GENERAL ANATOMY 1

- thin, clear zone that consists of several layers of

I. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM dead cells
- Keratin fibers are present, but the keratohyalin has
SKIN dispersed around the keratin fibers
-It is the largest single organ of the body, typically - Cells appear somewhat transparent.
accounting for 15–20% of total body weight. *nagstart magcombine and granules at fibers…
-Also known as the integument or cutaneous layer.
5. Stratum Corneum
Functions: “Protect VETS” - Keratin layer
. Protection (1st line of defense) - consists of cornified cells, which are dead cells,
. Vitamin D Production with a hard protein envelope, filled with the protein
. Excretion keratin.
. Temperature Regulation - The type of keratin found in the skin is soft keratin.
. Sensation *combined na ang granules at fibers and is now
called KERATIN…
3 Main Layers of Skin *no oxygen na…
. Epidermis
. Dermis Skin Color
. Hypodermis or subcutis (composed of adipose • The color of the skin is the result of several
tissue) factors, the most important of which are the
KERATINOCYTES content of melanin and
Epidermis carotene (yellowish color) and the number of BV
It consists mainly of a stratified squamous keratinized in the dermis.
epithelium composed of: “KeMe Lang Merk” • Melanin – group of pigments responsible for skin,
- Keratinocytes hair, and eye color.
- Pigment-producing Melanocytes • Melanocytes – a specialized cell of the
- antigen-presenting Langerhans cells epidermis that produce melanin. (neural crest
- and tactile epithelial cells called Merkel cells derivatives), mostly seen at basal.
• Langerhans Cells- Antigen-presenting cells
Strata of Epidermis (APCs) which are usually most clearly seen in the
“Come! Let’s Get Sun Burn!” spinous layer.
-cytoplasmic processes extend from these
dendritic cells between Keratinocytes.
1. Stratum Basale / Germinativum
-bind, process and present antigen to T-
- Basal Layer
Lymphocytes.
- Cells are arranged as a single layer of cuboidal or
• Merkel Cells- epithelial tactile cells that are
low columnar cells
sensitive mechanoreceptors essential for light
- Keratinocyte stem cells undergo mitotic divisions
touch sensation.
approximately every 19 days.
-abundant in highly sensitive skin like that of
fingertips and at the bases of some hair follicles.
2. Stratum Spinosum
- Prickle cell layer/ Spinous layer
- Normally the thickest Neuronal Endings of Skin
- Composed of polyhedral keratinocytes with active • Free nerve endings: Detect touch, temperature,
protein synthetic function. pain
*KERATIN FIBERS pa lang during production of keratin • Pacinian corpuscles: Pressure and high frequency
and magstart magproduce ng Lamellar Granules… vibration... DEEPEST!
• Meissner’s corpuscles: Touch receptors, low
3. Stratum Granulosum frequency vibration... SUPERFICIAL!
- Granular layer • Ruffini endings: Mechanoreceptors, skin stretch,
- Contains keratohyaline granules (not membrane warmth temperature.
bound) • Krause end bulb- cold sensation.
- Contains lamellar granules (membrane bound)
Hair
4. Stratum Lucidum - elongated keratinized structures derived from
invaginations of the epidermal epithelium
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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
Hair follicles – produce long thin cylindrical structures
(hair shafts) composed largely of keratin.
Hair shafts – composed of central medulla
surrounded by a cortex with a surface cuticle
composed of single layer of flattened scales.
Arrector Pili- associated with each hair follicle; made
of smooth muscle cells; mainly responsible for goose
bumps.
HAIR GROWTH CYCLE
“AnCaTe” (Makati pag tumutubo ang buhok!)
. Anagen- growth phase
. Catagen transition phase
. Telogen- resting phase
Nail
- hard, flexible plates of keratin on the dorsal surface
of each distal phalanx
*Nail Body/ plate – dense keratinized plate
*Cuticle or eponychium – formed by the epidermal
stratum corneum extending from the proximal nail
fold
*Nail root – proximal part covered by the proximal
skin fold which is thin and lacks both hair and glands
*Nail bed – stratified squamous epithelium where
the plate rests
Glands of the Skin
. Sebaceous – branched acinar glands with several
acini (holocrine type).
o Sebocytes- large, lipid producing cells
filled with small fat droplets that produce
a mixture of lipids called SEBUM.
. Sweat glands
a. Merocrine/ eccrine
Composed of:
- clear cells- produces sweat
- dark cells- fights bacteria
- myoepithelial cells- special type of cells
capable of contraction
b. Apocrine – produce a thick secretion rich in
organic substances (odorless)
- open into follicles but only in axilla and genitalia.
*odorless pero bakit nagkakaamoy?? Because of
the presence of bacteria!!! Kaya ang cell na wala
sa apocrine ay DARK CELLS to fight those bacteria..
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II. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Functions:
• Body Movement
• Maintenance of Posture
• Respiration
• Production of Body Heat
• Communication
• Constriction of Organs and Vessels
• Heart beat
*Some skeletal muscles are not attached to bone at
both ends eg. Facial muscles
*Tendons - connects the muscle to the bone
*Origin (head) - most stationary end of the muscle
*Insertion -end of the muscle attached to the bone
undergoing the greatest movement
*Belly -part of muscle between origin and insertion
Muscle Nomenclature:
• Muscles may be named according to:
• Location – Pectoralis (Chest)
• Origin and Insertion – Brachioradialis (which
extends from brachio meaning arm to the
radius)
• Number of heads – biceps (“bi”, two + “ceps”,
head)
• Function – flexor digitorum (flexes the digits)
• Size – Vastus (means large)
• Shape – Deltoid (means triangular)
• Orientation of fasciculi – Rectus (means straight)
MUSCLES OF THE PECTORAL REGION
• Pectoralis major - attached to humerus
• Pectoralis minor – attached to coracoid
• Subclavius muscles – attached from 1st rib to
clavicle.
*All originate from the anterior thoracic wall and
insert into bones of the upper limb.
MUSCLES OF THE THORAX (breathing)
• External Intercostals- Inferior part of 1st rib to
superior part of the next rib.
-ELEVATES RIB, INHALE!!
• Internal Intercostals- superior of the inferior rib to
the inferior part of superior rib.
-DEPRESSES RIBS, EXHALE!!
• Inner Intercostals
• Transversus thoracis- from ribs to sternum
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
MUSCLES OF ABDOMINAL WALL
• Rectus Abdominis- vertica msl; pubis symphysis LOWER ARM MUSCLES
to sternum (xiphoid) • Flexors (anterior)
• External Abdominal oblique- diagonal ms; all • Extensors (posterior)
attached to tendon sheath (aponeurosis) • Palmaris longus
• Internal Abdominal oblique- diagonal ms; all • Pronators
attached to tendon sheath (aponeurosis) • Supinators
• Transversus Abdominis- diagonal ms; all
attached to tendon sheath (aponeurosis) Movement of the Hands
• Pyramidalis- 2nd vertical muscle of abdominal Pronation: Pronator quadratus, pronator teres
wall. Supination: Supinator, biceps

POSTERIOR ABDOMINAL MUSCLES THIGH MUSCLES (Anterior Compartment)

• Psoas Major and minor (medial)- attached to - Flexion of hips, and extension of knee
T12 upto L5 to the Femur • Rectus Femoris-
• Quadratus lumborum (lateral)- from Lumbar to • Vastus Lateralis- major site for immunization for
iliac crest babies.
• Iliacus muscle (inferior)- ileum to femur • Vastus Medialis-
• Diaphragm (superior)- • Vastus Intermedius-
*QUADRICEPS MUSCLES (all 4 above)*
BACK MUSCLES
Trapezius- C7 upto T12 to Acromion P. • Sartorius- used for pangbuka ng legs, aka:
Latissimus Dorsi- T7 upto sacrum to Humerus HONEYMOON MUSCLE
Levator Scapulae- C1 upto C4 to Scapula
Rhomboideus- inserted to scapula THIGH MUSCLES (Posterior Compartment)
Minor: origin- C7 upto T1 - Hip extension and knee flexion
Major: origin- T2 upto T5 • Biceps Femoris
• Semimembranosus- middle
UPPER ARM MUSCLES • Semitendinosus
• Deltoid- triangular; from pectoral girdle to
deltoid tuberosity of humerus; main muscle of THIGH MUSCLES (Medial Compartment)
the arm • Adductor Longus
• Biceps brachii- from scapula and humerus to • Adductor Magnus
radial tuberosity • Gracilis- for adduction and medial rotation;
• Triceps brachii- from scapula to olecranon “virginity muscle” or “anti rape muscle”
process • Pectineus
• Brachialis- humerus to ulnar tuberosity • Obturator Externus

*TRY OL BIC RIDES, UL BREAK!!!

LEG MUSCLES (Anterior Compartment)
- All flexion movement → dorsiflexion or
• Coracobrachialis- coracoid process to humerus
plantarflexion
• Brachioradialis- humerus to radius
Tibialis Anterior
Extensor Digitorum Longus
Rotator cuff Muscles (“SITS”) Fibularis Tertius
• Supraspinatus: Abduction of arm at shoulder
• Infraspinatus: External rotation of arm at
LEG MUSCLES (Posterior Compartment)
shoulder.
Tibialis Posterior
• Teres minor: External rotation of arm at shoulder.
Plantaris
• Subscapularis: Internal rotation of arm at
Soleus - DEEP CALF MUSCLES
shoulder (medial rotation)
Gastrocnemius - SUPERFICIAL CALF MUSCLE
Flexor Digitorum Longus
Movement of the Arm at the Elbow
Flexion: Biceps, Brachialis, Coracobrachialis
Extension: Triceps, Anconeus (aka Elbow)
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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
MUSCLES OF GLUTEAL REGION Anatomy of Long bones
- For abduction a. Diaphysis—the shaft (midportion) of the bone.
Gluteus minimus- pan shaped b. Epiphysis—the ends of the bone. If the
Gluteus medius- pan shaped epiphysis articulates with another bone, it will likely
Gluteus maximus- quadrangle be surrounded by articular cartilage.
c. Metaphysis—the area where the bone narrows
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC FLOOR AND PERINEUM between the epiphysis and diaphysis. (epiphyseal
Bulbospongiosus- ejaculation, erection plate/growth plate)
*RED- AXIAL *BLUE- APPENDICULAR
Coccygeus- attached to coccyx, pulls coccyx after
defecation
Ischiocavernosus- maintains erection
Levator ani- elevates anus
External anal sphincter- controls anus
External urethral sphincter- controls urethra
Deep Transverse perinei
Superficial transverse perinei

III. SKELETAL SYSTEM

Functions:
1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production

Types of Bone based on Location: Common Terms in Bone Anatomy

Ø Axial- 80 . Foramen – hole in a bone
Skull-22 . Canal or meatus – elongated hole which is a
Auditory Ossicles- 6 tunnel-like passage through the bone.
Hyoid- 1 . Fossa – depression on a bone
Vertebral Column- 26 . Process – projection from a bone
Thoracic Cage- 25
Ø Appendicular- 126 SKULL (22)
Pectoral Girdle- 4 * Gen. Ana 2 notes*
Upper Limb- 60
Pelvic Girdle- 2 VERTEBRAL COLUMN (26)
Lower Limb- 60 - It is the central axis of the skeleton.
- Has a normal curvature
TOTAL= 206 BONES
5 Major Curvature (*loob-lordosis, concave) (*kuba-kyphosis, canvex)

Types of Bone based on their Shape 1.Cervical Lordosis

. Long Bones – longer than they are wide 2.Thoracic Kyphosis
ex. Upper and lower limbs 3. Lumbar Lordosis
. Short Bones – approximately as broad as they are 4.Sacral Kyphosis
long *tranverse curve→ scoliosis (s or c curve)
ex. Wrist and ankle
Sesamoid (patella, largest) 1. Cervical Vertebrae (7)
. Flat Bones – relatively thin, flattened shape - Have very small bodies
ex. Ribs, scapulae - Most have bifid spinous processes
. Irregular Bones – with shapes that do not fit into the - The only vertebrae that has a transverse foramina
other three
ex. Vertebrae and facial bones

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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
• C1, C2, C7 = Atypical
• C3, C4, C5, C6 = Typical
• C1 = Atlas
- Holds up the head)
- No body and no spinous process
- Has large superior facets, where it
articulates with the occipital condyles on
the base of the skull
• C2 = Axis
- Has DENS
- The dens fits into the enlarged vertebral
foramen of the atlas, and the atlas
rotates around this process.
Ribs (24)
- 12 pairs
Classified as either:
- TRUE RIBS/ Vertebrosternal (1-7)
- FALSE RIBS
a. Vertebrochondral (8-10)
b. Floating/ Vertebral (11-12)
Sternum (1)
- Breastbone; Sword-shaped
- Composed of three parts:
• Manubrium- manual, handle, superior
• Gladiolus/ Body- sword shaped, body
• Xiphoid Process- extension, most fractured
during CPR

• C7 ➢ Jugular notch (suprasternal notch) - Superior

- The spine is not bifid border of manubrium.
- It resembles the 1st Thoracic Vertebral ➢ Angle of Louis (sternal angle)- Articulation of
- Vertebral prominence – most prominent manubrium and body at second rib.
spinous process
PECTORAL GIRDLE (4)
2. Thoracic Vertebrae (12)
- Possess long processes Scapula
- First 10 Thoracic Vertebrae have articular facets on - Coracoid process - provides attachments for some
their transverse processes, where they articulate shoulder and arm muscles.
with the tubercles of the ribs. - Glenoid Cavity - located in the superior lateral
- spinous processes are pointing downward portion of the bone, articulates with the head of the
- most typical vertebrae! humerus.
- Acromion Process- where clavicle is attached
3. Lumbar Vertebrae (5)
- Vertebral Foramen is triangular, larger than Clavicle
thoracic but smaller than cervical. - Collar bone
- The body is wider transversely and deeper in front. - S-shaped bone
- Pedicles are short. - forms by membranous bone formation
- With mammillary process - Parts: Acromial End, Shaft, Sternal End

4. Sacral Vertebrae (1) UPPER LIMB: (60)

- 5 vertebrae fused into a single bone called
Sacrum. Humerus
• Alae - Wing-shaped areas on the superior • Head – articulates with the glenoid cavity
surfaces of the lateral parts. • Anatomical neck – distal to the head; almost
- The spinous process on the 5th does not form, non-existent
thereby leaving a sacral hiatus. • Surgical neck – common fracture site that often
requires surgical repair
5. Coccyx • Greater tubercle– located at lateral surface
- Tailbone • Lesser Tubercle – located at the anterior surface
- Most inferior portion that usually consists of three to of the proximal end of the humerus.
five semi- fused vertebrae that form a triangle, with • Deltoid Tuberosity – Located on the lateral
the apex directed inferiorly. surface of the humerus a little more than a third
of the way along its length.
RIB CAGE (25) • Capitulum – Very rounded; located at the
- Thoracic cage lateral portion that articulates with the radius.
• Trochlea – located at the medial portion;
articulates with the ulna.
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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
• Medial and Lateral Epicondyles – Proximal to the - Each digit consists of small long bones called
capitulum and trochlea which are points of Phalanges
attachment for the muscles of the forearm. - Thumb – has two phalanges (proximal and distal)
- Four Fingers – have three phalanges
Ulna (Proximal, Middle and Distal)
• Trochlear Notch (Semilunar Notch) – Cshaped
articular surface located at the proximal end of PELVIC GIRDLE (2)
the ulna. Trochlear notch is bounded by two - Right and left coxal bones join each other
processes: anteriorly and the sacrum posteriorly to form ring of
o Olecranon Process – Larger, posterior bone called pelvic girdle.
process; “the elbow”
o Coronoid Process - Smaller, anterior - Pelvis = Pelvic Girdle and Coccyx.
process
• Head – Small head of ulna which articulates Parts:
both the radius and the wrist bones; located at Ileum
the posterior, medial (ulnar) side of the distal Isthium
forearm. Pubis
• Styloid Process – located at the posteromedial Female- Oval shaped pelvic inlet
side of head to which ligaments of wrist are Male- heart shaped pelvic inlet
attached
LOWER LIMB
Radius
• Head – Proximal end of the radius; concave and
Femur
articulates with the capitulum of the humerus.
- Has a prominent, rounded head, where it
• Radial Tuberosity – Point of attachment of
articulates with the acetabulum
biceps brachii.
• Neck is located at an oblique angle to the shaft
• Styloid Process – Located at the lateral side of
of the femur.
the distal radius in which wrist ligaments are
• Proximal shaft exhibits two projections:
attached.
o Greater Trochanter – Lateral to the neck
o Lesser Trochanter – Small and located on
Carpals
the inferior and posterior to the neck
- Wrist bones
--Both trochanters are attachment sites for
- Composed of eight bones arranged into two rows
muscles that fasten the hip to the thigh.
of four each.
“She Looks Too Pretty
Patella (knee bone)
Try To Catch Her”
- Is a largest sesamoid bone located within the
tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle group
PROXIMAL ROW (lateral to medial)
(major muscle group of the anterior thigh).
o Scaphoid (boatshaped)
- It articulates with the patellar groove of the femur
o Lunate (moon shaped)
to create a smooth articular surface over the distal
o Triquetrum (3 cornered)
end of the femur.
o Pisiform (pea shaped)
Tibia and Fibula
DISTAL ROW (medial to lateral)
• Intercondylar Eminence – Located between the
o Hamate (hooked process on palmar)
condyles; a ridge between the two articular
o Capitate (head shaped)
surfaces of the proximal tibia
o Trapezoid
• Medial Malleolus – Enlarged; Located at the
o Trapezium
distal end of the tibia; helps to form the medial
side of the ankle joint
Metacarpals
• Lateral Malleolus – Slightly enlarged; creates the
- Five metacarpal bones are attached to the carpal
lateral wall of the ankle joint
bones and constitute the bony framework of the
• Fibula does not articulate with the femur but has
hand.
a small head where it articulates with the tibia.
- Five digits of each hand include one thumb and
four fingers.

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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
Tarsals Syndesmoses:
- Consist of 7 bones: - joints in which bones are separated by some
- PROXIMAL IN THE FOOT: distance and are held together by ligaments. (gaps
• Talus (Ankle bone) – Articulates with the tibia in tibia and fibula, radius and ulnar)
and the fibula to form the ankle joint
• Calcaneus (Heel bone) – Largest and strongest Gomphoses:
bone in the foot; located inferior to the talus - pegs fitted into sockets held by ligaments.
and supports the bone
• Navicular (Boat-shaped) – Lies between the Cartilaginous joints
talus posteriorly and the cuneiforms anteriorly.
Synchondroses
- DISTAL FOUR BONES in a row: -two bones joined by hyaline cartilage where little or
• Medial, wedge-shaped bones: no movement occurs.
o Medial Cuneiform
o Intermediate Cuneiform Symphyses
o Lateral Cuneiform -Consists of fibrocartilage joining two bones.
• Cuboid (Cube-shaped) – Most lateral of the
distal row Synovial Joints (diarthrotic)
“Try Catching Naughty Cute Chicks” Structure:
• Articular or hyaline cartilage – caps the ends of
Metatarsals 2 bones in this joint. It has neither blood vessels
- Arranged in a manner very similar to that of the nor lymphatics.
metacarpal bones and phalanges of the hand. • Articular capsule – made up of fibrous tissue
encloses ends of 2 bones making the joint.
IV. ARTICULAR SYSTEM • Synovial membrane – thin sheet of connective
➢ Joint or articulation is a place where two bones tissues and epithelial cells.
come together. • Synovial fluid – slippery like egg white fluid
➢ A joint is usually considered movable but that is 4 functions:
not always the case. 1. lubricates the intracapsular joint structures.
2. nourishes the structures within the joint
Types of Joint:
cavity.
3. maintains joint stability
According to Function:
4. phagocytes present in it remove microbes
• Synarthroses- non-movable joint
and cellular debris from the joint cavity.
• Amphiarthroses- slightly movable joint
• Diarthroses- freely movable joint Types of Synovial joints
(according to shape of adjoining articular surfaces)
According to Structure: ➢ Plane/ Gliding – 2 opposed flat surfaces that
• Fibrous – united by fibrous tissues that exhibit little glide over each other. 1 movement; Uni plane
or no movement Ex: Articular facets between vertebrae.
• Cartilaginous – united by cartilage with slight ➢ Saddle – 2 saddle-shaped articulating surfaces
movement. oriented at right angles to each other.
• Synovial – freely movable joints that contain -movement can occur in 2 planes.
synovial fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of Ex: Metacarpals and trapezium
the bones ➢ Hinge – consist of a convex cylinder of one bone
applied to corresponding concavity of the other
bone and can permit movement in 1 plane
Fibrous Joints
only.
Ex: Elbow joints
Sutures: ➢ Pivot – cylindrical bony process that rotates
- joints between bones of the skull within a ring composed partly of bone and part
*Fontanels – sutures in new-born which are quite of ligament
wide -restrict movement to rotation around a single
axis.
Ex: Radioulnar joint

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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
➢ Ball-and-socket – ball at the end of one bone → Sensory (afferent)
and a socket in an adjacent bone into which a → Dorsal root ganglion (cell bodies).
portion of ball fits. -Intermediolateral horn
-allows a wide range of movement in almost →Autonomic.
any direction.
Ex: Head of humerus to glenoid cavity and White matter
Femur to Acetabulum ´ Surrounds the gray matter peripherally.
➢ Ellipsoid/ condyloid – elongated ball- ´ Myelinated axons.
andsocket,limits its ROM in almost any direction. Central canal
Ex: Skull and atlas ´ Filled with CSF.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

V. NERVOUS SYSTEM
Main components:
2 Division accdg to Location: ´ Nerves
➢ CNS - brain and spinal cord ´ Ganglia
➢ PNS – cranial nerve and spinal nerve ´ Nerve endings

2 Functional Division of the PNS: S-A-M-E 2 types of nerve fibers in PNS:

Sensory (Afferent) Division – transmits signals from - Myelinated (better saltatory conduction)
the sensory receptors to the CNS - Unmyelinated (continuous type of conduction)
Motor (Efferent) Division – transmits signals from the
CNS to the effector organs
Consists of:
Cranial nerves (12): Leave the brain and pass out
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (Brain + Spinal Cord)
the skull foramina.
-It is the major site for processing information, Spinal nerves (31): Leave the spinal cord and pass
initiating responses and integrating mental out via the intervertebral foramina.
processes. 8 cervical spinal nerves
*Brain is discussed in General Anatomy 2* 12 thoracic
5 lumbar.
Spinal Cord 5 sacral
- located in Spinal Canal 1 coccygeal
- continuation of medulla oblongata and exits the
*Cranial Nerves are discussed in Gen Ana 2*
foramen magnum
*MEDULLA to VEDALA*
Spinal nerves
V-entral Horn
E-fferent - Comprise dorsal + ventral rami.
D-orsal Horn - Mixed nerves (motor + sensory).
A-fferent - After they join as spinal nerve, they split into
L-ateral Hoorn Dorsal (posterior) rami.
A-utonomic Ventral (anterior) rami.
- meninges are same with brain
*PAD (Pia-Arachnoid-Dura)(deep to superficial)* SPINAL NERVE ----- ROOT
-Length: from Foramen Magnum upto L2 Vertebrae Motor nerve ------- Anterior Root
Sensory Nerve ----- Posterior Root
Contains: “AMPS”
Gray matter
-Located centrally; H-shaped. Plexuses
-Consists of unmyelinated nerve cell bodies. - Interdigitations of nerves (nerves joining
neighboring nerves)(braid of nerves)
*A-M-P-S* Four major plexuses:
(Anterioir-Motor-Posterior-Sensory) Cervical plexus (C1–C4)
-Anterior/ventral horn Brachial plexus (C5–T1)
→ Motor (efferent). Lumbar plexus (L1–L4)
-Posterior/dorsal horn Sacral plexus (L4–L5 and S1–S4)
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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
C5 to C6- upper b. Mitral valve (left/bicuspid)
C7- middle w/o ARMMU
C8 to T1- lower + ARMMU ATRIA
A-XILLARY
RIGHT ATRIUM (Fossa ovalis)
R-ADIAL
- Depression remnant of the foramen ovale.
M-USKULOCUTANEOUS
M-EDIAN - Lies on atrial septum (interatrial); dividing the left
U-LNAR and right atria.
S5 to CO- COCCYGEAL PLEXUS - Anulis ovalis is the upper margin of the fossa.
Crista terminalis
- Vertical ridge between vena cavae orifices.
VI. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - Sinoatrial (SA) node is located here.
- Junction of sinus venosus and the heart in the
2 Functional Components developing embryo.
Blood Vascular System Sulcus terminalis
Lymph Vascular System - Vertical groove on external heart represents
crista terminalis (internally).
Blood Vascular System Composition Pectinate muscles
Heart - Radiate from crista terminalis to atrial
Arteries appendage.
Capillaries → gas exchange Right auricle
Veins - Appendage of right atrium.
Conduction system
ARTERIES VEINS SA node. (pacemaker)
PRESSURE High Low AV node.
DIRECTION From the heart Towards the *both nodes innervated by parasympathetic
heart fibers from CN X and sympathetic fibers from T1
BLOOD CARRIED Oxygenated Deoxygenated to T4.
THICK TUNICA Media Adventitia
VALVE Absent Present LEFT ATRIUM
- Incoming blood from pulmonary veins.
Common Basic Structure
Tunica Intima –called the endothelium supported by VENTRICLES
a thin subendothelial layer of loose connective RIGHT VENTRICLE
tissue with occasional smooth muscle cells. - Responsible for the pulmonic circulation.
Tunica Media – consists chiefly of concentric layers - Pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonic
of helically arranged smooth muscle cells u Tunica valve to pulmonary artery and lungs for
Adventitia/externa – an outer principally supporting oxygenation.
tissue layer consisting principally of type I collagen Trabeculae carnae
and elastic fibers Heart Wall - Ridges of cardiac muscle in the ventricles.
Endocardium – tunica intima equivalent u Chordae tendinae
Myocardium – tunica media equivalent - Thin tendinous cords passing from valve
Epicardium (visceral pericardium) - tunica cusps to papillary muscles.
adventitia equivalent and in some areas containing Papillary muscles
adipose tissue - Anchor chordae tendinae to heart wall.

Parts of the Heart LEFT VENTRICLE

VALVES -Apex of the heart.
SEMILUNAR -Responsible for the systemic circulation
- Each has three semilunar cusps
- No chordae tendineae or papillary muscles are Blood Circulatory/Vascular System
associated with semilunar valves.
a. Pulmonic valve ARTERIAL SYSTEM
b. Aortic valve – distribute blood from the heart to capillary beds
ATRIOVENTRICULAR throughout the body.
a. Tricuspid valve (right)

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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
*Walls of arterial vessels have elastin and the smooth Fenestrated capillaries—the endothelia contain a
muscle wall is thick.* large number of pores.
• Elastic arteries – major distribution vessels Discontinuous capillaries (sinusoids)—consist of a
• Muscular arteries – main distributing branches of large lumen and with discontinuous endothelia.
the arterial tree *Sinusoids are fenestrated or discontinuous capillaries in
• Arterioles – terminal branches of the arterial tree the liver, spleen, and endocrine glands.
which supply the capillary beds. They are larger and more irregularly shaped than
capillaries to accommodate phagocytic cells of the
reticuloendothelial system
Main Arteries:
AORTA
VENOUS SYSTEM
Ascending – dividing into:
– a low-pressure component responsible for carrying
- Right coronary artery
blood from the capillary networks to the right atrium
- Left coronary artery
of the heart.
• Venules - collect blood from the capillaries, and
Arch of aorta – dividing into 3 branches:
they gradually combine into progressively larger
- Brachiocephalic (right only)
veins.
- Left common carotid (head)
• Veins – transport blood from the venules back to
- Left subclavian (braso, upper extremities)
the heart; they serve as a major reservoir of extra
blood
Descending aorta – dividing into:
• Valves – prevents backflow of blood particularly in
- right and left iliac arteries
small and medium-sized veins
- a small midline median sacral arteries
LYMPHATIC VASCULAR SYSTEM
*Descending aorta reaches lower 8th thoracic
- a system of thin-walled endothelial channels that
vertebral bodies before reaching midline
collect excess interstitial fluid called lymph
* Unlike the blood, lymph flows in only one direction,
Branches of aorta in thorax: (THORACIC AORTA) toward the heart.
Intercostal arteries (ribs) Lymphatic capillaries- Lymphatic vessels begin as
Bronchial arteries (bronchi) small, dead-end tubes called lymphatic capillaries.
Diaphragmatic arteries Fluids tend to move out of blood capillaries into
tissue spaces
Branches of aorta in abdomen: (ABDOMINAL *Unlike blood capillaries, they lack a basement
AORTA) membrane, and the cells of the simple squamous
Lumbar arteries epithelium slightly overlap and are loosely attached to
Celiac arteries (foregut) one another
Superior mesenteric (midgut) Lymphatic Ducts
Suprarenal (adrenal gland) Cisterna chyli
Renal • Located in the para-aortic region below the
Gonadal diaphragm at level of T12.
Inferior mesenteric (hindgut) • Drains lymph from Abdomen, Pelvis,
Common iliac (lower ext) Inguinal region, Lower extremities.
External iliac (lower ext) • Continuous superiorly with the thoracic duct.
Internal iliac (lower ext) Thoracic duct
• Continuation of the dilated cisterna chyli.
MICROCIRCULATION/ MICROVASCULATURE • Located in posterior and superior
- concerned with the exchange of gases, fluids, mediastinum.
nutrients and metabolic waste products. • Drains lymph from Lower limbs
Chest wall
Capillaries – extremely thin-walled vessels forming • Empties into venous system at junction of the
an interconnected network where the exchange subclavian and internal jugular vein (on the
occurs. left side only).
Types of Capillaries Right lymphatic duct
Continuous capillaries—the endothelia contain no • Drains
pores. They are the most common type of capillary. Right arm.
Right side of chest.

10
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
Right side of head. - Does not undergo involution unlike thymus
• Empties into the junction of the right internal
jugular vein and right subclavian veins LYMPH NODES
(formation of the right brachiocephalic vein). - Provides perfect location for lymphocytes to be
exposed to a wide variety of antigens and to
undergo stimulation.
VII. IMMUNE SYSTEM
Parts:
2 Lines of Defense in Immunity . Outer cortex receiving lymph from the afferent
Innate Immunity lymphatics
- Physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes) . An inner paracortex where most lymphocytes
- Leukocytes enter via high endothelial venules (HeVs), and
Adaptive Immunity . A central medulla with sinuses converging at the
- Lymphocytes efferent lymphatic
- APCs
- antibody
SPLEEN
- contains the largest single accumulation of
ANTIBODY lymphoid tissue in the body and is the only lymphoid
- A glycoprotein of immunoglobulin family that organ involved in filtration of blood
interacts specifically with antigens. - main site of old erythrocyte destruction.
. IgG- mother to baby *likod ng stomach*
. IgA- secretory or mucosal antibody *many afferent, 1 efferent*
. IgM- MAUUNA AKO *Kidney → waste products; Liver → alcohols and
. IgE- allergy and parasitic medications; filters blood when there is infections*
. IgD- B Cell activation
Splenic Pulp
THYMUS *the organ is surrounded by a capsule of dense CT from
- primary or central lymphoid organ in which T which emerge trabeculae to penetrate the parenchyma
cells are produced or splenic pulp*
- most active during childhood and at puberty it 2 Components:
undergoes slow involution. (retrosternal location/ White pulp – composed of lymphoid nodules
ibabaw ng puso) (becomes adipose tissue) (Site of activation and clonal expansion
* B Cell and T Cell are major cells of immunity* lymphocytes)
Red pulp – composed of blood-filled sinusoids
2 Parts of Thymus (site of blood filtration)
Thymic cortex - site of T-cell maturation Consists of cords (Billroth’s cords) containing
Thymic medulla - Contain Hassall’s corpuscles numerous macrophages that lie between the
(endoderm), which consist of epithelial cells with venous sinusoids.
keratohyaline granules.
* All lymphoid organs are derived exclusively from MALT
mesenchyme except for the thymus (endoderm) Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue
- The total mass of lymphoid tissues in the
Remember: gastrointestinal, respiratory and genitourinary tracts
The thymus has a double embryologic Waldeyer’s ring -Formed by the tonsils that protect
origin: against bacteria and other potentially harmful
Lymphocytes (hematopoietic stem cells) are from materials entering the pharynx from the nasal or
Mesenchyme oral.
Hassall’s corpuscles (epithelium) are from a. Palatine tonsils (covered by stratified
Endoderm (third pharyngeal pouch) squamous epithelium)
b. Lingual tonsils/ faucial tonsils (covered by
stratified squamous)
c. Pharyngeal tonsils/ adenoids (covered by
BONE MARROW
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium)
- Site of B-cell development
d. Tubal tonsils
- Primarily located in ribs, vertebrae, sternum and
pelvis.

11
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
- In the internal sublayer (closer to the lumen), the
GALT (Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue) fiber orientation is generally circular; in the external
a. Peyer Patches - Large aggregates of lymphoid sublayer it is longitudinal.
nodule in the mucosa and submucosa of the - Auerbach’s plexus (myenteric)
ileum
b. Appendix- short, small-diameter
projection from the cecum, mucosa is almost
completely filled with lymphoid tissue. The lumen Serosa
contains the normal bacterial flora of the large - a thin layer of loose connective tissue, rich in blood
intestine. vessels, lymphatics, and adipose tissue, with a
- may serve to retain same of beneficial bacteria simple squamous covering epithelium or
during diarrheal illness. mesothelium.
*Vermifirm appendix- Malaki at kilala* - In the abdominal cavity, the serosa is continuous
with mesenteries covered by mesothelium on both
THYMUS MALT LYMPHNODES SPLEEN
sides that support the intestines.
Cortex/ Distinctly absent present Absent
Medulla present
Lymphoid absent present Present Present Divided by Segments:
Nodules (cortex) (white 1. Foregut – Esophagus, Stomach, 1st part of
pulp) Duodenum, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas
Lymphatic No No Afferents at No 2. Midgut – 2nd to 4th part of Duodenum, Jejunum,
Vessels afferent; afferents; capsule; afferents; Ileum, Appendix, Ascending colon, Transverse
*All has few efferents efferent Efferents in Colon 2-3 (to splenic flexure)
efferent, efferents present trabecuale
only LN has 3. Hindgut – Transverse Colon 1/3 (distal to splenic
in septa
afferent flexure), Descending colon, Sigmoid colon, Rectum

*submucosal plexus → meissner’s plexus; regulation of LIPS

secretion in stomach and intestines. - muscular structures, formed mostly by the
VIII. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM orbicularis oris muscle.
- The keratinized stratified epithelium of the skin
becomes thin at the margin of the lips
General Structure
The GI tract is a hollow tube with a lumen of
ORAL CAVITY
variable diameter and a wall made up of four main
- lined with stratified squamous epithelium, which
layers:
may be keratinized, partially keratinized, or
. Mucosa
nonkeratinized depending on the location.
. Submucosa
. Muscularis
TONGUE
. Serosa
- A mass of striated muscle covered by mucosa
- Major sensory organ for taste and one of the major
Mucosa (mucous membrane)
organs of speech.
It consists of:
- an epithelial lining;
Frenulum - anterior attachment to the floor of the
- an underlying lamina propria of loose connective
mouth
tissue
- and a thin layer of smooth muscle called the
LINGUAL PAPILLAE
muscularis mucosae
- elevations of the mucous membrane of the
tongue that assume various forms and functions
Submucosa
- contains denser connective tissue with larger
4 Types:
blood and lymph vessels and the submucosal
. Filiform - Rough texture of tongue; found in rows;
(Meissner) plexus of autonomic nerves.
avascular; most numerous papillae of tongue; do
not contain taste buds.
Muscularis (muscularis externa)
-facilitate movement of food during chewing;
- composed of smooth muscle cells organized as conical in shape; heavily keratinized → gray/white
two or more sublayers. apearance

12
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
. Fungiform - Mushroom-shaped; scattered among where mechanical and chemical digestion occurs.
filiform papillae; usually contain taste buds. (anterior)
. Foliate - On lateral surface of tongue in ridges; Major stomach regions are:
rudimentary and nonfunctional; parallel ridges - cardia-
. Vallate – 7 to 9 (First Aid)/ 12 to 13 (Mosby) - fundus-
large circular structures with taste buds; serous- only - body-
salivary glands within (von Ebner’s glands); largest - pylorus- last part
diameter of 1-3 cm. *All these regions have longitudinal gastric folds, called
rugae.
*All taste buds are vascular except filiform. *ANTRUM- lowest part of the stomach involved in pylorus

Cells in the Gastric Mucosa

PALATE 1. Surface Mucous Cell
- Roof of oral cavity, floor of nasal cavity. 2. Mucous Neck Cell
3. Parietal Cell
It consists of two parts: 4. Chief Cell
. Hard palate: anterior part which contains bone 5. G cell
. Soft palate: posterior portion which consists of Blood supply:
skeletal muscle and connective tissue → Splenic A
→ R&L Gastric A
UVULA → R&L Gastroepiploic
- Posterior extension from soft palate.
*Bifid uvula results from incomplete fusion of LIVER
palatine shelves. Functions: A B C D E F G H
*Unilateral damaged pharyngeal plexus causes - Albumin Synthesis
uvula to deviate to contralateral side. Contraction - Bile Production
on intact side pulls it to functional side. - Cholesterol Metabolism
- Detoxification of Drugs and Alcohol
PHARYNX - Excretion
. Consists of three parts: - Factors for Clotting
- nasopharynx (pharyngel & tubal) - Glycogen storage
- oropharynx (palatine & lingual) - Hormone production “BATH”
- laryngopharynx B-A-T-H
Betatrophin
Epiglottis Angiotensinogen
- covers the opening of the larynx and keeps Thrombopoietin
food and drink from entering the larynx Hepcidin

Hepatocytes – major cell

ESOPHAGUS
Kupffer cells - Mononuclear macrophages
- It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long in adults
Ito cells - Adipocytes in the space of Disse; store
- Mucosa has nonkeratinized stratified squamous
vitamin A
epithelium, and the submucosa contains small
*Space of Disse- space b/w hepatocytes and sinusoids*
mucus-secreting glands, the esophageal glands,
which lubricate and protect the mucosa.
Parts of the Liver
2 Major Lobes (separated by falciform ligament)
Upper and lower esophageal sphincter (aka
- Right (bigger)
CARDIAC SPHINCTER)- regulate the movement
- Left
of materials into and out of the esophagus.
2 Minor Lobes
Innervations: - Caudate (tail like)
Esophageal plexus- sympathetic - Quadrate (rectangular, b/w R&L post’ly)
Vagus Nerve- parasympathetic Porta
Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve- voluntary - Hepatic Duct (right and left)
- hepatic portal vein- blood is Ox poor but
STOMACH rich in nutrients. (RECEIVES BLOOD)
It is a muscular dilation of the digestive tract
13
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
- hepatic artery- oxygenated blood . Enterocytes
(RECEIVES BLOOD . Goblet cells- secretes mucus
. Paneth cells/ Granular Cells- against bacteria
GALLBLADDER . Enteroendocrine cells (APUD)
- Stores and concentrates bile. . M (microfold) cells

-Common bile duct formed by: LARGE INTESTINE

Cystic duct (from gallbladder)
Hepatic duct (from liver).
-Common bile duct empties into duodenum. –
Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses (Luschka’s crypts): Deep
diverticula of gallbladder mucosa; outpouching
* The gallbladder does not contain a submucosa
(the stomach and small and large bowel do)
PANCREAS
- lobulated gland
Parts: Head, Body & Tail
. Also called bowel, which absorbs water and
electrolytes and forms indigestible material into
feces, has the following regions:
- cecum
- colon (ascending, transverse, descending)
- rectum
*Hepatic flexure→ R colic flexure
*Splenic Flexure→ L colic Flexure
Colonocytes - columnar absorptive cells
Teniae coli - Three longitudinal bands of muscle
used for peristalsis
Haustra - Individual segments that allow for
independent contraction (bahay ng tae)
crypts of Lieberkühn – intestinal glands

Ducts: * At the rectoanal junction, the simple columnar mucosal

Duct of Wirsung (main pancreatic duct) lining of the rectum is replaced by stratified squamous
epithelium.
Santorini’s duct (accessory pancreatic duct)

*Sphincter of Boyden- located in common bile duct IX. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

*Sphincter of Oddi- Ampulla of Vater
*Ampulla of Vater/ Hepatopancreatic ampulla-
combinations of common bile duct & Wirsung; located on Functions:
1st part of duodenum “PRO-VAPE”
-Pulmonary Ventilation
Exocrine part -Regulation of pH
Functions: Produces digestive enzyme precursors -Olfaction
(proenzymes) -Voice Production
Components: Pancreatic acini -ACE production
Cell types: Centroacinar cells -Protection
-Exchange of Gas
SMALL INTESTINE
-Site where the digestive processes are completed 2 Structural Divisions:
and where nutrients are absorbed • Upper
- its lining shows a series of permanent circular or • Lower
semilunar folds (plicae circulares).
*microvilli=villi=plicae circulares* 2 Functional Components
Villi - short mucosal outgrowths that project into the . Conducting portion- cleans and humidifies the
lumen inspired air and provides a conduit through which
air moves to and from the lungs.
3 Segments: . Respiratory portion- where the system’s main
Duodenum- 25.5cm; Iron absorption; function of gas exchange occurs.
-has submucosal glands → Brunner’s G
Jejunum- 2.5 m
2 Types of Epithelium:
Ileum- 3.5 cm; most of nutrients are absorbed
• Respiratory Epithelium- most of nasal cavities and
-Vit. B12 and bile salt absorption
the respiratory system’s conducting portion is lined

Cell Types in the Small Intestine

14
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
with mucosa having ciliated pseudostratified *Motor and sensory innervation of the larynx is
columnar epithelium. provided by the CN X.
5 Major cell types:
- Ciliated columnar cells Ligaments of the larynx:
- Goblet cells (mucous) 1) Vestibular folds = superior (false)
- Brush cells (microvilli) 2) Vocal folds = inferior (true)
- Small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells)
- Basal cells (mitosis) • Glottis (rima glottidis) = opening between vocal
• Olfactory Epithelium – folds
3 Major cell types: • Rima vestibuli = space in the laryngeal cavity;
- Olfactory neurons (smell) Opening of vestibular folds
- Supporting cells (sustentacular cells)
- Basal Cells (mitosis) Laryngeal cartilages

Nose Unpaired:
Also called “Nasus” 1) Cricoid cartilage = most inferior; the only
cartilage to form a complete ring around the
It consists of: airway.
• External nose – It is a visible structure that forms a 2) Thyroid cartilage = largest; “Adam’s apple
prominent feature of the face 3) Epiglottis = leaf-shaped; flapping
• Nasal cavity – It extends form nares to choanae.
• Nasal septum – Partition dividing the nasal Paired:
cavity into right and left parts. 4) Arytenoid cartilage = pyramid-shaped
• Conchae – composed of three bony ridges 5) Corniculate cartilage = conical shaped
o Inferior 6) Cuneiform cartilage = club-shaped
o Superior
o middle Muscles of Larynx
• Meatus – located beneath each conchae
Extrinsic Muscles
Pharynx - Suprahyoids
- Stylopharyngeus
Nasopharynx - Infrahyoids
- first part lined with respiratory epithelium
- Two auditory tubes from the middle ear open into Intrinsic Muscles
the nasopharynx. - Cricothyroid
- Posterior cricoarytenoid
Oropharynx - Lateral cricoarytenoid
- Extends from soft palate to epiglottis - Transverse arytenoid
- Oblique arytenoid
Laryngopharynx- - Thyro-arytenoid
- It extends from the tip of the epiglottis to the - Vocalis
esophagus and passes posterior to the larynx.
Trachea
Larynx “Wind pipe”
- “Voice box”
- lined with typical respiratory epithelium.
- Its rigid wall is reinforced by hyaline cartilage
- A series with about a dozen C-shaped rings of
(thyroid, cricoid, and the inferior arytenoid
hyaline cartilage in the submucosa reinforces the
cartilages) and smaller elastic cartilages (epiglottis,
wall and keeps the tracheal lumen open.
cuneiform, corniculate, and the superior arytenoid
-Trachealis muscle- relaxes during swallowing and
cartilages), all of which are connected by
strongly contracts in the cough reflex.
ligaments.
*The trachea enters the inlet of the thorax, deep to
- It is both a valve to close the respiratory tract, and
the sternum, and at vertebral level T5 it bifurcates at
an instrument to produce sound.
a midline cartilaginous ring called the carina into
the right
and left primary bronchus.
15
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
X. URINARY SYSTEM
Tracheobronchial Tree
1. trachea
2. Main or primary bronchi Functions of Kidney:
3. lobar or secondary bronchi “A WET BED”
4. segmental or tertiary bronchi. Acid-Base Balance
5. bronchioles Water Removal
6. terminal bronchioles Erythropoiesis
7. Respiratory bronchioles Toxin Removal
Blood Pressure Control
Electrolyte Balance
Clara Cells
D (Vitamin) Activation
. Non-ciliated cells that are numerous in the
cuboidal epithelium of terminal bronchioles which
are also called exocrine bronchiolar cells. Kidneys
- Bean-shaped, about the size of a tightly clenched
Functions of clara cells: fist.
- Secretion of surfactant lipoproteins and mucins
- Detoxification of inhaled xenobiotic compounds • Renal Sinus – cavity filled with adipose tissue and
by enzymes of the SER connective tissue.
- Secretion of antimicrobial peptides and cytokines *Structures that enter and leave the kidney pass
for local immune defense through the renal sinus.
- in a stem cell subpopulation, injury-induced mitosis
for replacement of the other bronchiolar cell types. 2 Major Regions of Kidneys:
• Outer Cortex
• Inner Medulla
Alveoli
• Alveoli are saclike evaginations from the
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar • Renal Capsule- layer of fibrous connective tissue
sacs. that surrounds the kidney.
• Site for Gas exchange/ respiration • Hilum of the kidney- a deep vertical slit through
which renal vessels, lymphatics and nerves enter
and leave the substance of the kidney.
2 Types of Alveolar Cells
• Renal Columns- extensions of the renal cortex that
. Type I pneumocytes
projects into the inner aspect of the kidney, dividing
. Type II pneumocytes/ greater alveolar cells
the renal medulla.
*Alveolar macrophages—called dust cells are
Renal Papilla → Minor Calyx → Major Calyx → Renal
derived from monocytes. They migrate from
Pelvis
capillaries in the interalveolar septa and ingest
bacteria and other inhaled substances on the
Nephron
alveolar surface.
- The histological and functional unit of the kidney.
2 basic components:
Lungs 1. renal corpuscle (malpighian)- small mass of
• Principal organs of respiration
capillaries called the glomerulus housed within a
• Largest organs of the body (volume basis)
bowman’s capsule.
- glomerulus- capillaries
*Hilum – a region on the medial surface of the lung
- bowman’s capsule (simple squamous) (visceral
where structures, such as the main bronchus,
and parietal)
pulmonary artery, 2 pulmonary veins, blood vessels,
2. renal tubules -
nerves and lymphatic vessels, enter or exit the lung.
- proximal convoluted tubule (simple cuboidal; long
* Lingula- found at superior lobe of left lung
microvilli (brushborder) in lumen that facilitates
reabsorption)
- loop of Henle (thin limbs- simple squamous; thick
limbs- simple cuboidal without microvilli)
- distal convoluted tubule (simple cuboidal; cell
smaller than in prox CT and with short microvilli)
16
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
2 Types of Nephron
1. Cortical
2. Juxtamedullary
*Mesangial cells are located around glomerular
capillaries. These cells are phagocytic and help
support
capillary loops.
2 layers of Bowman’s Capsule:
• Visceral - composed of podocytes, which cover
each capillary, forming slit-like spaces between
interdigitating processes called pedicels.
• Parietal – composed of simple squamous cells that
surrounds the glomerulus.
Ureters
• tubes through which urine flows from the kidneys
to the urinary bladder and extend inferiorly and
medially from the renal pelvis at the renal hilum
of each kidney to the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder
• a hollow, muscular container that lies in the
pelvic cavity just posterior to the symphysis pubis
that stores urine.
• Wall of urinary bladder → DETRUSOR MUSCLE;
smooth muscle that forms the wall of the urinary
bladder which is much thicker than the wall of a
ureter. Contraction of this smooth muscle forces
urine out of the urinary bladder.
• Trigone - triangular area of the urethra’s wall
between the two ureters posteriorly and the
urethra anteriorly.
Urethra
• transports urine to the outside of the body, exits
the urinary bladder inferiorly and anteriorly.
* Internal urinary sphincter – elastic tissue and
smooth muscle that contracts to keep semen from
entering the urinary bladder during sexual
intercourse.
* There is no functional internal urinary sphincter in
females.
* External urinary sphincter - composed of skeletal
muscle that surrounds the urethra as the urethra
extends through the pelvic floor. This sphincter acts
as a valve that controls the flow of urine through the
urethra.
Umbrella Cells
- very large, bulbous cells of the superficial layer of
ureter, bladder and urethra
- bi- or multinucleated cells
17
- highly differentiated to protect underlying cells
against the cytotoxic effects of hypertonic urine.
XI. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Testes
• small, ovoid organs within the scrotum
• Tunica albuginea - white capsule consisting
dense connective tissue that covers the testis
• Septa - divide each testis into cone- shaped
testicular lobules.
• Lobules – contain seminiferous tubules
• Seminiferous Tubules – site of sperm cell
development.
• Leydig/ interstitial cells - secrete testosterone
triggered by LH or Interstitial Cell Stimulating
Hormone.
Cells in the Seminiferous Tubules
1. Germ/ Sex cells
2. Sertoli/ Nurse/ Sustentacular Cells- protects or
supports
3. Myoid cells- relax or contract or move
• Intratesticular Ducts-
1. Straight tubules (simple cuboidal and Sertoli
cells)
2. Rete testis (simple cuboidal)
3. Efferent ductules (alternating simple
cuboidal non-ciliated and simple columnar
ciliated)
Epididymis
• comma-shaped structure on the posterior side
of the testis.
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Composed of:
1. Principal cells - columnar cells with characteristic
long stereocilia
2. Stem cells
3. Smooth muscle cells
3 parts:
1. Head
2. Body
3. Tail
Ductus Deferens/ Vas Deferens
• emerges from the tail of the epididymis and
ascends along the posterior side of the testes
medial to epididymis.
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
• contains many elastic fibers
• the epithelial lining is pseudostratified with some
cells having sparse stereocilia
• With very thick muscularis
• Spermatic Cord- blood vessels + nerves + ductus
deferens
• Ampulla- enlarged dilated end of the ductus
deferens
• Isthmus- constricted or narrow part
Ejaculatory Duct
• Formed by the short duct from the seminal
vesicle and the ampulla of the ductus deferens.
These ducts project into the prostate gland and
end by opening into the urethra.
• Pseudostratified and simple columnar
Accessory glands
1. Seminal Vesicle
- exocrine glands in which production of their viscid,
yellowish secretion depends on testosterone
- lined with simple or pseudostratified columnar
epithelial cells rich in secretory granules.
Components of Seminal Fluid:
- Fructose
- Prostaglandin
- Fibrinogen
2. Prostate Gland
- dense organ that resembles a walnut in shape and
size.
- Secretes prostatic fluid
3. Bulbourethral Gland (Cowper’s Gland)
- Pair of tubuloacinar glands
- Secretory units are surrounded by smooth muscle
cells and lined by a mucus-secreting simple
columnar epithelium
Urethra
• extends from the urinary bladder to the distal
end of the penis and is a passageway for both
urine and male reproductive fluids.
3 Parts:
- Prostatic (prostate gland)
- Membranous (bulbourethral gland)
- Spongy / penile urethra (along the length of penis)
Penis
• male organ of copulation
• Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
18
• consists of three cylindrical masses of erectile
tissue, plus the penile urethra, surrounded by
skin.
3 Columns of erectile tissue:
- 2 Corpora cavernosa (dorsum and side)
- 1 Corpus spongiosum (ventral)
• Tunica albuginea – covers the corpora
cavernosa; white capsule
• Glans Penis - cap formed from expansion of
corpus spongiosum.
External Genitalia
Prepuce/ foreskin- loose fold of skin that covers the
glans penis.
Scrotum – Saclike structure that contains the testes;
male homologue of labia majora in female.
Raphe – an irregular ridge that marks the
midline of the external part of the scrotum that
extends from the anus, over the scrotal sac, and
onto the inferior aspect of the body of the penis
XII. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovaries
• Almond-shaped bodies producing the oocytes.
• Ovarian/ germinal epithelium (simple cuboidal)-
continuous with the mesothelium and overlying
a layer of dense connective tissue capsule, the
tunica albuginea, like that of the testis.
2 Parts of Ovary:
Ø Cortex - the denser, outer part of the ovary
Ø Medulla - the looser, inner part of the ovary
Uterine/ Fallopian Tubes
• Also called oviducts
• Histology:
Mucosa is lined by simple columnar epithelium
on a lamina propria of loose connective tissue.
Regions/Parts:
1. Infundibulum
2. Ampulla- site of fertilization
3. Isthmus- narrow part
4. Uterine or intramural part
Uterus
• A pear-shaped organ with thick, muscular walls.
Parts of Uterus:
1. Fundus- superior, larger, rounded part
 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
2. Body- between fundus and cervix - Thin skin covering the nipple
3. Isthmus- marks junction of cervix and body - Contains sebaceous glands and
4. Cervix- inferior, narrow part abundant sensory nerves

Layers of uterus: *Connective tissue of the nipple is rich in smooth

. Perimetrium muscle fibers that run parallel to the lactiferous
. Myometrium sinuses and produce nipple erection when they
. Endometrium contract.
- Functional Layer- shed during
menstruation/ undergo changes during • Lactiferous ducts – excretory ducts that emerge
implantation independently in the nipples
- Basal Layer- stem cells are found • Myoepithelial cells - star-shaped cells that
surround the alveoli and contract to expel milk.
• Suspensory ligaments (Cooper’s ligaments) -
Vagina
Strong fibrous processes that support the breasts.
• female organ of copulation
•
Layers of Vagina: XIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
. Mucosa - stratified squamous epithelium
. Muscular layer – smooth muscle ENDO- within
. Adventitia – dense elastic connective tissue KRINO- to secrete
HORMON- set in motion
• Rugae – ridges EXOCRINE- through ducts
• Fornix – superior, domed-part ENDOCRINE- to the blood stream
• Hymen - covers the vaginal opening, or orifice;
Pituitary Gland
• Bartholin’s gland (counterpart of bulbourethral - Also called Hypophysis
gland) - It lies below the brain in a small cavity on the
- Provides lubricating mucus during sexual arousal, sphenoid bone, the sella turcica.
also called greater vestibular glands which are - Formed in the embryo partly from the developing
homologous to the male bulbourethral glands. brain and partly from the developing oral cavity

External Genitalia 2 Glands/ Parts:

• all covered by stratified squamous epithelium: 1. Posterior Pituitary or neurohypophysis
(neuroectoderm)
. Vestibule 2. Anterior Pituitary or adenohypophysis (oral
. Labia minora ectoderm)
. Labia majora- counterpart of scrotum
. Clitoris- counterpart of glans penis; most sensitive. Anterior Pituitary
. Also called adenohypophysis and is derived from
Clitoris the oral ectoderm.
- Composed of two corpora cavernosa and glans
clitoris. 3 parts:
- It has root and body 1. large pars distalis or anterior lobe;
2. pars tuberalis- connected to infundibulum of post
Root of the clitoris – It consists of two crura. Body of pituitary
the clitoris – Formed by the unattached parts of the 3. thin pars intermedia
two corpora cavernosa.
HORMONE ACTION
Mammary Gland Growth Hormone/ -stimulates tissue growth
. Compound tubuloalveolar glands of the breasts Somatotropin
that resembles highly modified apocrine sweat -promotes milk production
Prolactin
glands
(Mammotropin)
Melanocyte SH -stimulates melanocyte to
• Areola- produce melanin

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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
Follicle SH -promotes ovarian follicle Parathyroid gland
devt & estrogen secretion in
women; spermatogenesis in
- Four small ovoid masses are usually embedded in
men the posterior part of each lobe of the thyroid gland.
Luteinizing Hormone -promotes follicle maturation - The endocrine cells of the parathyroid glands,
& progesterone secretion in called principal (chief) cells, are small polygonal
women; andreogen
cells with round nuclei.
secretion in men
Thyroid SH/ Thyrotropin -stimulates thyroid hormone
secretion * Two superior parathyroids develop from the 4th
Adenocortocotropic Stimulates secretion of pharyngeal pouch. Two inferior parathyroids
hormone in adrenal cortex develop from the 3rd pharyngeal pouch.
Hormone
Lipotropin Regulates lipid metabolism
*PROduce THe Love At My SO GO Parathyroid Hormone-
* PROlactin, Thyrotropin, Lipotropin, ACTH, MSH, Regulates Blood Ca levels by:
SOmatotropin, GOnadotropin (LH and FSH) - Increase rate of breakdown of bone by osteoclasts
- Increase reabsorption of Ca in kidneys
Posterior Pituitary - Increased absorption of Ca from small intestine by
. Also called the neurohypophysis and consists of: increased vitamin D synthesis
- a large part, the pars nervosa and
- the smaller infundibulum stalk attached to Adrenal Gland
the hypothalamus at the median eminence. - also called the suprarenal glands, are paired
organs lying near the superior poles of the kidneys
HORMONE ACTION - composed of an inner medulla and an outer
Antidiuretic Hormone/ -increase water cortex.
Vasopressin permeability of renal
collecting ducts MEDULLA
Oxytocin -stimulates milk let Catecholamines- Symphatetic stimulation
down reflex and uterine EPINEPHRINE &
contraction NOREPINEPHRINE
CORTEX
Zona Glomerulosa- Regulates salt balance in
Thyroid Gland MINERALOCORTICOIDS kidney
- composed of two lobes connected by a narrow (aldosterone) SALT
band of thyroid tissue called isthmus. Increase glucose
- contains numerous follicular cells called thyrocytes Zona Fasciculata- production; increases
which are rounded epithelial cells. The center of GLUCOCORTICOIDS protein and lipid
each thyroid follicle is filled with a gelatinous (cortisol) breakdown; inhibits
material called colloid. immune response
- Scattered parafollicular cells lie between the SUGAR
follicles and among the cells that make up the walls Zona Reticularis- Secretion of testosterone
of the follicle. ANDROGENS in both males and
- Largest endocrine gland. females
SEX
CELL HORMONE ACTION
Follicular Cells/ Thyroxine Increased *During embryogenesis, medulla is derived from
Thyrocytes Triiodothyronine (T3) metabolic rate neural crest and cortex is from mesoderm.
Tetraiodothyronine (T4)
Parafollicular Cells Calcitonin Decreased
breakdown of Adrenal Medulla
(C Cells) Medullary parenchymal cells, known as chromaffin
bown by
osteoclasts, cells, arise from neural crest cells and is responsible
prevents large for storage and secretion of catecholamines
increase in Ca
in blood
Pancreas
*T3 is about 20 times more potent than T4 at -Both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland.
increasing cellular metabolism. *exocrine – acini - produce pancreatic juice

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 GENERAL ANATOMY 1
*endocrine - consisting of pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans) secretes hormones that enter the
circulatory system.
CELL TYPES FUNCTIONS
MAJOR
Alpha / A Cell Secretes primarily glucagon
and are usually located
peripherally
➔ Increases blood glucose
Beta/ B Cell Secretes insulin, are the most
numerous, and are located
centrally
➔ Decreases blood
glucose
Delta/ D Cell Secretes somatostatin, are
scattered and much less
abundant
➔ Inhibits insulin and
glucagon
MINOR
PP Cell More common in islets
located within the head of
the pancreas which secretes
pancreatic polypeptide
➔ Stimulates gastric chief
cells; inhibits bile
secretion, pancreatic
enzymes and
bicarbonate secretion,
and intestinal motility.
Relaxin Increases the flexibility of
Target tissue: connective tissue in the
pelvic area, especially the
Connective tissue cells
symphysis pubis
Thymus
• It is a bilobed gland located in the superior
mediastinum, the partition dividing the thoracic
cavity into the left and right parts.
• The site for the maturation of T cells.
Thymosin - a hormone secreted by the thymus, is
important in the T-cell maturation process.
Pineal Gland
. It is in the epithalamus of the brain and also known
as the epiphysis cerebri
. Prominent and abundant secretory cells called
pinealocytes that produce melatonin, a low
molecular-weight tryptophan derivative.
. acts as a neuroendocrine transducer, converting
sensory input regarding light and darkness into
variations in many hormonal functions.
Melatonin- circadian (24 hours, day/night) rhythm of
physiological functions and behavio

Gonads
- Reproductive hormones are secreted primarily
from the ovaries, testes, placenta and pituitary
glands.

TESTES HORMONES
Testosterone Aids in spermatogenesis,
Target tissue: Most Cells dev’t of genitalia,
maintenance of
functional reproductive
organs, secondary sex
characteristics, sexual
behavior
Inhibin Inhibits FSH secretion
Target tissue: Anterior
Pituitary Gland

OVARIES HORMONES:
Aids in uterine and
mammary gland dev’t
Estrogen/
and function, maturation
Progesterone of genitalia, secondary
sex characteristics, sexual
Target tissue: Most cells behavior, menstrual cycle

Inhibin Inhibits FSH secretion

Target tissue: Anterior
pituitary gland

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