INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
EPIDERMIS
 The integumentary system consists of the
same skin glands, and nails.
 Integument means covering.
 The appearance of the integumentary system
can indicate physiological imbalance in the
body.
FUNCTIONS:
1. Protection: The skin provides protection against
abrasion and ultraviolet light.
2. Sensation: The integumentary system has
sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold,
touch, pressure, and pain.
3. Vitamin D Production: When exposed to
ultraviolet light, the skin produces a molecule
that can be transformed into Vitamin D.
4. Temperature Regulation: The amount of blood
flow beneath the skin’s surface and the activity
of sweat glands in the skin both help regulate
body temperature.
5. Excretion: Small amounts of waste products
are lost through the skin and in gland
secretions.
SKIN
The skin is made up two major tissue layers: the
epidermis and the dermis.
 The epidermis is the most superficial layer of
the skin. It is a layer of epithelial tissue that
rests on the dermis.
 The dermis is a layer of dense connective
tissue.
 The epidermis prevents water loss and resists
abrasion.
 The epidermis, known as the cutaneous
membrane, is a keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
 The epidermis is composed if distinct layers
called strata.
 Excessive sloughing of stratum corneum cells
from the surface of the scalp is called dandruff.
 In skin subjected to friction, the number of
layers in the stratum corneum greatly
increases, producing a thickened area called a
callus.
 Over a bony prominence, the stratum corneum
can thicken to form a cone-shaped structure
called a corn.
DERMIS
 The dermis is composed of dense collagenous
connective tissue containing fibroblasts,
adipocytes, and macrophages.
 Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscle glands,
and lymphatic vessels extend into the dermis.
 Collagen fibers, oriented in many directions,
and elastic fibers are responsible for the
structural strength of the dermis and resistance
to stretch.
 Some collagen fibers are oriented more
directions than others, forming cleavage lines.
 Cleavage lines, or tension lines, in the skin are
more resistant to stretch.
 An incision made parallel with these lines tends
to gap less and produce less scar tissue.
 If the skin is overstretched for any reason, the
dermis can be damaged, leaving stretchmarks.
 CLEAVAGE LINES
 Dermal papillae are projections toward the
epidermis found in the upper part of the dermis.
 The dermal papillae contain many blood
vessels.
 The dermal papillae in the palms of the hand,
the soles of the feet, and the tips of the digits
are arranged in parallel, curing ridges that
shape the overlying epidermis into fingerprints
and footprints.
SKIN COLOR
 Factors that determine skin color include
pigments in the skin, blood circulating through
the skin, and the thickness of the stratum
corneum.
 The two primary pigments are melanin and
carotene.
Melanin is the group of pigments primarily
responsible for skin, hair and eye color.
• Most melanin molecules are brown to
black pigments, but some are yellowish
or reddish.
• Melanin provides protection against
ultraviolet light from the sun.
• Melanin is produced by melanocytes.
• Large amounts of melanin form
freckles or moles in some regions of
the skin.
• Melanin production is determined by
genetic factors, exposure to light, and
hormones.
• Genetic factors are responsible for the
amounts of melanin produced in
different races.
• Since all races have about the same
number of melanocytes, racial
variations in skin color are determined
by the amount, kind, and distribution of
melanin.
• Exposure to ultraviolet light- for
example, in sunlight- stimulates
melanocytes to increase melanin
production. The result is suntan.
• Although many genes are responsible
for skin color, a single mutation can
prevent the production of melanin and
cause albinism.
Carotene is a yellow pigment found in plants
such as squash and carrots.
• Carotene is lipid-soluble; when
consumed, it accumulates in the lipids
of the stratum corneum and in the
adipocytes of the dermis and
subcutaneous tissue.
 The color of blood in the dermis contributes to
skin color.
 A decrease in blood flow, as occurs in shock,
can make the skin appear pale.
 A decrease in the blood O2 content produces a
bluish color of the skin, called cyanosis.
SUBCUTAENOUS TISSUE
 The skin (cutaneous membrane) rests on the
subcutaneous membrane.
 The subcutaneous tissue attaches the skin to
underlying bone and muscle and supplies it
with blood vessels and nerves.
 It is loose connective tissue, including adipose
tissue that contains about half the body’s stored
lipids.
 The amount and location of adipose tissue vary
age, sex, and diet.
 Adipose tissue in the subcutaneous tissue
functions as padding and insulation.
 The subcutaneous tissue can be used to
estimate total body fat.
 The acceptable percentage of body fat varies
from 21% to 30% for females and from 13% to
25% for males.
HAIR
 In humans, hair is found everywhere on the
skin, except on the palms, soles, lips, nipples,
part of the genitals, and the distal segments of
the finger and toes.
 Each hair arises from a hair follicle, an
invagination of the epidermis that extends deep
into the dermis.
 A hair shaft protrudes above the surface of the
skin; the root is below the surface and the hair
bulb is the expanded base of the root.
 A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds a
softer center, the medulla.
 The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a single
layer of overlapping cells that holds the hair in
the hair follicle.
 Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which rests on
the hair papilla.
 The hair papilla is an extension of the dermis
that protrudes into the hair bulb and contains
blood vessels.
 Hair is produced in cycles, with growth stage
and resting stage.
 During the growth stage, hair is formed by
mitosis of epithelial cells within the hair bulb;
these cells divide and undergo keratinization.
 During the resting stage, growth stops and the
hair is held in the hair follicle.
 When the next growth stage begins, a new hair
is formed and the old hair falls out.
 The duration of each astage depends on the
individual hair.
 Eyelashes grow for about 30 days and rest for
105 days, whereas scalp hairs grow for 3 years
and rest for 1 to 2 years.
 The loss of hair normally means that the hair is
being replaced bacuse the old hair falls out of
the hair follicle when the new hair begins to
grow.
 Hair color is determined by varying amounts
and types of melanin.
 With age, the amount of melanin in hair can
decrease, causing the hair color to become
faded, of the hair can contain no melanin and
be white.
 Each hair follicle is attched to smooth muscle
cells called the arrector pili muscle, which can
contract and cause the hair to become
perpendicular to the skin’s surface.
GLANDS
 The major glands of the skin are the sebaceous
glands and the sweat glands.
 Sebaceous glands are simple, branched acinar
glands, with most being connected by a duct to
the superficial part of a hair follicle.
 They produce sebum, an oily, white substance
rich in lipids.
 The sebum is released by holocrine secretion
and lubricates the hair and the surface of the
skin, which prevents drying and protects
against some bacteria.
There are two kinds of sweat glands: eccrine and
apocrine.
Eccrine sweat glands are simple, coiled, tubular
glands and release sweat by merocrine
secretion.
• Eccrine glands are located in almost
every part of the skin but most
numerous in the palms and soles.
• They produce a secretion that is mostly
water with a few salts.
• Eccrine sweat glands have ducts that
open onto the surface of the skin
through sweat pores and are for
thermal regulation.
• Sweat can also be released in the
palms, soles, armpits, and other places
because of emotional stress.
Apocrine sweat glands are simple, coiled,
tubular glands that produce a thick secretion
rich in organic substances.
• The glands open into hair follicles in
the armpits and genitalia.
• Apocrine sweat glands become active
at puberty because of the influence of
sex hormones.
• The secretion generally is odorless, but
when released quickly breaks down by
bacterial action giving body odor.
NAILS
 The nail is a thin plate, consisting of layers of
dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very
hard type of keratin.
 The visible part of the nail is the nail body, and
the part of the nail covered by skin is the nail
root.
 The cuticle, or eponychium, is stratum corneum
that extends onto the nail body and the nail root
extends distally from the nail matrix.
 A small part of the nail matrix, the lunula, can
be seen through the nail body as a whitish,
crescent-shaped area at the base of the nail.
 Cell production within the nail matrix causes the 4. Elimination of waste
nail to grow continuously.  The digestive system consists of the digestive
tract, plus specific associated organs.
 The digestive tract is also referred to as the GI
(gastrointestinal tract).
COMPONENTS:
The digestive tract consists of the:
• oral cavity (mouth)
• pharynx
• esophagus
• stomach
• small intestines
• large intestines
• rectum
• anus

ASSOCIATED ORGANS:
The digestive system includes some associated
organs not directly in the digestive tract, but
have ducts that lead into the tract . These
associated organs are the:
• liver
• gallbladder
• pancreas
LAYERS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT WALL
The layers of the tract wall are also termed
tunics.
1. Mucosa:
• innermost layer
• secretes mucus
2. Submucosa:
• above mucosa
• contains blood vessels, nerves, small
glands
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 3. Muscularis:
• above submucosa
 Digestion is the breakdown of large organic
molecules into smaller molecules that can be • longitudinal, circular, and oblique
absorbed. muscles
4. Serosa/adventitia
 The digestive system performs the task of
digestion. • outermost layer
• Serosa – peritoneum is present
FUNCTIONS:
1. Ingestion of solids and liquids
2. Digestion of organic molecules
3. Absroption of nutrients
 • Adventitia – no peritoneum is present  salivary enzyme that breaks down
carbohydrates

PERITONEUM
 Layer of smooth epithelial tissue Lysozyme
 Mesenteries
• connective tissue of organs in
abdominal cavity
 Lesser omentum
• mesentery connecting lesser curvature
of stomach to liver and diaphragm
 Greater omentum
• mesentery connecting greater
curvature of stomach to transverse
colon and posterior body wall

 salivary enzymes that are active against

bacteria
Tongue
 house taste buds of mucus

ORAL CAVITY
 First part of digestive system
 Contains stratified squamous epithelia
Salivary glands:
 produce saliva which contains enzymes to
breakdown carbohydrates into glucose
 cleanse mouth
 dissolve and moisten food
Amylase TEETH
 32 teeth in normal adult
 Incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom  Heartburn:
 20 primary teeth (baby teeth) • occurs when gastric juices regurgitate
 Each tooth has crown, cusp, neck, root into esophagus
 Center of tooth is pulp cavity • caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating
 Enamel is hard covering protects against or drinking in excess
abrasions SWALLOWING
 Cavities are breakdown of enamel by acids  Voluntary phase:
from bacteria
• bolus (mass of food) formed in mouth
and pushed into oropharynx

 Pharyngeal phase:
• swallowing reflex initiated when bolus
stimulates receptors in oropharynx
 Esophageal phase:
• moves food from pharynx to stomach
 Peristalsis:

PALATE
 Root of oral cavity
 Hard palate:
• Anterior part
 Soft palate:
• Posterior part
SALIVARY GLANDS
 Includes submandibular, sublingual, parotid
 Produce saliva contains enzymes to breakdown
food
 Mumps is the inflammation of parotid gland.
PHARYNX
 Throat
 Connects the mouth to the esophagus
 It has three parts:
• nasopharynx
• oropharynx
• laryngopharynx
ESOPHAGUS
 Tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
 Transports food to the stomach
 Joins stomach at cardiac opening
 • wave-like contractions moves food • stomach is stimulated to contract by
through digestive tract low blood glucose levels usually 12-24
STOMACH hours after a meal

 Located in abdomen REGULATION OF STOMACH SECRETIONS

 Storage for tank food
 Can hold up to 2 liters of food
 Produces mucus. hydrochloric acid, protein
digesting enzymes
 Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates
and protects epithelial cells on stomach wall
form acidic pH
Has 3 muscular layers:
• outer longitudinal, middle circular, and
inner oblique to produce churning
action
 Rugae:
• large folds that allow stomach to
stretch
 Chyme
• paste-like substance that forms when
food begins to be broken down
 Pyloric opening:
• opening between stomach and small
intestine
 Pyloric sphincter:
• thick, ring of smooth muscle aroung
pyloric opening
Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin, histamine
increase stomach secretions.
 Cephalic phase:
• 1st phase
• stomach secretions are initiated by
sight, smell, taste, or food thought
 Gastric phase:
• 2nd phase
• partially digested proteins and
distention of stomach promote
secretion
 Intestinal phase:
• 3rd phase
• acidic chyme stimulates neuronal
reflexes and secretions of hormones
that inhibit gastric secretions by
negative feedback loops
MOVEMENT IN STOMACH
Mixing waves:
• weak contraction
• thoroughly mix food to form chyme
Peristaltic waves:
• stronger contraction
• force chyme toward and through pyloric
sphincter
• Hormonal and neural mechanisms stimulate
stomach secretions
• Stomach empties every 4 hours after regular
meal, and 6 to 8 hours after high fatty meal
SMALL INTESTINE
 Measures 6 meters in length
 Major absorptive organ
 Chyme takes 3 to 5 hours to pass through
 Contains enzymes to further breakdown food

 Hunger pangs:
 Contains secretions for protection against the
acidity of chyme
PARTS OF SMALL INTESTINE
Duodenum:
• first part
• 25 cm long
• contains absorptive cells, goblet cells,
granular cells, endocrine cells
• contains microvilli and many folds
• contains bile and pancreatic ducts
Jejunum:
• second part
• 2.5 meters long and absorbs nutrients
Ileum:
• third part
• 3.5 meters long
MUCOSA OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
The mucosa of the small intestine is simple
columnar epithelium with four major cell types.
1. Absorptive cells, which have microvilli, produce
digestive enzymes, and absorb digested food.
2. Goblet cells, which produce a protective
mucus.
3. Granular cells, which may help protect the
intestinal epithelium from bacteria; and
4. Endocrine cells, which produce regulatory
hormones.
SECRETIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
 The epithelial cells in the walls of the small
intestine have enzymes bound to their free
surfaces.
 Peptidases enzymatically breakdown proteins
into amino acids for absorption.
 Disaccharidases enzymatically breakdown
disaccharides into monosaccharides for
absorption.
MOVEMENT IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary
mechanical events that occur in the small
intestine.
 Peristaltic contractions proceed along the
length of the intestine for variable distances
and cause the chyme to move along the small
intestine.
 Segmental contractions are propagated for only
short distances and mix intestinal contents.
 The ileocecal sphincter at the juncture of the
ileum and the large intestine remains mildly
contracted most of the time.
 Peristaltic contractions reaching the ileocecal
sphincter from the small intestine cause the
sphincter to relax and allow chyme to move
from the small intestine into the cecum.
 The ileocecal valve prevents movement from
the large intestine back into the ileum.
LIVER ANATOMY
 Weighs about 3 lbs.
 Located in the right upper quadrant of the
abdomen under the diaphragm
 Consists of right, left, caudate, and quadrate
lobes
Porta:
 gate where blood vessels, ducta, nerves enter
and exit
 receives arterial blood from the hepatic artery
LIVER ANATOMY
Lobules:
 divisions of liver with portal triads at corners
Portal triad:
 contain hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein,
hepatic duct
Hepatic cords:
 between center margins of each lobule
 separated by hepatic sinusoids
Hepatic sinusoids:
 contain phagocytic cells that remove foreign  Function is to absorb water from indigestible
particles from blood food
Central vein:  Contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
 center of each lobule Cecum:
 where mixed blood flows towards  joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
 forms hepatic veins  has appendix attached
LIVER DUCTS Appendix:
Hepatic duct:  9 cm structure that is often removed
 transport bile out of liver Colon:
Common hepatic duct:  1.5 meters long
 formed from left and right hepatic duct  contains ascending, transverse, descending,
sigmoid regions
Cystic duct:
Rectum:
 joins common hepatic duct
 from gallbladder  straight tube that begins at sigmoid and ends at
anal canal
Common bile duct:
Anal canal:
 formed from common hepatic duct and cystic
duct  last 2, to 3 cm of digestive tract
 Food takes 18-24 hours to pass through
FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER
 Feces is product of water, indigestible tood, and
 Digestive and excretory functions microbes
 Stores and processes nutrients  Microbes synthesize vitamin K
 Detoxifies harmful chemicals
DIGESTIVE PROCESS
 Synthesizes new molecules
1. Digestion:
 Secretes 700 milliliters of bile each day
 breakdown of food occurs in stomach and
Bile:
mouth
 dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid and 2. Propulsion:
breaks down fats  moves food through digestive tract includes
PANCREAS swallowing and peristalsis
3. Absorption:
 Located posterior to stomach in inferior part of
left upper quadrant  primarily in duodenum and jejunum of small
intestine
 Head near midline of body
4. Defecation:
 Tail extends to left and touches spleen
 Endocrine tissues have pancreatic islets that
produce insulin and glucagon
 Exocrine tissues produce digestive enzymes
that travel through ducts
PANCREATIC SECRETIONS
The major protein-digesting enzymes are:
1. Trypsin
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase
LARGE INTESTINE
 elimination of waste in the form of feces