Anatomy & Physiology

lV – Integumentary System and Body Membranes

Body Membranes
- Line body cavities
- Cover body surfaces
- Protect body surfaces
- Lubricate body surfaces
2 Major groups of Body Membranes
1. Epithelial Membranes – also called
covering and lining membrane.
 Cutaneous membrane – (skin or
integumentary membrane)
- it is expose to air and is a dry
membrane.
- Composed of two layers: Superficial
epidermis composed of keratinized  Serous membrane (serosa) –
stratified squamous epithelium.
composed of simple squamous
Underlying dermis is mostly dense
epithelium resting on a thin layer of
(fibrous) connective tissue.
areolar connective tissue.
- Lines body cavities that are closed to
the exterior of the body.
- It occurs in pairs: Visceral layer –
covers the inner of the organ in that
cavity. Parietal layer (parie = wall) –
a specific portion outside the wall
layer of the ventral cavity.
- the serous layers are separated not
by pair but by a scanty amount of thin,
clear fluid, called serous fluid
- Serous membranes according to
 Mucous membrane (mucosa) – location:
refers to the location of the epithelial Peritoneum – serosa surrounding
membranes not their cellular make up. abdominal cavity and covering its
- Composed of stratified squamous organ.
epithelium resting on the underlying Pleura – surrounding the lungs.
loose connective tissue called lamina Pericardium – surrounding the heart.
propria
- open to the exterior body surface
(respiratory, digestive, urinary,
reproductive tracts)
- wet and moist
- often adapted for absorption or
secretion
Anatomy & Physiology
lV – Integumentary System and Body Membranes

Integumentary System
- Largest system
- Main function is to protect. It insulates and
cushions the deeper body organs and
protects the entire body.
Skin Functions
Functions How to
accomplished
Mechanical damage Physical barriers
(bumps, cuts) contains keratin,
which toughens
cells, and pressure
receptors, which
alerts the
nervous system for
possible damage.
Chemical damage Has relatively
2. Connective tissue membranes (acids and bases) impermeable
 Synovial membranes – composed of keratinized cells;
soft areolar connective tissue contains pain
- Lines fibrous capsules surrounding receptors which
joints where they provide smooth alert the nervous
surface and secrete a lubricating fluid system for possible
called synovial fluid damage.
- structures cushion organs moving Bacterial damage Has unbroken
against each other during muscle surface and “acid
activity. mantle” (skin
- Bursae – line small sacs of secretions are acidic
connective tissue thus inhibits
- Tendon sheaths – tube-like tendon bacteria).
Phagocytes ingest
foreign substances
and pathogens
preventing them
from penetrating
into the deeper body
tissues.
Ultraviolet radiation Melanin often
(damaging effects of produce by
sunlight) melanocytes offers
protection from UV
damage
Thermal (heat or Contains heat, cold,
cold) damage pain receptors.
Desiccation (drying Contains water-
out) resistant glycolipid
and keratin
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lV – Integumentary System and Body Membranes
Aids in body heat Heat loss - by keratinized (hardened and tough by keratin
loss or heat activating sweat cells that makes the epidermis
retention (controlled glands and by tough protective layer (cornified) or hardened
by the nervous allowing blood flush to prevent water loss from the body surface.
system) into the skin - composed of 5 layers: stratum basale,
capillary beds so stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum,
that heat can radiate stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum.
from the skin - avascular of its own (has no blood supply of
surface. its own)
Heat retention - by
not allowing blood to
flush into the skin
capillary beds
Aids in excretion of Contained in the
urea and uric acid, perspiration
salt and water produced by
(perspiration) the sweat glands
Synthesizes Vitamin Modified cholesterol
D molecules in skin
converted to vitamin
D by sunlight
Structure of the Skin

 Stratum corneum – outer layer

1. Epidermis – outer layer that is made up of
stratified squamous epithelium that is
capable of becoming hard and though.
- Most cells of the epidermis are
keratinocytes (keratin cells) Often
- 20 to 30 cell layers thick
- shinglelike dead cell remants,
completely filled with keratin, (are
referred to as cornified horny cell.) the
abundance of tough keratin protein is
to provide a durable “overcoat” for the
body, which protects deeper cells from
the from the external environment and
from water loss.
- constantly rub and flakes off as a
dandruff
- The body have a new epidermis
every 25 to 45 days
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lV – Integumentary System and Body Membranes
 Stratum lucidum – as the cells leave
the stratum granulosum, they die,
forming the clear stratum lucidum.
This latter epidermal layer is not
present in all skin regions. It occurs
only where the skin is hairless and
extra thick (palms of the hands, soles
of the feet)
 Stratum granulosum – cells are
flattened and increasingly keratinized,
organelles are deteriorating;
cytoplasm full of granules.
 Stratum spinosum – Cells contain
thick bundles of intermediate filaments
made of pre-keratin.
 Stratum basale – deepest cell layer
of the epidermis
- contains the most adequately
nourished of the epidermal cells
because nutrients diffusing from the
dermis reach them first.
- Stem cells are actively dividing;
some newly formed cells become part
of the more superficial layers.
2. Dermis – (true skin) it is strong, sketchy
envelope that helps to bind the body
together.
- the connective tissue making up the dermis
consists of two major regions:
 Papillary layer (superficial dermal
region) – uneven and has peglike
projections form its superior surface
called dermal papillae that contains:
- pain receptors – (free nerve endings)
and touch receptors (Meissner’s
corpuscles)
- capillary loops – furnished nutrients
to the epidermis
- papillary pattern – genetically
determined the finger tips.
 Reticular layer (deepest skin layer) –
it contains dense irregular connective
tissue, as well as blood vessels that
helps in maintaining body temp
homeostasis, sweat and oil glands,
nerve receptor (deep pressure
receptor called Pacinian corpusc lese
(phagocytes also found here))
- Collagen fibers – responsible for
toughness of the dermis and attract
water to keep the skin hydrated
- Elastic fibers – gives the skin
elasticity when we are young
As we age, the number of collagen
and elastic fibers decreases, and
the subcutaneous tissue loses fat,
as a result, the skin loses it elasticity
and begins to sag and wrinkle.
Homeostatic Imbalance
Decubitus Ulcer (bedsores) – occur in
bedridden patients who are not turned
regularly or who are dragged or pulled
across the bed repeatedly. The weight of
the body puts pressure on the skin,
especially over bony projections. Because
this pressure restricts the blood supply, the
skin becomes pale or blanched at pressure
points. At first, the skin reddens when
pressure is released, but if the situation is
not corrected, the cells begin to die, and
small cracks or breaks in the skin appear
at compressed sites.
3. Hypodermis – deep to the dermis is the
subcutaneous tissue or hypodermis which is
composed mostly of adipose (fat) tissue.
- it is not considered part of the skin, but it
does anchor the skin underlying organs and
provides a site for nutrient storage.
Normal Skin Color Determinants
3 pigments contribute to skin color
Anatomy & Physiology
lV – Integumentary System and Body Membranes
Melanin – is a pigment that ranges in color
from yellow to brown to black, is produced by
special spider-shaped cells called
melanocytes.
Carotene – is an orange-yellow pigment
plentiful in carrots and other orange, deep
yellow, or leafy green vegetables. In people
who eat large amounts of carotene-rich
foods, the skin tends to take on a yellow-
orange cast.
Hemoglobin – pigment in red blood cells.
Oxygen contents determines the extent of
red coloring (crimson color).
Color of the Skin Affected by Emotional
Stimuli
Redness or Erythema – reddened skin may
indicate embarrassment (blushing), fever,
hypertension, inflammation, or allergy.
Pallor or blanching – under certain types of
emotional stress (fear, anger, and others),
some people become pale. Pale skin may
also signify anemia, low blood pressure, or
impaired blood flow into the area.
Bruises – the black and blue marks of
bruising reveal sites where blood has
escaped from the circulation and has clotted
in the tissue spaces. Such clotted blood
masses are called hematomas.
Jaundice or yellow color of the skin – an
abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies a
liver disorder.
Appendages of the Skin
1. Cutaneous gland – are all exocrine
glands that release their secretions to the
skin surface via ducts. Fall into two groups:
 Sebaceous (oil) glands – found all
over the kin except on the palm of the
hand and sole of the feet.
- produce oil (sebum), sebum is a
lubricant that keeps the skin soft and
moist and prevents the hair form
becoming brittle. Sebum also contains
chemical that kills bacteria.
- glands are activated at puberty
 Sweat glands – also called
sudoriferous are widely distributed in
the skin (more than 2.5 million per
person).
- sweat is acidic (pH from 4 to 6) a
characteristics that inhibits the growth
of certain bacteria, which are always
present on the skin surface. Sweat
reaches the skin surface via a duct
that opens externally as a funnel-
shaped sweat pore.
- on a hot day, it is possible to lose up
to 7 liters of body water in this way.
- Two types of sweat glands:
Eccrine glands – far more numerous
and are found all over the body. Open
via duct to pores (funnel shape so
sweat can reach on skin surface)
Apocrine glands – usually larger than
eccrine glands, and their ducts empty
into hair follicles. Confined to axillary
and genital areas of the body.
Secretions contains fatty acids and
proteins, its milky, yellowish and
odorless (become mushky and
unpleasant when bacteria use as
protein for them to grow) It begin to
function during puberty under the
influence of androgens (male sex
hormone)
Sweat and its function
Composition
 Mostly water
 Some metabolic waste
 Fatty acids and proteins (apocrine
only)
Function
 Help dissipate excess heat
 Excretes waste products
 Acidic nature inhibits bacteria growth
Odor is from associated bacteria
2. Hair and Hair Follicles
 Hair – important part of our body
image
- hairs are among the fastest growing
tissues in the body.
Root – part of the hair enclosed in the
hair follicle
Shaft – part projecting from the
surface of the scalp or skin
Matrix – (growth zone) of the hair
bulb at the deep end of the follicle.
Anatomy & Physiology
lV – Integumentary System and Body Membranes
Function:
- Guarding the head against bumps
- Shielding the eyes (via eyelashes)
- Help keep away foreign particles in
the respiratory tract (nose hair)
- Insulate in cold weather to keep
warm.
3. Nails – scale-like modifications od the
epidermis that is heavily keratinized
- the stratum basale of the epidermis extend
beneath the nail as the nail bed. Its thickened
proximal area, called nail matrix, is
responsible for nail growth.
- They are produced by the matrix, they
become heavy keratinized and die like
nails, hairs are non-living material.
Infections and allergies cause the
following commonly occurring skin
disorders:
 Athlete’s foot – an itchy, red, peeling
condition of the skin between the toes,
resulting from an infection with the
fungus Tinea pedis
 Boils and carbuncles – boils are
caused by inflammation of hair
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lV – Integumentary System and Body Membranes
follicles and surrounding tissues,
commonly on the dorsal neck.
Carbuncles are clusters of boils often
caused by the bacterium
staphylococcus aures
 Cold sores – small fluid-filled blisters
that itch and sting, caused by human
berpervirus 1 inferction.
 Contact dermatitis – itching, redness,
and swelling of the skin, progressing
to blistering. It is caused by exposure
of the skin to chemicals that provokes
allergic responses in sensitive
individuals.
 Impetigo - Pink water filled raised
lesion (common around the mouth
and nose) turn to yellow crust then
ruptured
 Psoriasis – is believed to be an
autoimmune disorder in which the
immune system attacks a person’s
own tissues, leading to the rapid
overprotection of the skin cells.
Burns
- Tissue damage and cell death caused
by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or
chemicals.
Rules of Nines
- Way to determine the extent of burns
- Body is divided into 11 areas for quick
estimation
Severity of Burns
First-degree burns
 Only the superficial epidermis is
damaged
 Skin is red and swollen
Second-degree burns
 Involve injury to the epidermis and the
superficial part of the dermis.
 Skin is red, painful, and blistered
 Because sufficient numbers of
epithelial cells are still present,
regrowth (regeneration) of the
epithelium can occur.
Third-degree burns
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lV – Integumentary System and Body Membranes
 Destroys entire skin layer (epidermis A - asymmetry (two sides mole do not
and dermis) match)
 Burn is gray-white or black B - Border irregularity (the borders of
 Because the nerve endings in the the lesion are not smooth but exhibit
area are destroyed, the burned area is indentations)
not painful. C - Color (pigmented areas appears
 Regeneration is not possible, and skin diff. color)
grafting must be done to cover the D - Diameter (spot is larger than 6
underlying exposed tissues. milliliters – size of pencil eraser)
Fourth-degree burns E – evolution (one or more of these
 Extend into deeper tissues such as characteristics (ABCD) is evolving, or
bone, muscle, tendons. changing
 These burns appear dry and leathery,
and they require surgery and grafting
to cover exposed tissue. In severe
cases, amputation may be required to
save the patient’s life.
Skin Cancer – most common type of cancer
in human
Two types:
Benign – does not spread (encapsulated)
Malignant – Metastasized (moves) to other
parts of the body
Skin Cancer types
Basal cell carcinoma
 Least malignant, slow growing
 Most common type
 Cells of the stratum basale, altered so
that they cannot form keratin, no
longer honor the boundary between
epidermis and dermis.
Squamous cell carcinoma
 Arises from stratum spinosum
 Appears scaly, reddened papules
 It grows rapidly and metastasizes to
adjacent lymph nodes if not removed
 If it is caught early and removed
surgically or by radiation therapy, the
chance of complete cure is good
Malignant melanoma
 Most deadly of skin cancers
 Accumulated DNA damage appear as
black patch
 Cancer of melanocytes
 Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and
blood vessels
 Detection uses ABCDE rule