal cell carcinoma
- Squamous cell carcinoma
- Malignant melanoma
● Basal cell carcinoma
- The least malignant and most common
type of skin cancer
- Arises from cells in stratum basale that
are altered so that they can no longer
make keratin
- Lesions appear as shiny, dome-shaped
nodules that develop a central ulcer
● Squamous cell carcinoma
- Believed to be induced by UV exposure
- Arises from cells of stratum spinosum
- Lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules
that gradually form shallow ulcers
- Early removal allows a good chance of
cure
- Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not
removed
● Malignant melanoma
- Most deadly of skin cancers, but accounts
for only 5 percent of skin cancers
- Arises from melanocytes
- Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood
vessels
- Detection uses the ABCDE rule for
recognizing melanoma
A = Asymmetry
- Two sides of the pigmented mole do not match
B = Border irregularity
- The borders of the mole are not smooth
C = Color
- Different colors in the pigmented area
D = Diameter
- Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter
E = Evolution
- One or more of the ABCD characteristics is
evolving
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKIN AND BODY
MEMBRANES
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MC 1 LECTURE (ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY) CHAPTER 4
● Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by the fifth
or sixth month of fetal development but
disappears by birth
● Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is apparent at
birth
● Milia, small white spots, are common at birth and
disappear by the third week
● Acne may appear during adolescence
● In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
● With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
● Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to
excessive sunlight
● Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both
are genetically determined; other factors that may
contribute include drugs and emotional stress