General Anatomy and Physiology

● Structural Levels of Organization

○ Chemical: Atoms and molecules
○ Cell: the functional units of the body, made up of chemicals
○ Tissue: a group of similar cells
■ Epithelial: covering (skin, lining)
■ Connective: supports other tissues and binds them
together (blood, bone, lymph tissues)
■ Muscle
● Striated (voluntary) muscles: Move the
skeleton
● Smooth (involuntary) muscle (muscles that
surround the stomach)
■ Nervous: made of neurons and is used to carry
messages throughout the body
○ Organ: two or more types of tissue that perform a function
together
○ Organ System: a group of organs that are considered a unit
because of a common set of functions
○ Organism: a whole being that can function and live on its
own
● Location
○ Superior/Rostral: up, above
○ Inferior/Caudal: down, below
○ Anterior/Ventral: front
○ Posterior/Dorsal: back
○ Proximal: near, nearest to point of attachment
○ Distal: far, farthest to point of attachment
○ Medial: towards the middle
○ Lateral: away from the middle, to the side
○ Superficial: near the surface
○ Deep: towards the interior of the body
○ Ipsilateral: same side of the median, used when
describing two parts in relation to each other
○ Contralateral: opposite side of the median

Nervous System

● The Brain
○ Through the five senses, the brain receives messages
○ Controls thoughts, memory and speech, arm and leg movements, and the functions of
many organs within the body
○ At birth, the brain usually weighs one pound, grows to two during childhood. The average
adult female brain weighs 2.7 pounds, while the average male’s brain weighs around 3
pounds
○ Cell Structure of the Brain
■ Neurons
● Sending and receiving nerve impulses or signals
■ Glial cells
● Provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin and
facilitate signal transmission in the nervous system.
● Outnumbers neurons 50 to 1
● Most common cells in brain tumors
○ Meninges
■ Brain is housed inside the cranium
● Protects brain from injury
■ Cranium + bones that protect the face = skull
■ Meninges are between the skull and the brain
● 3 layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord
● Outwards to inwards: dura mater, arachnoid, and the pia mater
■ Dura Mater
● Made of two layers of whitish, nonelastic film
● Outer layer is called the periosteum
● Dura
○ Inner layer
○ Lines the inside of the entire skull and has folds in which parts of
the brain are protected
○ Falx
■ Separates the right and left halves of the brain
○ Tentorium
■ Separates the upper and lower parts of the brain
■ Arachnoid
● Second layer of the meninges
● Thin and delicate membrane that covers the entire brain
● Subdural space: space between the arachnoid and the dura mater
● Made of delicate, elastic tissue and blood vessels of varying sizes
■ Pia Mater
● Closest to the brain
● Many blood vessels that go deep into the surface of the brain
● The pia covers the entire surface and follows the folds of the brain
● Arteries supplying the brain provide the pia with its blood vessels
● Subarachnoid space: space between the pia and the arachnoid
○ This is where cerebrospinal fluid flows
 ■
○ Cerebrospinal Fluid
■ Found within the brain and surrounds the brain and spinal cord
■ Clear, watery liquid
■ Protects the brain from injury
■ Circulates through channels and is constantly being absorbed and replenished
■ Formed in ventricles, hollow channels in the brain
● Choroid plexus: specialized structure within the ventricle that is
responsible for CSF production
● Normally maintains a balance between the amount of CSF that is
absorbed and amount that is produced
○ Ventricular System
■ Divided into four cavities called ventricles
■ Ventricles are connected by a series of holes (foramen) and tubes
■ Lateral ventricles: two ventricles enclosed in the cerebral hemispheres
● Communicate with a third ventricle through an opening called the
Foramen of Munro
● Third ventricle is in the center of the brain
● Walls are made of the thalamus and the hypothalamus
■ Third ventricle connects with a fourth through a tube called the Aqueduct of
Sylvius

■
○ Brain Components and Functions
■ Brainstem
● Lower extension of the brain
● In front of the cerebellum and connected to the spinal cord
● Three structures: midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
 ● Passes messages back and forth between different parts of the body and
the cerebral cortex
○ Simple functions essential for survival are located here
● Midbrain
○ Important center for ocular motion
● Pons
○ Coordinates eye and facial movements, facial sensation, hearing
and balance
● Medulla Oblongata
○ Controls breathing, blood pressure, heart rhythms and
swallowing
● Messages from the cortex to the nerves that branch out from the spinal
cord are sent through the pons and the brainstem
● Destruction of these parts will cause brain death: they are essential
● Reticular Activating System: Found in the midbrain, pons, medulla,
and part of the thalamus
○ Controls levels of wakefulness, attention, and is involved in sleep
● 10 of the 12 cranial nerves that control sensations (hearing, facial
sensation, taste) and movements of the head (eye movement,
swallowing, movement of the face, neck, shoulder, and tongue) originate
from the brainstem
● Nerves for smell and vision originate in the cerebrum
■ Cerebellum
● Located at the back of the brain
● Beneath the occipital lobes
● Separated from the cerebrum by the tentorium
● Purpose
○ Fine-tunes motor activity
○ Helps maintain posture, sense of balance, by controlling the tone
of muscles and the position of limbs
○ Important in performing rapid and repetitive actions
● Right-sides abnormalities produce symptoms on the same side of the
body
■ Cerebrum
● Major portion of the brain
● Two parts: right and left hemispheres
● Often a term used to describe the entire brian
● Longitudinal Fissure: Groove that separates the two hemispheres
○ Hemispheres joined at the bottom by the corpus callosum
○ The corpus callosum connects the two halves and delivers
messages from one half to the other
● Contains billions of neurons and glia that together form the cerebral
cortex
○ Grayish brown, called “gray matter”
○ Surface is wrinkled
■ Sulci (small grooves)
■ Fissures (larger grooves)
■ Gyri (bulges between grooves)
 ● Beneath the cerebral cortex, connecting fibers between neurons form a
white-colored area called the “white matter”
● Distinct fissures can divide the brain into lobes
○ Lobes: broad regions of the brain
○ Can be divided into parts that each hemisphere has
■ Frontal
■ Temporal
■ Parietal
■ Occipital

○
○ Can be divided further into areas that serve specific functions
○ Lobes function together through very complex relationships
● Messages are transported along routes called pathways
● Destruction of brain tissue by a tumor can disrupt communication
between different parts of the brain
● Ways messages can travel
○ Gyri to gyri
○ Lobe to lobe
○ Hemisphere to hemisphere
○ Lobe to different structures
○ Deep structures to another part of the CNS
● Right side of the brain controls the left side, and vice versa
○ Tumor on the right side → left side of body may be paralyzed
■ Cranial Nerves
● Olfactory: smell
● Optic: visual fields and ability to see
● Oculomotor: eye movements; eyelid opening
● Trochlear: eye movements
● Trigeminal: facial sensation
● Abducens: eye movements
● Facial: eyelid closing; facial expression; taste sensation
● Auditory/vestibular: hearing; sense of balance
● Glossopharyngeal: taste sensation; swallowing
● Vagus: swallowing; taste sensation
● Accessory: control of neck and shoulder muscles
● Hypoglossal: tongue movement
 ●
■ Hypothalamus
● Small structure that contains nerve connections that send messages to
the pituitary gland
● Handles information coming from the autonomic nervous system
● Plays a role in controlling eating, sexual behavior, and sleeping
● Regulates body temperature, emotions, secretion of hormones and
movement
○ The pituitary gland develops from an extension of the
hypothalamus downwards and from a second part extending
upward from the roof of the mouth

●
■ Lobes
● Frontal
○ Largest
 ○ Motor skills: voluntary movement, speech, intellectual and
behavior functions
■ Movement: primary motor cortex, precentral gyrus
■ Prefrontal cortex: memory, intelligence, concentration,
temper, and personality
■ Premotor cortex: guides eye and head movements,
sense of orientation
■ Broca’s area: language production, usually on the left
side of frontal lobe

○
● Occipital
○ Back of the brain
○ Receive and process visual information
■ OC lobe on the right interprets signals from the left visual
space
■ OC lobe on the left interprets signals from the right visual
space
● Parietal
○ Interpret signals received from other areas of the brain
■ Vision, hearing, motor, sensory, and memory
○ Memory + new sensory information = meaning from objects
● Temporal Lobes
○ Right
■ Involved in visual memory and recognition
○ Left
■ Verbal memory, remembering, and understanding
language
○ Rear
■ Interpret other people’s emotions and reactions
● Limbic System
○ System involved in emotions
■ Hypothalamus
■ Part of the thalamus
■ Amygdala (aggressive behavior)
■ Hippocampus (remembering new information)
● Pineal Gland
○ Outgrowth from the back portion of the third ventricle
 ○ Exact purpose is unclear: some role in sexual maturation
● Pituitary Gland
○ Attached to the base of the brain
○ In the pituitary fossa/sella turcica
○ Controls the secretion of hormones
■ Growth and development
■ Function of different organs
■ Function of other glands
● Posterior Fossa
○ Cavity in the back of the skull
○ Contains the cerebellum, brainstem, and nerves 5-12
● Thalamus
○ Relay station for almost all information that comes into the cortex
■ Pain sensation
■ Attention and alertness
○ 4 Parts
■ Hypothalamus
■ Epithalamus
■ Ventral Thalamus
■ Dorsal Thalamus
○ Basal Ganglia
■ Cluster of nerve cells surrounding the thalamus
■ Language and Speech Functions
● Left side: language and speech (“dominant” hemisphere)
○ ⅓ of people who are left handed, speech function might be on
the right side
● Aphasia
○ Disturbance of language
○ Different aphasias depending on what part of the brain in
affected
● Bronca’s Area
○ If destroyed, someone wouldn’t be able to move the tongue or
facial muscles to form words
○ Could read and understand language, but can’t speak or write
● Wernicke’s area
○ Left temporal lobe
○ Can make speech sounds, but are meaningless
● EEG Waveforms
○ Since the cerebral cortex is just under the cranium, electrodes can be placed on the scalp
above different parts of the brain to detect electrical activity associated with neurons
○ Alpha
■ 8-13 (Hz)
■ 20-200 (microvolts)
■ Awake but relaxed with eyes closed
■ Greatest amplitude alpha waves are recorded from the occipital and parietal
regions
■ Diminish when they open their eyes and receive external stimuli
○ Beta
■ 13-30 Hz
 ■ 5-10 microvolts
■ Alert and attentive to external stimuli or when in deep sleep (REM)
○ Delta
■ 1-5 Hz
■ 20-200 microvolts
■ Moving into the deeper stages of sleep
■ May increase during activities that require concentration
○ Theta
■ 4-8 Hz
■ 10 microvolts
■ Moving into the deeper stages of sleep
■ Occurs for brief intervals when there is a frustrating event or situation
● Neural Impulses
○ Neuron
■ Basic cell of the nervous system
■ Transmits impulses (up to 250 mph)
○ Parts of a Neuron
■ Dendrite: receives stimulus and carries impulses towards the cell body
■ Cell Body: nucleus and most of the cytoplasm
■ Axon: fiber that carries impulses away from the cell body
■ Schwann Cells: produce myelin in the PNS
● myelin: layer that forms around nerves to allow impulses to transmit
quickly
● myelin sheath: lipid layer that insulates the axon
■ Node of Ranvier: gaps in the myelin sheath
○ Types of Neurons
■ Sensory: bring messages to the CNS
■ Motor: carry messages from the CNS
■ Interneurons: between sensory and motor neurons in the CNS
○ Impulses
■ A stimulus is a change in the environment with enough strength to initiate a
response
■ Excitability is the ability for a neuron to respond to the stimulus and convert it to a
nervous impulse
● Neural Impulses v2
○ Occurs b/c of a difference in electrical charge across the plasma membrane of a neuron
○ Resting Potential
■ Sodium-potassium pump
■ More negative charge inside than outside
● ATP pumps sodium out and potassium in
● Maintains the difference in charge
○ Action Potential
■ Nerve impulse
■ Electric charge that travels along the membrane of a neuron
● Caused when neuron’s potential is changed by chemical signals from a
nearby cell
● Cell membrane potential changes quickly from negative to positive as
sodium ions flow into the cell through ion channels, and potassium flows
in
 ● Threshold: 15 mV more than resting potential
● Depolarization: allowing sodium ions in and increases the positive charge
● Repolarization: potassium ion channels open, allowing ions out of the
cell and ends the action potential
● Action potential moves down the axon towards the synapse like a wave
● Brief refractory period before racing resting potential,
○ Another AP can’t be generated
● In myelinated neurons, ion flows only happen at NoR
○ AP jumps along axon membrane from node to node rather than
going smoothly along the membrane
○ Transmitting Nerve Impulses
■ Synapse
● Place where an axon terminal meets another cell
● Transmission of a nerve impulse occurs
● Presynaptic cell: cell that sends the impulse
● Postsynaptic cell: cell that receives the impulse
■ Some are purely electrical, but most are chemical
○ Chemical Synapses
■ Both presyn and postsyn cells have machinery that is involved in transmission
● Presyn area contains tiny synaptic vesicles that are packed with
neurotransmitters
● When the AP reaches the axon terminal, it opens channels to allow
calcium to enter
○ Causes the syn vesicles to fuse with the membrane, releasing
contents into the narrow space (synaptic cleft)
● Travel across synaptic cleft and bind to receptors (proteins embedded in
the membrane of the postsyn cell)
● Neurons
○ Oligodendrocyte: produces the myelin sheath in the CNS
○ Schwann cell: produces the myelin sheath in the PNS
○ Neurogenesis
■ Neurons cannot divide and form new neurons
■ New neurons can form from the division of undifferentiated neural stem cells
■ Not likely to be very great in humans
○ Neurons in Nervous Tissues
■ Grey matter: cell bodies of neurons (living is more pink than grey)
■ White matter: myelin sheath
● Makes up nerves of the peripheral nervous system
○ Types
■ Sensory (afferent): carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
■ Motor (efferent): carry nerve impulses to the muscles and glands
■ Interneurons: carry nerve impulses back and forth between sensory and motor
neurons within the spinal cord
○ Glial Cells
● Central Nervous System
○ Brain & spinal cord
○ CNS and PNS work together to control virtually all body functions
○ Surrounded by meninges, three layer sheath w/ cbs fluid
○ Isolated from circulation by the blood-brain barrier
 ■ Highly selective membrane formed of endothelial cells
■ Separates the circulating blood from extracellular fluid in the CNS
■ Allows water, some gases, glucose, and some other molecules to pass to the
brain
○ Brain makes up 2% of body weight, but uses 20% of body energy
■ 100 bil neurons, thousands of synaptic connections each
■ Same number of glial cells
■ Needs glucose or else unconscious
○ Cerebrum
■ Conscious, intellectual functions
■ Reasoning, language, memory, sight, touch, hearing
○ Cerebral Cortex
■ Grey matter
■ Outer surface of cerebrum
■ Surface area of around 2.5 ft^2
■ Lobes
● Frontal
○ Executive functions
● Parietal
○ Sensation
● Temporal
○ Hearing, memories, integration
● Occipital
○ Vision
○ Inner Structures
■ Hypothalamus
● Metabolic processes and autonomic nervous system
● Emotion
● Responds to many different internal and external signals
● Synthesizes hormones
● Controls the pituitary gland
■ Thalamus
● Hub for info travelling between spine and cerebrum
● Consciousness, sleep, and alertness
■ Cerebellum
● Coordinates body movements
■ Brain stem
● Midbrain
○ Sight and sound, sends to forebrain
● Pons
○ Relays messages
○ Helps control breathing
● Medulla
○ Other subconscious homeostatic functions
○ Spinal Cord
■ Center is grey matter
■ Surrounded by white matter
■ Spinal nerves connect the spinal cord to the PNS
■ Exit between vertebrae
● PNS
○ All nervous tissue that lies outside of the CNS
○ Connects the CNS to the rest of the organism
○ Tissues
■ Nerves and ganglia
● Ganglia: act as relay points for messages transmitted through nerves
● Nerves: cable like bundles of axons that make up most of the PNS
■ Sensory Nerves
● Transmit information from sensory receptors to the CNS
■ Motor nerves
● Transmit information from the CNS to the muscles, organs, and glands
■ Mixed nerves
● Both sensory and motor neurons, transmits information in both directions
■

Endocrine System

● Endocrine System
○ System of glands called endocrine glands that release chemical messenger molecules
called hormones into the bloodstream
○ Other glands secrete substances, but not into the blood
■ Instead through ducts
■ Called exocrine glands
○ Pituitary Gland
■ Base of the brain
■ Controlled by the hypothalamus
■ Two lobes: anterior and posterior
● Posterior: stores and secretes hormones synthesized by the
hypothalamus
● Anterior: synthesizes and secretes its own hormones
■ Growth hormone
■ Generally, PG hormones direct the other glands to secrete more/less of their
hormones
○ Thyroid
■ Thyroxine: metabolism
○ Parathyroid
■ Behind thyroid
■ Keep level of calcium in the blood within a narrow range
○ Pineal Gland
■ Center of the brain
■ Melatonin: sleep-wake cycle
● Stimulated by darkness, inhibited by light
○ Pancreas
■ Produces insulin and glucagon
■ Controls the level of glucose in the blood
■ Digestive enzymes into the small intestine
○ Gonads
 ■ Secrete sex hormones (testosterone/estogen)
■ Control maturation during puberty and the production of gametes
○ Thymus Gland
■ T cells
■ Critical to the adaptive immune system
○ Disorders
■ Hypersecretion: too much of a hormone is produced
■ Hyposecretion: too little of a hormone is produced
● Endocrine Hormones
○ Messenger molecules
○ Target cell: cell which a hormone has an effect
■ B/C of receptor proteins that are specific to that hormone
■ When a hormone binds to a receptor, how it changes the cell depends on if it’s a
steroid or a non-steroid
○ Steroid Hormones
■ Made of lipids
■ Fat soluble, so it can diffuse across the plasma membrane
■ Binds with receptor proteins in the cytoplasm
■ Receptor + steroid = steroid complex
● Moves to nucleus where it influences genes
○ Non-steroid Hormones
■ Made of amino acids
■ Can’t diffuse across plasma membrane
■ Binds to receptor on the cell
● Activates an enzyme
● Then simulates a secondary messenger
● That influences processes inside the cell
■ Most hormones are non-steroid
○ Regulation of Endocrine Hormones
■ Most hormones are controlled by feedback mechanisms
● Most regulated by negative feedback
○ Keeps a hormone within a relatively narrow range
● Positive feedback
○ Causes the concentration to become increasingly higher
○ Negative feedback
■ Thyroid
● When levels in blood drop too low, the hypothalamus secretes TRH
● Travels to the pituitary gland, stimulates to produce TSH
● Travels to the bloodstream and stimulates it to secrete thyroid hormones
● Stimulates thyroid gland, until hormones stop the HYT from secreting
anything more
● Pituitary Gland
○ Anterior Lobe
■ Synthesizes and releases hormones into the blood
■ Regulated by the hypothalamus
■ ACTH
● Stimulates adrenal gland
● CRH
■ TSH
 ● Stimulates the thyroid gland
● TRH
■ GH
● Stimulates body cells to synthesize proteins and grow
● GHRH
● GHIH
■ FSH
● Stimulates the ovaries to produce eggs
● Stimulates the testes to produce sperm
● GnRH
■ LH
● Stimulates the release of sex hormones
● Stimulates the release of eggs
● GnRH
■ PRL
● Production of milk
● PRH
● PIH
○ Posterior Lobe
■ Secretes hormones from the hypothalamus
● Vasopressin (ADH) maintains homeostasis in body water
○ Stimulates kidneys to conserve water by producing more
concentrated urine
● Oxytocin (OXY)
○ Stimulates uterine contractions
● Thyroid
○ Largest endocrine gland
○ Composed of follicles
■ Absorb iodine (I-) and use it to produce hormones
■ Use some of the iodine to form a protein called thyroglobulin, which stores iodide
for later hormone synthesis
○ C cells
■ Synthesize and secrete calcitonin
○ Functions
■ Synthesize hormones and secrete them into the bloodstream
○ Thyroid Hormones: T4 and T3
■ T4 (4 iodide ions)
● 90% of circulating hormone
■ T3 (3 iodide ions)
● More powerful
■ Unlike steroid hormones, can cross cell membranes only with special transporter
proteins
■ Turn on genes that control protein synthesis
■ Increase metabolism
○ Calcitonin
■ Regulates blood calcium
■ Secreted in response to rising blood calcium
■ Decreases calcium levels by enhancing calcium absorption in bone
○ Thyroid Disorders
 ■ Hyperthyroidism
● Excessive amounts of hormones
● Graves’ Disease
○ Abnormal antibodies produced by the immune system stimulate
the thyroid to produce more hormones
○ Overrides negative feedback loop
○ Goiter, protruding eyes, heart palpitations, excessive sweating,
diarrhea, weight loss, weakness, sensitivity to heat
■ Hypothyroidism
● Insufficient amounts of thyroid hormones
● Due to iodine deficiency
● Goiter, can’t increase output because of diet
● Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
○ Autoimmune disease
○ Immune system destroys the thyroid gland
○ Weight gain, tiredness, baldness, cold intolerance, and slow
heart rate
● Adrenal Glands
○ Adrenaline
○ Cortisol
■ Right: smaller and pyramid
■ Left: larger, half-moon
○ Adrenal Cortex
■ Outer layer of the adrenal gland
■ Divided into zones
● Zona glomerulosa
○ Outermost
● Zona fasciculata
○ Middle layer: 80% of the adrenal cortex
● Zona Reticularis
○ Innermost
○ Types of Adrenal Cortex Hormones
■ Corticosteroids
● Mineralocorticoids
○ ZG
○ Include aldosterone
○ Controls the balance of mineral salts
● Glucocorticoids
○ Include cortisol
■ Response to stress
○ Control metabolism of proteins, fats, and sugars
○ Increase glucose and fatty acids in the blood
○ Suppression of the immune system
● Androgens
○ DHEA
○ Converted to more potent androgens in males
○ Converted to female sex hormones in females
○ Regulation of Adrenal Cortex Hormones
■ Regulated by ant PG
 ○ Adrenal Medulla
■ Center of each adrenal gland
■ Dense network of blood vessels into which it secretes its hormones
■ Catecholamines
● Adrenaline
● Noradrenaline
● FUnction as a rapid response to stress
○ Disorders
■ Hypersecretion: Cushing’s Syndrome
● HS of the cortisol
● Most common cause is a tumor
● Obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, body hair, osteoporosis, and
depression
■ Addison’s disease
● Hyposecretion of cortisol
● Autoimmune
○ Attacks cells of the adrenal cortex
○ Untreated infections
○ Pituitary tumor
● Hyperpigmentation
● Pancreas
○ Intro
■ Upper left abdomen behind stomach
■ Releases hormones
■ Endocrine and exocrine: blood and digestion
○ Endocrine Gland
■ Clusters of cells called pancreatic islets
■ 4 main types of cells
● Alpha
○ Glucagon
■ Increases glucose in the blood
■ Stimulates the liver to convert stored glycogen into
glucose
● Beta
○ Insulin
■ Decrease level of glucose
■ Promotes the absorption of glucose into fat, liver, and
skeletal muscle
● Delta
○ Somatostatin
■ Growth inhibitor
■ Inhibits pancreatic hormones
● Gamma
○ Polypeptide
■ Regulate the secretion
○ Disorders
■ Pancreatitis
● Inflammation of the pancreas
○ Gallstones
 ○ Chronic alcohol use
○ Infections
○ Certain medications
● Digestive enzymes damage the gland’s tissues
○ Causes problems with fat digestion
● Intense pain in central abdomen, yellow skin and whites of eyes, pale
stools and dark urine
■ Diabetes Mellitus
● Excessive urination and thirst
○ Kidneys try to get rid of excess glucose
● Damage to small blood vessels
○ Coronary artery disease and stroke
○ Vision loss
○ Chronic kidney disease
○ Damage to nerves
● Type 1
○ Chronic autoimmune disorder
○ Immune system attacks beta cells
○ Lack insulin to keep blood glucose in a normal range
● Type 2
○ Insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion
● Types of Hormones
○ Peptide
■ Hydrophilic and lipophilic
■ Bind on the surface of the cell
○ Amine
■ Derived from tyrosine
■ Properties common to both peptide and steroid hormones

○
Taste: chorda tympani nerve (from the front of the tongue), the glossopharyngeal nerve (from the back of
the tongue)