Anatomy & Physiology

Nervous System
The Brain-major regions and their functions

Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain and is the uppermost part of the brain.
It contains two hemispheres split by a central fissure. Each hemisphere
controls processes on the contralateral side of the body. In general the right
side of the brain receives and controls signals from the left side of the body.
Some functions occur predominantly in one hemisphere. The left side in
general controls speech, writing, and mathematics. The right side in general
controls aspects of creativity such as art and music.
● Cerebral Cortex: is the outermost layer of the cerebrum. This gray
matter makes up an uneven surface composed of ridges called gyri
and valleys called sulci. These folds increase the surface area of the
cerebral cortex. The four major lobes are contained within the
cerebral cortex (frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal
lobe) Below the gray matter is the white matter. This includes
 connecting structures such as nerve fibers (axons) which help connect
and transmit to various areas of the cerebral cortex.
● Lobes: the cerebrum houses the four major lobes and each lobe has its
own set of functions. In general the cerebrum controls all voluntary
actions as well as emotional control, sensory processing, personality,
cognitive and higher thought, and creativity. This is due to the
function of each individual lobe and the interplay between them.

○ Frontal Lobe
■ Speech
■ Behavior & personality
■ Emotions
■ Body movement
■ Intelligence
■ self-awareness
○ Parietal lobe
■ Language and symbol use
■ Visual perception
■ Sense of touch, pressure, and pain
■ Giving meaning to signals from other sensory information
○ Temporal lobe
■ Memory
■ Hearing
■ Understanding language
■ Organization and patterns
○ Occipital lobe
■ Light
■ Color
■ Movement
■ Spatial orientation
 ○ Insular lobe (cortex)
■ Homeostasis
■ Compassion and empathy
■ Self-awareness
■ Cognitive function
■ Social experience

Cerebellum: A structure located at the

back of the brain posterior to the Pons
and below the temporal and occipital
lobes. It is separated from these lobes
by the Tentorium cerebelli-a tough
layer of dura mater. The cerebellum
coordinates sensory input with muscular
response and modifies
motor commands from the cerebrum. The cerebellum can be subdivided in 3
different ways, anatomical lobes, zones, and functional divisions.
● Anatomical Lobes: There are 3 different anatomical lobes distinguished
within the cerebellum; the anterior lobe, the posterior lobe, and the
flocculonodular. These lobes are divided by 2 fissures- the primary fissure
and the posterolateral fissure.

● Zones: There are 3 different cerebellar zones. The vermis is in the middle of
the cerebellum. The Intermediate zone is located on either side of the
vermis and is lateral to the Lateral hemispheres. Gross structure within the
lateral hemispheres and intermediate zone are the same.
 ● Functional Divisions: There are 3 functional areas of the cerebellum, the
cerebrocerebellum, spinocerebellum, and the vestibulocerebellum.
○ Cerebrocerebellum: Largest functional portion of the cerebellum. It’s
name is derived from the extensive connections to the cerebral cortex.
It is involved in the planning and timing of movements. It is also
involved in the cognitive functions of the cerebellum.
○ Spinocerebellum: Receives messages from the spinocerebellar tract.
It is involved in receiving sensory information and then responding
with motor output (command to muscle cells throughout the body) to
produce adaptive motor coordination.
○ Vestibulocerebellum: Involved in vestibular reflex (maintain stable
vision during head movement), and in postural maintenance.
Brainstem: Is located in the middle of the brain. It connects the cerebrum with the
spinal cord. The brainstem contains the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla.
● Midbrain: Also called (mesencephalon) is a complex structure containing
clusters of neurons, neural pathways and other structures. The midbrain
structures facilitate various functions from hearing and movement to
calculating responses and environmental changes. The midbrain also
contains the substantia nigra
○ Substantia nigra: This area is rich in dopamine receptors and part of
the basal ganglia which enables movement and coordination. This is
the area affected by Parksinson’s disease.
● Pons: Origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of
activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance,
hearing and facial expression. The pons (Latin word for bridge) is the
connection between the midbrain and the medulla.
● Medulla: Located at the bottom of the brainstem, where the brain meets the
spinal cord. The medulla is essential to survival. Functions include
regulating heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen & Carbon Dioxide
levels. Also produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting,
coughing, and swallowing.
Brain Coverings-Meninges: 3 layers of protective covering called meninges
surround the brain and the spinal cord.
● Dura Mater: Outermost layer of the brain is thick and tough. It is composed
of 2 layers. The periosteal layer is the outermost layer that lines the inner
dome of the cranium and the Meningeal layer is below that. The space
 between the 2 layers allows space for veins and arteries that supply blood to
the brain.
● Arachnoid Mater: A thin weblike layer of connective tissue that does not
contain blood vessels or nerves. Below the arachnoid mater is
● cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): This fluid cushions the entire CNS (brain and
spinal cord) and continually circulates around these structures to remove
impurities.
● Pia Mater: A thin membrane that hugs the surface of the highly contoured
brain. This membrane is rich with veins and arteries

Deeper structures within the Brain

● Pituitary Gland: A pea-sized gland that governs the function of other glands
in the body, regulating the flow of hormones from the thyroid, adrenals,
ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical signals from the hypothalamus
through its stalk and blood supply
● Hypothalamus: Located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical
messages that control its function. It regulates body temp, synchronizes
sleep pattern, controls hunger & thirst, and also plays a role in some aspects
of memory and emotion.
● Hippocampus: Curved shaped structure in the temporal lobe, associated
with memory
● Amygdala: Small almond-shaped structures located under each half
(hemisphere) of the brain. Included in the limbic system-
Limbic System: collection of structures involved processing emotion and memory.
These structures include the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus. The
limbic system is located within the cerebrum, below the temporal lobes and buried
under the cerebral cortex.
Identification of simple encephalographic waveforms and why
they occur

The brain uses electrical signals to communicate and organize and process
information. Every time your brain completes a task or has an activity it generates
brain waves. These waves or traces of electrical activity can be seen via the brain
scan process.
● Electroencephalogram (EEG) equipment can map the activity in the brain
and provide a clear picture of the brainwaves a person is experiencing.
● Brainwave Types
○ Delta: low frequency brainwave and most often occurs while sleeping,
relaxing, or deeply meditating.
○ Theta: Occur when a person is relaxing or sleeping and indicate
dreaming and focus. As a person's dreams become more focused or
energetic, waves change from the resting Delta to the more active
Theta.
○ Alpha: an awake state brainwave, but correlates with restful activity
(reading, journaling, praying, meditating etc)
○ Beta: brainwave experienced during waking hours, a person’s normal
waking state of consciousness when attention is directed at cognitive
tasks and the outside world.
 ○ Gamma: highest frequency brainwaves, associated with peak level of
concentration, and high levels of cognitive functioning. Low levels of
gamma activity are linked to learning difficulties and imparied mental
processing, while high gamma activity is correlated with high IQ.

Neural Impulses- cellular anatomy and physiology of neurons

and supporting cells, synapses and neurotransmitters, action
potential generation and propagation, ionic basis of the
cellular membrane potential, types of neural synapses

Neurons: Neurons are electrically excitable cells that are the structural unit of the
nervous system. Typical neuron consists of a cell body called a soma and
extensions such as dendrites and axons.
 ● Cell Body (soma) is the control
center of the cell. It contains the cell
organelles and neurotransmitters
● Dendrites are short tapered
appendages, often covered with little
bumps called spines that extend from the
cell body. Dendrites are the receptive
region of the cell, they convey/receive
incoming messages.
● Axons are long extensions also, but unlike dendrites, they are not tapered
and are smooth. The axons are typically longer than the dendrites. Axons
arise from the cell body at a specialized area on the neuron called the axon
hillock. Many axons are covered with a special insulating substance called
myelin which helps them quickly convey nerve impulses. Nerve impulses are
generated in the axon and transmitted away from the cell body towards the
synapse. Towards the end of the axon, it splits up into many separate
branches and develops bulbous swellings known as axon terminals (or nerve
terminals)
Supporting Cells/Glial Cells: Glial cells are the supporting cells of the CNS. There
are more glial cells in the brain than there are neurons. Glial cells are essential to
the function of the nervous system. There are four main types of glial cells.
● Astrocytes are the most numerous type of glial cell and most numerous cell
in the brain. Astrocytes help regulate blood flow in the brain, maintain the
composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons and regulate
communication between neurons at the synapse. During development,
astrocytes help neurons find their way to their destinations and contribute
to the formation of the blood brain barrier, which helps isolate the brain from
potentially toxic substances in the blood.
● Microglia are related to the macrophages of the immune system, they act as
scavengers to remove dead cells and other debris.
 ● Oligodendrocytes produce myelin-the insulating substance that forms a
sheath around the axons of many neurons which dramatically increases the
speed an action potential travels down an axon and plays a crucial role in
nervous system function,
Synapses: Neuron to neuron connections, sites at which information is carried
from the first neuron, the presynaptic neuron, to the target neuron (postsynaptic
neuron). The connections between neurons and skeletal muscle cells are called
neuromuscular junctions, and the connections between neurons and smooth
muscle cells or glands are called neuroeffector junctions.
Neurotransmitters: information is transmitted in the form of chemical messengers
called neurotransmitters. When an action potential travels down an axon and
reaches the axon terminal. It triggers the release of neurotransmitters from the
presynaptic cell. Neurotransmitter molecules cross the synapse and bind to
membrane receptors on the postsynaptic cell, conveying an excitatory or inhibitory
signal.
Action potential and Propagation:
Role of ions: Neurons use ions (charged particles) to create an electrochemical
charge across its membrane (as do all cells in the body). The cell membrane
regulates what substances can enter or exit the cell. The cell membrane is
lipophilic in nature. Therefore, hydrophilic substances like charged ions can not
cross a cell membrane without help. Special transmembrane proteins are
necessary to allow ion movement-->thus able to generate an action potential
across the membrane.
Ion Channels: Pores that allow specific charged particles to cross the membrane.
These proteins are able to span the entire length of the membrane and can interact
with ions because of the variation of amino acids the protein is composed of.
Hydrophobic amino acids will be positioned along the lipophilic cell membrane and
hydrophilic amino acids will be in contact with the cellular fluid through which the
ions travel. The channels that attract cations will have negatively charged side
chains in the pore and channels that attract anions will contain positively charged
side chains along the channel surface. These ion channels, also called “leak
channels” allow a small amount of ions to move in and out of the cell, even at
resting state.
Gated Channels: Some channels do not allow ions to freely flow through and
across the membrane. These are called gated channels. A Ligand-gated channel is
a channel that will only open when a ligand (neurotransmitter) binds to the region
of the channel.

Voltage-gated channel is a channel that responds to change in the electrical

properties of the membrane it is embedded in. Normally the inner portion of the
membrane is a negative voltage. When the voltage becomes less negative, it opens
and allows ions to cross the membrane.
Membrane Potential: The membrane potential is a distribution of charge across the
cell membrane, measured in millivolts (mV). Compare the inside of the cell to the
outside. When the cell is at rest, ions are distributed across the membrane in a
predictable way. The Na+ concentration outside the cell is 10 times greater than
the inside concentration. Also, the K+ concentration inside the cell is greater than
outside the cell. The cytosol (fluid inside the cell) contains a high concentration of
anions (phosphate ions and negatively charged proteins). This difference in charge
is called the resting membrane potential. The exact value varies from cell to cell,
but -70mV is considered the average resting membrane potential.

Action Potential: Without any outside influence, the resting membrane potential
will be maintained. To get an electrical signal started, the membrane potential has
to become more positive.
● Step 1: Neurotransmitter crosses the synapse and binds to the cell membrane
which triggers the opening of a ligand gated Na+ channel. Na+ from outside
the cell rush into the neuron through the newly opened gate.
● Step 2: The influx of Na+ inside the neuron causes the charge to become
more positive (less negative). The membrane potential increases from
-70mVto -55mV.
● Step 3: Once the membrane potential reaches -55mV, voltage gated Na+
channels open in the neuron cell membrane. Because the concentration of
Na+ is still way higher outside the cell, Na+ ions will rush into the cell
through the voltage gated Na channel.
● Step 4: Additional positively charged Na+ ions increase the relative voltage
inside the cell and the membrane potential becomes even less negative. This
is known as depolarization, meaning the membrane potential moves toward
0 (becomes less polarized)
● Step 5: The concentration gradient of Na+ is strong and will continue to
enter the cell even after the membrane potential has become 0, so that the
potential around the channel begins to become positive.
● Step 6: As the membrane potential reaches +30mV, voltage gated potassium
channels open. K+ will start to leave the cell (following concentration
gradient).
● Step 7: As K+ leaves the cell along with its positive charge, the membrane
potential begins to move back towards its resting voltage-->repolarization
 (meaning the membrane voltage moves back toward the -70mV value of
resting potential).
● Step 6: The K+ ion equilibrium isn’t reached until the membrane voltage is
past the -70mV resting potential, so a period of Hyperpolarization occurs
while the K+ channels are open. The K+ channels are also slow to close
which also contributes to the overshoot.

The change in the membrane potential from -70mV at rest to +30mV at the end of
depolarization is a 100mV change.

The membrane potential will stay at rest until the threshold voltage of -55mV is
reached (step 2) The threshold voltage is required in order to open the voltage
gated sodium channels. This is an “all or none” action potential. Either the cell
does not reach the -55mV resulting in no action potential generated or it does
reach the threshold voltage of -55mV and the action potential is generated. A
stronger stimulus that might depolarize the cell beyond the threshold -55mV does
not generate a “bigger” action potential. There are just 2 outcomes, either an action
potential is generated, or it is not generated.
The entire process of action potential generations occurs over approximately 2
milliseconds. While an action potential is in progress, another one can not be
initiated. This is called a refractory period.

Action potential is a brief reversal of membrane potential where the membrane

potential changes from 70mV to +30mV. This occurs in 3 phases (depolarization,
repolarization, hyperpolarization). These 3 phases happen over the course of just a
few milliseconds.
● Depolarization: Also called the rising phase. It is caused when
positively charged sodium ions (Na+) suddenly rush through open
voltage gated sodium channels into the neuron. As additional Na+
rushes in, the membrane potential reverses it’s polarity (membrane
develops a POSITIVE value ) for a moment (+40mV)
● Repolarization: Also called the falling phase is caused by the slow
closing of the Na+ channels and the opening of voltage gated
potassium channels. As a result, the membrane permeability to sodium
declines to resting levels. As the Na+ entry declines, the slow
potassium channels open, potassium channels rush out of the cell.
This expulsion acts to restore the negative membrane potential of the
neuron cell.
● Hyperpolarization: Phase where some potassium channels remain
open and sodium channels reset. A period of increased potassium
permeability results in excessive potassium efflux before potassium
channels close. This results in hyperpolarization.
Central Nervous System- organization of the spinal cord, brainstem and cranial
nerves, purpose/function of sleep

Peripheral Nervous System- neural ganglia, action and physiology of sensory and
motor neurons, action and physiology of sympathetic and parasympathetic
neurons, understand differences in and purposes of parasympathetic, sympathetic,
somatic, and sensory systems, reflex arcs and proprioception, nerve structure

Disorders: Epilepsy, Alzheimer’s Disease, Multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson’s Disease,

Cerebral Palsy, Shingles (herpes zoster), Stroke, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Effects of the drugs: alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, and marijuana on the nervous
system

1. Sense Organs:
2. Endocrine System:
3.