INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Anatomy & Physiology Week 2

Classification Of Body Membrane bathed insecretions or, in the case of the

urinary mucosae, urine.
Body membranes cover surfaces, line body
cavities, and form protective sheets around
organs.
C. SEROUS MEMBRANES
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
 Composed of a layer of simple
A.K.A. COVERING AND LINING
squamous epithelium resting on a thin
MEMBRANE
layer of areolar connective tissue. In
Includes the cutaneous membrane (skin),
contrast to mucous membranes, which
the mucous membranes, and the serous
line open body cavities, serous
membranes.
membranes line body cavities that are
A. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE
closed to the exterior.
 The parietal layer lines a specific
 2 layers the EPIDERMIS & DERMIS.
portion of the wall of the ventral body
The epidermis is composed of stratified
cavity. It folds in on itself to form the
squamous epithelium, whereas the dermis
visceral layer, which covers the
is mostly dense (fibrous) connective
outside of the organ(s) in that cavity.
tissue.
 The serous layers are separated not by
air but by a scanty amount of thin,
B. MUCOUS MEMBRANE clear fluid, called serous fluid.
 The serosa lining the abdominal cavity
 Composed of epithelium (the type varies and covering its organs is the
with the site) resting on a loose connective peritoneum. In the thorax, serous
tissue membrane called a lamina propria. membranes isolate the lungs and heart
 The term mucosa refers only to the from one another. The membranes
location of the epithelial membranes, not surrounding the lungs are the pleurae;
their cellular makeup, which varies. Most those around the heart are the
mucosae contain either stratified pericardia.
squamous epithelium, or simple columnar
epithelium. In all cases, they are moist
membranes that are almost continuously

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES
 Synovial membranes are composed of
loose areolar connective tissue and
contain no epithelial cells at all.
 They also line small sacs of
connective tissue called bursae and
the tube-like tendon sheaths. Both of
these structures cushion organs
moving against each other during
muscle activity.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The skin and its appendages are collectively
called the integument system.
 also called the integument, which simply
means “covering,” performs a variety of
functions; most, but not all, of which are
protective.
SKIN
STRUCTURE OF SKIN
•2 kinds of tissue, the epidermis and dermis.
A. EPIDERMIS
 Is made up of stratified squamous
epithelium that is capable of becoming
hard and tough.
 Most cells of the epidermis are
keratinocytes (keratin cells), which
produce keratin, the fibrous protein that
makes the epidermis a tough protective
layer in a process called keratinization.
 The epidermis is composed of up to five
layers, or strata. From the inside out these
are the stratum basale, spinosum,
granulosum, lucidum, and corneum,
(except the stratum lucidum, which is
found only in thick skin).
Melanin a pigment that ranges in color
from yellow to brown to black, is
produced by special spider-shaped cells
called melanocytes.
 Epidermal Dendritic Cells are important
“sentries” that alert and activate immune
system cells to a threat such as bacterial or
viral invasion.
 Merkel cells which are associated with
sensory nerve endings and serve as touch
receptors called Merkel discs.
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Homeostatic Imbalance!
Despite melanin’s protective effects, excessive exposure to UV light (via sunlight or tanning beds)
eventually damages the skin, leading to a leathery appearance. It also depresses the immune system.
This may help to explain why people infected with the human herpesvirus 1, which causes cold sores,
are more likely to have an eruption after sunbathing. Overexposure to the sun can also alter the DNA
of skin cells, leading to skin cancer. People with very dark skin seldom have skin cancer, attesting to
melanin’s amazing effectiveness as a natural sunscreen.

THE MAIN STRUCTURE OF EPIDERMIS

Elastic fibers give the skin its elasticity

when we are young.
 The dermis is abundantly supplied with
blood vessels that play a role in
maintaining body temperature
homeostasis.
 The dermis also has a rich nerve supply,
many of the nerve endings are designed to
detect different types of stimuli then send
messages to the central nervous system for
interpretation.
 consists of two major regions—the
papillary and the reticular areas.
 Papillary Layer is the superficial dermal
region. It is uneven and has peg like
projections from its superior surface,
called dermal papillae which contain
B. DERMIS
capillary loops, which furnish nutrients to
 Is made up mostly of dense connective
the epidermis. Others house pain receptors
tissue.
and touch receptors, the palms of the
 It is a strong, stretchy envelope that helps
hands and soles of the feet, the papillae are
to bind the body together.
arranged in definite patterns that form
 Subcutaneous tissue, or hypodermis deep
looped and whorled ridges on the
to the dermis, it is not considered part of
epidermal surface that increase friction
the skin, but it does anchor the skin to
and enhance the gripping ability of the
underlying organs and provides a site for
fingers and feet. The ridges of the
nutrient storage and servesas a shock
fingertips are well provided with sweat
absorber and insulates the deeper tissues
pores and leave unique, identifying films
from extreme
of sweat called fingerprints on almost
 temperature changes occurring outside the
anything they touch.
body.
 Reticular layer. It contains dense
 collagen and elastic fibers are found
irregular connective tissue, as well as
throughout the dermis. Collagen fibers are
blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and
responsible for the toughness of the
deep pressure receptors called lamellar
dermis; they also attract and bind water
corpuscles
and thus help to keep the skin hydrated.

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•Homeostatic Imbalance!

SKIN COLOR
 Three pigments contribute to skin color: melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin.

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 MELANIN skin exposure to sunlight stimulates melanocytes to produce more melanin

pigment, resulting in tanning of the skin. As the melanocytes produce melanin, it accumulates
in their cytoplasm in membrane-bound granules called melanosomes.

 CAROTENE the amount of carotene deposited in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous
tissue. In people who eat large amounts of carotene-rich foods, the skin tends to take on a
yellow-orange cast.

 HEMOGLOBIN the amount of oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the dermal blood vessels. In

light-skinned people, the crimson color of oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the dermal blood
supply flushes through the transparent cell layers above and gives the skin a rosy glow.

Homeostatic Imbalance!
When hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated, both the blood and the skin of light-skinned people appear
blue, a condition called cyanosis. Cyanosis is common during heart failure and severe breathing
disorders. In dark-skinned people, the skin does not appear cyanotic in the same situations because of
the masking effects of melanin, but cyanosis is apparent in their mucous membranes and nail beds.

EMOTIONS THAT INFLUENCE SKIN COLOR

 Redness, or erythema Reddened skin may indicate embarrassment (blushing), fever,
hypertension, inflammation, or allergy.

 Pallor, or blanching Under certain types of emotional stress, some people become pale. Pale
skin may also signify anemia, low blood pressure, or impaired blood flow into the area.

 Jaundice or a yellow cast an abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies a liver disorder in
which excess bile pigments accumulate in the blood, circulate throughout the body, and
become deposited in body tissues.

 Bruises the black-and-blue marks of bruising reveal sites where blood has escaped from the
circulation and has clotted in the tissue spaces. Such clotted blood masses are called
hematomas. An unusual tendency to bruise may signify a deficiency of vitamin C in the diet
or hemophilia (bleeder’s disease).

APPENDAGES OF SKIN
 include cutaneous glands, hair and hair follicles, and nails. Each of these appendages arises
from the epidermis and plays a unique role in maintaining body homeostasis.

A. CUTANEOUS GLANDS
 All are exocrine glands that release their secretions to the skin surface via ducts. They fall into
two groups: sebaceous glands and sweat glands.

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 Sebaceous (Oil) Glands the product of the sebaceous glands, sebum (grease), is a mixture of
oily substances and fragmented cells. Sebum is a lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist
and prevents the hair from becoming brittle.

Homeostatic Imbalance!
When sebaceous gland ducts are blocked by sebum, acne appears on the skin surface. Acne is an
active infection of the sebaceous glands. If the accumulated material oxidizes and dries, it darkens,
forming a blackhead. If the material does not dry or darken, a whitehead forms. Acne can be mild or
extremely severe, leading to permanent scarring. Seborrhea (seb0o-re9ah; “fast-flowing sebum”),
known as “cradle cap” in infants, is caused by over activity of the sebaceous glands. It begins on the
scalp as pink, raised lesions that gradually form a yellow-to-brown crust that sloughs off oily scales
and dandruff. Careful washing to remove the excessive oil often helps cradle cap in a newborn baby.

APPENDAGES OF SKIN
 Sweat Glands also called sudoriferous glands, are widely distributed in the skin. Their
number is staggering—more than 2.5 million per person. There are two types of sweat glands,
eccrine and apocrine.
 Eccrine glands produce sweat, a clear secretion that is primarily water plus some salts,
vitamin C, traces of metabolic wastes, and lactic acid. Sweat is acidic, a characteristic that
inhibits the growth of certain bacteria, which are always present on the skin surface. Eccrine
sweat glands are supplied with nerve endings that cause them to secrete sweat when the
external temperature or body temperature is too high.
 Apocrine glands are largely confined to the axillary and genital areas of the body. Their
secretion contains fatty acids and proteins, as well as all the substances present in eccrine
sweat; consequently, it may have a milky or yellowish color. The secretion is odorless, but
when bacteria that live on the skin use its proteins and fats as a source of nutrients for their
growth, it can take on a musky, sometimes unpleasant odor. Apocrine glands begin to
function during puberty under the influence of androgens.
B. HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLE

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 Hairs A hair is a flexible epithelial structure. The part of the hair enclosed in the hair follicle
is called the root, and the part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin is called the
shaft.
 Each hair is made up of a central core called the medulla, consisting of large cells and air
spaces, surrounded by a bulky cortex layer composed of several layers of flattened cells. The
cortex is, in turn, enclosed by an outermost cuticle formed by a single layer of cells that
overlap one another like shingles on a roof. The cuticle is the most heavily keratinized region;
it provides strength and helps keep the inner hair layers tightly compacted.
 Hair Follicles are compound structures. The inner epithelial root sheath is composed of
epithelial tissue and forms the hair. The outer fibrous sheath is dermal connective tissue. This
dermal region supplies blood vessels to the epidermal portion and reinforces it.
 Arrector pili “raiser of hair” connect each side of the hair follicle to the dermal tissue.
When these muscles contract the hair is pulled upright, dimpling the skin surface with “goose
bumps.”

Homeostatic Imbalance!
Certain events can cause hair to gray or fall out prematurely. For example, many people have claimed
that they turned gray nearly overnight because of some emotional crisis in their life. In addition, we
know that anxiety, protein-deficient diets, therapy with certain chemicals (chemotherapy), radiation,
excessive vitamin A, and certain fungal diseases (ringworm) can cause both graying and hair loss.
However, when the cause of these conditions is not genetic, hair loss is usually not permanent.

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APPENDAGES OF SKIN
C. NAILS
 a scale like modification of the epidermis that corresponds to the hoof or claw of other
animals. Each nail has a free edge, a body, and a root. The borders of the nail are overlapped
by folds of skin called nail folds. The edge of the thick proximal nail fold is commonly called
the cuticle.

 The stratum basale of the epidermis extends beneath the nail as the nail bed. Its thickened
proximal area, called the nail matrix. The region over the thickened nail matrix that appears
as a white crescent and is called the lunule. When the supply of oxygen in the blood is low,
the nail beds take on a cyanotic cast.

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE IN THE SKIN

Infections and Allergies
Infections and allergies cause the following commonly occurring skin disorders:
• Athlete’s foot an itchy, red, peeling condition of the skin between the toes, resulting from an
infection with the fungus Tinea pedis.
• Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles Boils are caused by inflammation of hair follicles and
surrounding tissues, commonly on the dorsal neck. Carbuncles are clusters of boils often caused by
the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus.
• Cold sores (fever blisters) Small fluid-filled blisters that itch and sting, caused by human
herpesvirus 1 infection. The virus localizes in a cutaneous nerve, where it remains dormant until

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activated by emotional upset, fever, or UV radiation. Cold sores usually occur around the lips and in
the oral mucosa of the mouth and nose.
• Contact dermatitis Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin, progressing to blistering. It is caused
by exposure of the skin to chemicals (such as those in poison ivy) that provoke allergic responses in
sensitive individuals.
• Impetigo (impet = an attack) Pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions (commonly around the mouth and
nose) that develop a yellow crust and eventually rupture. Caused by highly contagious staphylococcus
or streptococcus infections, impetigo is common in elementary school–aged children.
• Psoriasis Characterized by reddened epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales that itch,
burn, crack, and sometimes bleed. A chronic condition, psoriasis is believed to be an autoimmune
disorder in which the immune system attacks a person’s own tissues, leading to the rapid
overproduction of skin cells. Attacks are often triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or
stress. When severe, psoriasis may be disfiguring.

CUTANEOUS LESIONS

BURNS
 There are few threats to life more serious than burns. A burn is tissue damage and cell death
caused by intense heat, electricity, UV radiation (sunburn), or certain chemicals (such as
acids), which denature proteins and cause cell death in the affected areas.

 Two life-threatening problems: First, without an intact boundary, the body loses its precious
supply of fluids containing proteins and electrolytes as these seeps from the burned surfaces.
Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance follow and can lead to a shutdown of the kidneys

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and circulatory shock. To save the patient, lost fluids must be replaced immediately. The
volume of fluid lost can be estimated indirectly by determining how much of the body surface
is burned (extent of burns), using the rule of nines. This method divides the body into 11
areas, each accounting for 9 percent of the total body surface area, plus an additional area
surrounding the genitals (the perineum) representing 1 percent of body surface area. Second
Infection the most important threat and is the leading cause of death in burn victims. Burned
skin is sterile for about 24 hours. But after that, pathogens easily invade areas where the
skin has been destroyed and multiply rapidly in the nutrient-rich environment of dead tissues.
Worse, the patient’s immune system becomes depressed within one to two days after
severe burn injury.

Burns are classified according to their severity (depth):

A. First-degree burns (Superficial), only the superficial epidermis is damaged. The area becomes
red and swollen. Except for temporary discomfort, first-degree burns are not usually serious and
generally heal in two to three days. Sunburn without blistering is a first-degree burn.

B. Second-degree burns (Superficial partial-thickness burns), involve injury to the epidermis and
the superficial part of the dermis. The skin is red, painful, and blistered. Because enough epithelial
cells are still present, regrowth (regeneration) of the epithelium can occur. Ordinarily, no permanent
scars result if care is taken to prevent infection.
C. Third-degree burns (Full-thickness burns), destroy both the epidermis and the dermis and often
extend into the subcutaneous tissue, reflecting their categorization as full thickness burns. Blisters are
usually present, and the burned area appears blanched (gray-white) or blackened. Because the nerve
endings in the area are destroyed, the burned area is not painful. In third degree burns, regeneration is
not possible, and skin grafting must be done to cover the underlying exposed tissues.
D. Fourth-degree (Full-thickness burns with deep-tissue involvement) but they extend into deeper
tissues such as bone, muscle, or tendons. These burns appear dry and leathery, and they require
surgery and grafting to cover exposed tissue. In severe cases, amputation may be required to save the
patient’s life

 In general, burns are considered critical if any of the following conditions exists:
• Over 30 percent of the body has second degree burns.

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• Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-degree burns.

• There are third- or fourth- degree burns of the face, hands, feet, or genitals.
• Burns affect the airway.
• Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have occurred.

SKIN CANCER
 Skin Cancer Numerous types of neoplasms (tumors) arise in the skin. Most skin neoplasms
are benign and do not spread (metastasize) to other body areas. For example, warts are caused
by human papilloma viruses but are benign and do not spread. However, some skin
neoplasms are malignant, or cancerous, and they tend to invade other body areas.

 Skin cancer is the single most common type of cancer in humans. The most important risk
factor is overexposure to UV radiation in sunlight and tanning beds. Frequent irritation of the
skin by infections, chemicals, or physical trauma also seems to be a predisposing factor.

 The three most common types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell
carcinoma, and malignant melanoma.

A. Basal Cell Carcinoma is the least malignant and most common skin cancer. Cells of the
stratum basale, altered so that they cannot form keratin, no longer honor the boundary
between epidermis and dermis. They proliferate, invading the dermis and subcutaneous tissue.
The cancerous lesions occur most often on sun-exposed areas of the face and often appear as
shiny, dome-shaped nodules that later develop a central ulcer with a “pearly” beaded edge,
relatively slow-growing, and metastasis seldom occurs before the lesion is noticed. When the
lesion is removed surgically, 99 percent of cases are completely cured.

B. Squamous Cell Carcinoma arises from the cells of the stratum spinosum. The lesions appear
as scaly, reddened papules (small, rounded swellings) that gradually form shallow ulcers with
firm, raised borders. This variety of skin cancer appears most often on the scalp, ears, back of
the hands, and lower lip. It grows rapidly and metastasizes to adjacent lymph nodes if not
removed. This epidermal cancer is also believed to be induced by UV exposure. If it is caught
early and removed surgically or by radiation therapy, the chance of complete cure is good.

C. Malignant Melanoma is a cancer of melanocytes. It accounts for only about 5 percent of

skin cancers, but it is often deadly. Melanoma can begin wherever there is pigment; most such
cancers appear spontaneously, but some develop from pigmented moles. It arises from
accumulated DNA damage in a skin cell and usually appears as a spreading brown to black
patch (Figure 4.11c) that metastasizes rapidly to surrounding lymph and blood vessels. The
chance for survival is about 50 percent, and early detection helps.

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 the ABCDE rule for recognizing melanoma:

(A) Asymmetry. Any two sides of the pigmented spot or mole do not match.
(B) Border irregularity. The borders of the lesion are not smooth but exhibit indentations.
(C) Color. The pigmented spot contains areas of different colors (black, brown, tan, and sometimes
blue or red).
(D) Diameter. The lesion is larger than 6 millimeters (mm) in diameter (the size of a pencil eraser).
(E) Evolution. One or more of these characteristics (ABCD) is evolving or changing.

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