ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Integumentary System

Body Membranes
- Functions of body membranes
 Cover body surfaces
 Line body cavities
 Form protective sheets around organs
Classified according to tissue types:
 Epithelial Membranes
Epithelial membranes are simple organs
Specific Serous Membranes
Also called covering and lining membranes
These membranes contain: ֎ Peritoneum
֎ Epithelial Tissue Layer Abdominal cavity
֎ Connective Tissue Layer ֎ Pleura
Around the lungs
֎ Pericardium
 Cutaneous Membranes  Skin Around the heart
o Dry membrane
o Outermost protective boundary
 Connective Tissue Membranes
o Construction
 Synovial Membranes
 Epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified
o Loose areolar connective tissue only (no epithelial
squamous epithelium
 Dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue tissue)
o Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints
 Line bursae
 Line tendon sheaths
o Secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion organs moving
against each other during muscle activity

 Mucous Membranes (mucosae)

o Moist membranes
o Line all body cavities that open to the exterior body
surface
o Adapted for absorption or secretion
o Construction
 Epithelium type depends on site
 Loose connective tissue (lamina propria)
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Integument means covering, and the integumentary system is one of
the more familiar systems of the body to everyone because it covers
the outside of the body and is easily observed.

Integumentary system consists of the:

 Skin (cutaneous membrane)
 Skin appendages
o Sweat glands
 Serous Membranes (serosae) o Oil glands
o Line open body cavities that are closed to the exterior o Hair
of the body o Nails
o Occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with a
visceral and parietal layer FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
o Construction  Insulates and cushion deeper body organs
 Simple squamous epithelium  Protects the entire body from:
 Areolar connective tissue  Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
 Chemical damage (acids and bases)
 Thermal damage (heat or cold)
 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight)
 Microbes (bacteria)
 Desiccation (drying out)
 Aids in loss or retention of body heat as controlled by the
nervous system
 Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
 Synthesizes vitamin D

STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN

Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)

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  Not technically part of the integumentary system
 Composed mostly of adipose tissue
 Attaches the skin to underlying bone and muscle and
supplies it with blood vessels and nerves
 Serves as a shock absorber and insulates deeper tissues

- Melanin
 Melanin is a pigment produced by
melanocytes
 Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum
basale of the epidermis
 Color is yellow to brown to black
 Melanin accumulates in membrane-bound
granules called melanosomes
 Amount of melanin produced depends
Two Kinds of Tissue compose the skin: upon genetics, hormones and exposure to
sunlight
- Epidermal dendritic cells
 Alert and activate immune cells to a threat
(bacterial or viral invasion)
- Merkel cells
 Associated with sensory nerve endings
 Serve as touch receptors called Merkel
a. Epidermis—outer layer discs
 Stratified squamous epithelium
 Keratinization - the cells become filled with the b. Dermis
protein keratin which makes them more rigid and  Composed of dense collagenous connective tissue
durable/ hard and tough containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, and macrophages.
 Keratinocytes (the most common cell) produce a  Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, and
fibrous protein called keratin lymphatic vessels extend into the dermis
 Avascular  Underlies the epidermis
 Composed of five layers (strata)  From deepest to  Two layers of the dermis:
most superficial o Papillary layer (upper dermal region) contains
o Stratum basale projections called dermal papillae
- Deepest layer of epidermis - Indent the epidermis above
- Lies next to dermis - Many projections contain capillary loops, and
- Wavy borderline with the dermis anchors the others house pain and touch receptors
two together - On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase
- Cells undergoing mitosis friction and gripping ability
- Daughter cells are pushed upward to become - Fingerprints are identifying films of sweat
the more superficial layers o Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)
o Stratum spinosum - Blood vessels
- Cells become increasingly flatter and more - Sweat and oil glands
keratinized - Deep pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles)
o Stratum granulosum
o Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only)
- Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata
- Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms
of hands and soles of feet
o Stratum corneum
- Outermost layer of epidermis
- Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin
(protective protein prevents water loss from
skin)

o Other Dermal Features

- Cutaneous Sensory Receptors
- Phagocytes – Cells that fight infections
- Collagen and Elastic Fibers
- Blood Vessels
SKIN COLOR
Three pigments contribute to skin color

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 Integumentary System

1. Melanin - Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit

Yellow, reddish brown, or black pigments and genitals
2. Carotene - Begin to function at puberty
Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables - Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and
3. Hemoglobin proteins (milky or yellowish color)
Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries - Play a minimal role in body temperature
Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring
regulation
 Hair
 Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment, inflammation,
hypertension, fever, or allergy  Hair is found everywhere on the skin, except on the palms,
 Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress (such as fear), the soles, the lips, the nipples, parts of the genitalia, and the
anemia, low blood pressure, impaired blood flow to an area distal segments of the fingers and toes.
 Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver disorder due to a  Produced by hair follicle
high bilirubin level  Root is enclosed in the follicle
 Bruises (black and blue marks)—hematomas  Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or skin
 Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
 Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
 Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands
 Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in stratum basale
 Sebaceous (oil) glands
o Located all over the skin except for palms and soles
o Found in the dermis, reticular layer
o Produce sebum (oil)
- Makes skin soft and moist
- Prevents hair from becoming brittle
- Kills bacteria
o Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; others
open directly onto skin surface
o Glands are activated at puberty

 Sweat (sudoriferous) glands

o Produce sweat
o Widely distributed in skin

o Two types of sudoriferous glands:

a. Eccrine glands
- Open via duct to sweat pores on the skin’s
surface
- Produce acidic sweat
 Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic
waste
- Function in body temperature regulation

b. Apocrine glands

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 Hair Anatomy HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF SKIN
֎ Central medulla  Infections and Allergies
֎ Cortex surrounds medulla  Athlete’s foot
֎ Cuticle on outside of cortex o Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis)
o Most heavily keratinized region of the hair o Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes
 Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
o Caused by inflammation of hair follicles
o Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by bacteria
 Cold sores (fever blisters)
o Caused by human herpesvirus 1
o Blisters itch and sting
 Contact dermatitis
o Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke allergic
responses
 Hair Follicles o Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
 Composed of an epithelial root sheath and fibrous sheath
 Impetigo
 Dermal region provides a blood supply to the hair bulb o Caused by bacterial infection
(deepest part of the follicle)
o Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions around mouth/nose
 Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair follicle to pull
 Psoriasis
hairs upright when we are cold or frightened
o Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or
stress
o Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales
that itch, burn, crack, or sometimes bleed

 Nails
 Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of the
epidermis
 Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed, which is
responsible for growth
 Lack of pigment makes nails colorless
 Parts of a nail:
o Free edge
o Body is the visible attached portion
o Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges of the  Burns
nail; the cuticle is the proximal edge  Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV
o Root of nail is embedded in skin radiation, or chemicals
 Associated dangers
o Growth of the nail occurs from nail matrix
o Protein denaturation and cell death
o Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
o Circulatory shock
 Result in loss of body fluids and infection from the invasion
of bacteria

֎ Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule of nines

o Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation
o Each area represents about 9 percent of total body surface
area
The area surrounding the genitals (the perineum)
represents 1 percent of body surface area

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 Integumentary System

o Most important risk factor is overexposure to ultraviolet

(UV) radiation in sunlight and tanning beds
o Cancer can be classified two ways
1. Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread
2. Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded other
body areas
o Most common types of skin cancer
1. Basal Cell Carcinoma
- Least malignant and most common type of skin
cancer
- Arises from cells in stratum basale that are altered
so that they can no longer make keratin
- Lesions appear as shiny, dome-shaped nodules that
develop a central ulcer

2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma

- Believed to be induced by UV exposure
- Arises from cells of stratum spinosum
- Lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules that
gradually form shallow ulcers
 First-degree burn (superficial burn) - Early removal allows a good chance of cure
o Only epidermis is damaged - Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not removed
o Skin is red and swollen
 Second-degree burn (partial-thickness burn)
o Epidermis and superficial part of dermis are damaged
o Skin is red, painful, and blistered
o Regrowth of the epithelium can occur
 Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
o Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is painless
o Requires skin grafts, as regeneration is not possible
o Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black
 Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
o Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons) 3. Malignant Melanoma
o Appears dry and leathery - Most deadly of skin cancers, but accounts for only 5
o Requires surgery and grafting percent of skin cancers
o May require amputation - Arises from melanocytes
- Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
- Detection uses ABCDE rule for recognizing
melanoma
o A = Asymmetry
 Two sides of pigmented mole do not match
o B = Border irregularity
 Borders of mole are not smooth
o C = Color
֎ Criteria for deeming burns critical (if anyone is met):
 Different colors in pigmented area
o Over 30 percent of body has second-degree burns
o D = Diameter
o Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-degree
 Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter
burns
o E = Evolution
o Third- or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet, or
 One or more of the ABCD characteristics is
genitals
evolving
o Burns affect the airways
o Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have
occurred
֎ Skin cancer
o Most common form of cancer in humans

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DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKIN AND
BODY MEMBRANES
 Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by the fifth or sixth
month of fetal development but disappears by birth
 Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is apparent at birth
 Milia, small white spots, are common at birth and disappear
by the third week
 Acne may appear during adolescence
 In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
 With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
 Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive
sunlight
 Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both are
genetically determined; other factors that may contribute
include drugs and emotional stress