CHAPTER 4

INTERGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Skin and Body Membranes

Body Membranes
▪ Functions of body membranes:
▪ Cover body surfaces
▪ Line body cavities
▪ Form protective sheets around organs
▪ Classified according to tissue types

▪ Epithelial membranes ▪ Connective tissue membranes

▪ Cutaneous membranes ▪ Synovialmembranes
▪ Mucous membranes c. Serous membranes (serosae)
▪ Serous membranes ▪ Line open body cavities that are closed to the exterior
of the body
▪ Occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with a
Visceral (cover internal organs) and parietal layer (line
internal body cavity walls)
▪ Construction
▪ Simple squamous epithelium
Epithelial Membranes
▪ Epithelial membranes are simple organs
▪ Also called covering and lining membranes
▪ These membranes contain:
▪ Epithelial tissue layer
▪ Connective tissue layer
Classes of Epithelial Membranes
a. Cutaneous membrane = skin
▪ Dry membrane
▪ Outermost protective boundary
▪ Construction ▪ Areolar connective tissue
▪ Epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
▪ Dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective
tissue

Specific serous membranes:

▪ Peritoneum- Abdominal cavity
▪ Pleura- Around the lungs
▪ Pericardium -Around the heart

b. Mucous membranes (mucosae)

▪ Moist membranes
▪ Line all boa
▪ Adapted for absorption or secretion
▪ Construction
▪ Epithelium type depends on site
▪ Loose connective tissue (lamina propria)
Connective Tissue Membranes
Synovial membranes
▪ Loose areolar connective tissue only (no epithelial tissue)
▪ Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints
▪ Line bursae
▪ Line tendon sheaths
▪ Secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion organs moving
against each other during muscle activity Structure of the Skin
▪ Two kinds of tissue compose the skin
▪ Epidermis
▪ Dermis
▪ Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) (superficial Fascia)
▪ Anchors the skin to underlying organs
▪ Not technically part of the integumentary system
▪ Composed mostly of adipose tissue
▪ Serves as a shock absorber and insulates deeper tissues

Integumentary System
▪ Integumentary system consists of the:
▪ Skin (cutaneous membrane)
▪ Skin appendages
▪ Sweat glands
▪ Oil glands
▪ Hair
▪ Nails
Structure of the Skin
Functions of the Integumentary System: EPIDERMIS—outer layer
▪ Insulates and cushion deeper body organs
▪ Capable of being hard and tough
▪ Protects the entire body from:
▪ Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
▪ Stratified squamous epithelium
▪ Chemical damage (acids and bases) ▪ Keratinocytes (the most common cell) produce a fibrous
protein called keratin
▪ Thermal damage (heat or cold) ▪ Avascular
▪ Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight) ▪ Composed of five layers (strata)
▪ Microbes (bacteria)
▪ Desiccation (drying out) ▪ Summary of layers of the epidermis from deepest
▪ Aids in loss or retention of body heat as controlled by the nervous to most superficial
system ▪ Stratum basale
▪ Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid ▪ Stratum spinosum
▪ Synthesizes vitamin D ▪ Stratum granulosum
▪ Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only)
▪ Stratum corneum
1. Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)
▪ Deepest layer of epidermis
▪ Lies next to dermis
▪ Wavy borderline with the dermis anchors the two
together
▪ Cells undergoing mitosis
▪ Daughter cells are pushed upward to become the
more superficial layers
2. Stratum spinosum (prickly layer)
▪ Cells become increasingly flatter and more keratinized
3. Stratum granulosum Two layers of the dermis
4. Stratum lucidum (clear layer) Papillary layer (upper dermal Reticular layer (deepest skin
▪ Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata region) contain projections called
dermal papillae layer)
▪ Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of hands and soles of
feet ▪ Indent the epidermis above ▪ Blood vessels
▪ Stratum corneum ▪ Many projections contain ▪ Sweat and oil glands
▪ Outermost layer of epidermis capillary loops, and others house ▪ Deep pressure receptors
▪ Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin (protective protein pain and touch receptors (lamellar corpuscles)
prevents water loss from skin) ▪ On palm and sole surfaces,
papillae increase friction and
5. Stratum corneum (horny layer) gripping ability
▪ Outermost layer of epidermis ▪ Fingerprints are identifying
films of sweat
▪ Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin (protective
protein prevents water loss from skin)
Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)
▪ Blood vessels
▪ Sweat and oil glands
▪ Deep pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles)

Melanin
▪ Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes
▪ Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale of the epidermis
▪ Color is yellow to brown to black Other dermal features
▪ Melanin accumulates in membrane-bound granules ▪ Cutaneous sensory receptors
called melanosomes ▪ Phagocytes
▪ Amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics ▪ Collagen and elastic fibers
and exposure to sunlight ▪ Blood vessels
Epidermal dendritic cells
▪ Alert and activate immune cells to a threat (bacterial or viral
invasion) Skin Color
Merkel cells ▪ Three pigments contribute to skin color
▪ Associated with sensory nerve endings 1. Melanin
▪ Serve as touch receptors called Merkel discs ▪ Yellow, reddish brown, or black pigments
▪Only pigment made in skin; made by melanocytes
Structure of the Skin ▪Packaged into melanosomes that are sent to keratinocytes to shield
DERMIS DNA from sunlight
▪ Connective tissue ▪Sun exposure stimulates melanin production
▪ Underlies the epidermis ▪Two forms: reddish yellow to brownish black
▪All humans have same number of keratinocytes, so color differences
are due to amount and form of melanin
▪Freckles and pigmented moles are local accumulations of melanin
2. Carotene
▪ Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
▪ Most obvious in palms and soles
▪Accumulates in stratum corneum and hypodermis
▪Can be converted to vitamin A for vision and epidermal health
 Appendages of the Skin
3. Hemoglobin ▪ Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
▪ Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries ▪ Produce sweat
▪ Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring ▪ Widely distributed in skin
All skin surfaces except nipples and parts of external genitalia contain
Skin Color sweat glands
▪ Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment,
inflammation, hypertension, fever, or allergy ▪ Two types of sudoriferous glands
▪ Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress (such 1. Eccrine glands
as fear), anemia, low blood pressure, impaired 2. Apocrine glands
blood flow to an area 1. Eccrine glands
▪ Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver disorder ▪ Open via duct to sweat pores on the skin’s surface
▪ Bruises (black and blue marks)—hematomas ▪ Produce acidic sweat
Appendages of the Skin ▪ Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic waste
▪ Function in body temperature regulation
▪ Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands
▪ Sebaceous glands
▪ Sweat glands
▪ Hair
▪ Hair follicles
▪ Nails

2. Apocrine glands
▪ Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit and genitals
▪ Begin to function at puberty
Appendages of the Skin ▪ Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and proteins (milky or
Sebaceous (oil) glands yellowish color)
▪ Located all over the skin except for palms and soles ▪ Play a minimal role in body temperature regulation
▪ Produce sebum (oil)
▪ Makes skin soft and moist Appendages of the Skin
▪ Prevents hair from becoming brittle Hair
▪ Kills bacteria ▪ Produced by hair
follicle
▪ Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; others open directly ▪ Root is enclosed in
onto skin surface the follicle
▪ Glands are activated at puberty ▪ Shaft projects from
the surface of the
scalp or skin
▪ Consists of hard
keratinized epithelial
cells
▪ Melanocytes provide
pigment for hair color
▪ Hair grows in the
matrix of the hair bulb
in stratum basale
 STRUCTURE OF A HAIR FOLLICLE
Hair anatomy Extends from epidermal surface to dermis
▪ Central medulla Hair bulb: expanded area at deep end of follicle
Hair follicle receptor (or root hair plexus): sensory nerve endings that
▪ Cortex surrounds medulla wrap around bulb
▪ Cuticle on outside of cortex Hair is considered a sensory touch receptor
▪ Most heavily keratinized region of the hair Wall of follicle composed of:
Peripheral connective tissue sheath- Derived from dermis (Also called
fibrous sheath)
Glassy membrane- thickened basal lamina
Epithelial root sheath- Derived from epidermis
Hair matrix: actively dividing area of bulb that produces hair cells
Arrector pili: small band of smooth muscle attached to follicle
(Responsible for “goose bumps”)
Hair papilla: Dermal tissue containing a knot of capillaries that supplies
nutrients to growing hair

Appendages of the Skin

Nails
▪ Heavily keratinized,
scalelike modifications of
the epidermis
▪ Stratum basale extends
beneath the nail bed,
which is responsible for
growth
▪ Lack of pigment makes
nails colorless
Parts of a nail
▪ Free edge
Associated hair structures ▪ Body is the visible
Hair follicle attached portion
▪ Composed of an epithelial root sheath and fibrous sheath ▪ Nail folds are skin folds
▪ Dermal region provides a blood supply to the hair bulb (deepest part that overlap the edges of
the
of the follicle) nail; the cuticle is the
▪ Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair follicle to pull hairs upright proximal edge
when we are cold or frightened ▪ Root of nail is
embedded in skin
▪ Growth of the nail
occurs from nail matrix

Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Infections and allergies
▪ Athlete’s foot
▪ Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis)
▪ Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes
▪ Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
▪ Caused by inflammation of hair follicles
▪ Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by bacteria
▪ Cold sores (fever blisters) Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
▪ Caused by human herpesvirus 1 ▪ First-degree burn (superficial burn)
▪ Blisters itch and sting ▪ Only epidermis is
▪ Contact dermatitis damaged
▪ Skin is red and
▪ Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke allergic swollen
responses ▪ Second-degree burn
▪ Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
(partial-thickness burn)
▪ Impetigo
▪ Epidermis and
▪ Caused by bacterial infection superficial part of dermis are
▪ Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions around mouth/nose damaged
▪ Psoriasis ▪ Skin is red, painful,
▪ Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or and blistered
stress ▪ Regrowth of the
▪ Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales epithelium can occur
that itch, burn, crack, or sometimes bleed ▪ Third-degree burn (full-
thickness burn)
▪ Destroys
epidermis and dermis; burned
area is
painless
▪ Requires skin
grafts, as regeneration is not
possible
▪ Burned area is
blanched (gray-white) or black
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin ▪ Fourth-degree burn (full-
▪ Burns thickness burn)
▪ Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, ▪ Extends into
electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals deeper tissues (bone, muscle,
▪ Associated dangers tendons)
▪ Protein denaturation and cell death ▪ Appears dry and
▪ Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance leathery
▪ Requires surgery
▪ Circulatory shock and grafting
▪ Result in loss of body fluids and infection from the invasion of ▪ May require
bacteria amputation
▪ Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule of nines Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
▪ Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation ▪ Criteria for deeming burns critical (if any one is met):
▪ Each area represents about 9 percent of total body ▪ Over 30 percent of body has second-degree burns
surface area ▪ Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-degree
▪ The area surrounding the genitals (the perineum) burns
represents 1 percent of body surface area ▪ Third- or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet,
or genitals
▪ Burns affect the airways
▪ Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have
occurred
▪ Skin cancer
▪ Most common form of cancer in humans
▪ Most important risk factor is overexposure to ultraviolet
(UV) radiation in sunlight and tanning beds
▪ Cancer can be classified two ways
1. Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread
2. Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded other body areas
▪ Most common types of skin cancer
▪ Basal cell carcinoma
▪ Squamous cell carcinoma
▪ Malignant melanoma
▪ Basal cell carcinoma
▪ Least malignant and most common type of skin cancer
▪ Arises from cells in stratum basale that are altered so
that they can no longer make keratin
▪ Lesions appear as shiny, dome-shaped nodules that
develop a central ulcer

▪ Squamous cell carcinoma
▪ Believed to be induced by UV exposure
▪ Arises from cells of stratum spinosum
▪ Lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules that
gradually form shallow ulcers
▪ Early removal allows a good chance of cure
▪ Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not removed
Membranes
▪ Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by the fifth or sixth month of
fetal development but disappears by birth
▪ Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is apparent at birth
▪ Milia, small white spots, are common at birth and disappear by the
third week
▪ Acne may appear during adolescence
▪ In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
▪ With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
▪ Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive sunlight
▪ Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both are genetically
determined; other factors that may contribute include drugs and
emotional stress

▪ Malignant melanoma
▪ Most deadly of skin cancers, but accounts for only 5
percent of skin cancers
▪ Arises from melanocytes
▪ Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
▪ Detection uses ABCDE rule for recognizing melanoma
▪ A = Asymmetry
▪ Two sides of pigmented mole do not match
▪ B = Border irregularity
▪ Borders of mole are not smooth
▪ C = Color
▪ Different colors in pigmented area
▪ D = Diameter
▪ Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter
▪ E = Evolution
▪ One or more of the ABCD characteristics is evolving

Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body