NEUROANATOMY

Course Outline

• Introduction: Cells of Nervous System (Neuron),Accessory cells of

N.S. and Organization of N.S.
• a.Brain: Meninges (Cerebrum:cerebral Lobes. Ventricals,
Cerebellum—Anatomy of Cerebellum, Brain Stem:MidBrain. Pons.
MEdulla Oblongata, Diencephalon. Thalamus Hypothalamus and
Cranial Nerves).
• b.Spinal Cord:Meninges (C.S.F. Internal Structure, Sensory and Motor
Pathway, Spinal Reflexes, Peripheral spinal Nerves, Autonomic
Nervous System includes Sympathetic N.S. and Parasympathetic
Nervous System)
 NEUROANATOMY
• Neuroanatomy is the study of anatomy of the nervous
system
• Neuroanatomy is the study of the structure and
organization of the nervous system
THE CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Tissues of the PNS and CNS are formed of cells called glial cells

(neuroglial cells) and neurons (nerve cells)

• Glial cells assist in the organization of neurons, provide a scaffold

for some aspects of neuronal function, and aid in recovery from

neural injury

• Neurons are specialized cells found throughout the nervous system

that transmit signals through the nervous system using

electrochemical processes
• The soma is the body of the neuron. As it contains the nucleus,
most protein synthesis occurs here. The nucleus can range from
3 to 18 micrometers in diameter
• The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with many
branches. This overall shape and structure is referred to
metaphorically as a dendritic tree. This is where the majority of
input to the neuron occurs via the dendritic spine
• Dendrites also called afferent processes carry impulses
towards the cell body
• The axon is a finer, cable-like projection that can extend tens,
hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter
• Axon also called efferent processes carry impulses away from
the cell body
• The axon terminal is found at the end of the axon farthest from
the soma and contains synapses. Synaptic boutons are
specialized structures where neurotransmitter chemicals are
released to communicate with target neurons.
• To facilitate electrochemical signal transmission, some neurons have
a myelin sheath surrounding the axon
• Myelin, formed from the cell membranes of glial cells like the
Schwann cells in the PNS and oligodendrocytes in the CNS,
surrounds and insulates the axon, significantly increasing the speed
of electrochemical signal transmission along the axon
• The end of an axon forms numerous branches that end in bulbs
called synaptic terminals
• Neurons form junctions with other cells, such as another neuron,
with which they exchange signals
• The junctions, which are actually gaps between neurons, are referred
to as synapses
Functional Classification
 ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Adult human brain contains 95% of all neural tissue

• weighs about 1.4kg (3lb)

• considerable individual variation exist

• brains of males are on average 10% larger

• The brain is organized into groupings of cell bodies (the gray matter) and
fibers (the white matter).

• The cerebrum & the cerebellum contain gray matter on the outer edges
w/white matter below this surface. While the diencephalon & brain stem
have the white matter superficially surrounding internal pockets of gray
matter
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
• In between the skull and brain are three layers of tissue, called
meninges
• They protect the brain. Outer tough fibrous membrane of meninges
dura mater
• The middle layer, the arachnoid mater, is a thin membrane made of
blood vessels and elastic tissue. It covers the entire brain
• The pia mater is the innermost layer, with blood vessels that run
deep into the brain
• Those five vesicles can be aligned with the four major regions of the adult
brain.
• The cerebrum is formed directly from the telencephalon.
• The diencephalon is the only region that keeps its embryonic name.
• The mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon become the brain
stem.
 Cerebrum
• Largest portion of brain (>=80% mass).
• The cerebrum is a large part of the brain containing the
cerebral cortex (of the two cerebral hemispheres), as well as
several subcortical structures, including the hippocampus,
basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb
• In the human brain, the cerebrum is the uppermost region of
the central nervous system.
• The prosencephalon is the embryonic structure from which
the cerebrum develops prenatally
• In mammals, the dorsal telencephalon, or pallium, develops
into the cerebral cortex, and the ventral telencephalon, or
subpallium, becomes the basal ganglia
• Responsible for higher mental functions
• The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres by
the longitudinal fissure.
• The cell bodies in the outer cortex require more surface area
than the underlying white matter which results in much
folding.
• The upfoldings are called gyri (gyrus, singular).
• The infoldings are called sulci (sulcus, singular).
Corpus callosum
• Major tract of axons that functionally interconnects right and
left cerebral hemispheres.
• The cerebrum is also divided into approximately symmetric
left and right cerebral hemisphere
• With the assistance of the cerebellum, the cerebrum controls
all voluntary actions in the body
• The part of the brain that connects the two hemispheres of the
brain is called the corpus callosum
• Cerebrum is formed by two C-Shaped cerebral
hemispheres that are separated by a groove
• Each cerebral hemisphere has an outer layer of cerebral
cortex which is of grey matter and in the interior of the
cerebral hemispheres is an inner layer or core of white
matter known as the centrum semiovale
• The interior portion of the hemispheres of the cerebrum
includes the lateral ventricles, the basal nuclei, and the white
matter
• There are three poles of the cerebrum, the occipital pole the
frontal pole and the temporal pole
• The outer layer of the cerebrum (the cerebral cortex ),
composed of folded grey matter and playing an important
role in consciousness
• also known as the cerebral mantle
• The cerebral cortex is a layer of grey matter up to about 1/2
cm thick
• The frontal lobe is the largest part of the brain, located in the
front of the head. It helps to form reasoning, emotions, and
movement.
• The parietal lobe is the middle part of the brain. It helps us to
understand our place in relation to other people and things. It
also helps us to interpret touch and pain
• The occipital lobe is the back of the brain and helps us
process visual information.
• The temporal lobes are located on each side of the brain.
They help with memory, language, and our sense of smell
• They also help us to recognize faces and objects and interpret
the reactions of other people.
• The BASAL GANGLIA (or basal nuclei) are a group of
subcortical nuclei, of varied origin, in the brains of vertebrates,
including humans, which are situated at the base of the
forebrain and top of the midbrain
• Basal ganglia are strongly interconnected with the cerebral
cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, as well as several other brain
areas
• The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions,
including control of voluntary motor movements ,procedural
learning ,habit learning , eye movements, cognition and
emotion
• The olfactory bulb is a neural structure of the vertebrate
forebrain involved in olfaction, the sense of smell
• It sends olfactory information to be further processed in the
amygdala, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and the
hippocampus where it plays a role in emotion, memory and
learning.
• The thalamus is a large mass of gray matter in the dorsal
part of the diencephalon of the brain with several functions
such as relaying of sensory signals, including motor signals
to the cerebral cortex, and the regulation of consciousness,
sleep, and alertness
• The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a
number of small nuclei with a variety of functions
• One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus
is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via
the pituitary gland
• It regulates Autonomic nervous system
• The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is
part of the limbic system
• The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger,
important aspects of parenting and attachment behaviours,
thirst, fatigue, sleep cycle
Connects Forebrain and hind
brain
 Midbrain
• Connects the pons a
The vasomotor center (VMC) is a portion of the medulla oblongata that, together with the
cardiovascular center and respiratory center, regulates blood pressure and other
homeostatic processes.
consisting of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain
 Cranial nerves
• Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain
(including the brainstem), in contrast to spinal nerves(which emerge
from segments of the spinal cord)
• Ten of the cranial nerves originate in the brainstem
• Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the
body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck
• Each of the cranial nerve is paired on the left and right in humans
• There are twelve pairs which are assigned roman numerals I to XII
• An additional pair of cranial nerves termed cranial nerve zero
(CNO)
• The cranial nerves 0, I and I and II emerge from cerebrum, the
remaining ten pairs emerge from the brain stem
• The ten cranial nerves and their functions are as follows
 chewing

Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting
individual, to impact the behavior of the receiving individuals.
 SPINAL CORD
• The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous
tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem
to the lumbar region of the vertebral column
• It encloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which contains
cerebrospinal fluid
• The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous
system (CNS)
• It is around 45 cm (18 in) in men and around 43 cm (17 in) long in
women, ovoid-shaped, and is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar
regions
 CSF
• The ventricular system is a set of four interconnected
cavities (ventricles) in the brain, where the cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) is produced. Within each ventricle is a region of
choroid plexus, a network of ependymal cells involved in the
production of CSF
• The choroid plexus is a plexus of cells that produces the
cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain
• The ependyma is made up of ependymal cells called
ependymocytes, a type of glial cell
• These cells line the CSF-filled ventricles in the brain and the
central canal of the spinal cord. These are nervous tissue cells
with a ciliated simple columnar shape
 ventricles
• The four cavities of the human brain are called ventricles
• The two largest are the lateral ventricles in the cerebrum,
the third ventricle is in the diencephalon of the forebrain
between the right and left thalamus, and the fourth
ventricle is located at the back of the pons and upper half
of the medulla oblongata of the hindbrain
• The ventricles are concerned with the production and
circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless body
fluid found in the brain and spinal cord
• It is produced by the specialized ependymal cells in the
choroid plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and
absorbed in the arachnoid granulations
• There is about 125mL of CSF at any one time, and about
500 mL is generated every day
• CSF acts as a cushion or buffer for the brain, providing
basic mechanical and immunological protection to the
brain inside the skull
• CSF also serves a vital function in cerebral auto
regulation of cerebral blood flow
• CSF occupies the subarachnoid space (between the
arachnoid mater and the pia mater) and the ventricular
system around and inside the brain and spinal cord
 Sensory pathways
• are sensation or impulses conducting routes between
sense organs or receptors to the reflex centres of one of
the two destinations of brain, cerebral cortex and
cerebellum
• In case of cerebral cortex impulses enter via thalamus
and reaches to the conscious part of brain, while in case
of cerebellum impulses involved in co-ordination
activities.
• Sensory Pathways consists of tracts, broadly divided into
Ascending tract and Descending tract.
 Ascending tract
It is sensory tract delivers impulses from body or spinal cord to
cerebellum. On the basis of functionalities it is divided into three
types:

1. Posterior column tract - transmits touch, pressure and

vibrations related sensations to the cerebral cortex of the brain.

2. Spinothalamic tract - transmits pain & temperature related

sensations to cerebrum via thalamus.

3. Spinocerebellar tract - delivers kinaesthia(awarness

regarding movement and position) related impulses to
cerebellum.
 Descending Tracts
It is motor tract which delivers motor commands in response to
the sensations. These motor impulses are carried out by
Somatic Nervous System (to skeletal muscles) and Autonomic
Nervous System (to Smooth, muscle and cardiac muscle).
There are two types of motor tracts:
1. Corticospinal tract- Conducts motor impulses to skeletal
muscles. It is divided into
• Corticobular tracts - controls eye, Jaw and face muscle
• Lateral corticospinal tract- controls skeletal muscles
• Anterior corticospinal tracts which controls skeletal muscles.
2. Subconscious tract -It controls balance, muscle tone and

reflexes of upper limb. It is further divided into following types:

• Vestibulospinal tract - controls positioning of Head.

• Tectospinal tract -Controls the head and neck muscles

• Reticulospinal tract- controls eye and respiratory muscles

movements

• Rubrospinal tract - controls flexor(bend a joint) and

extensor(straight a joint) muscles.

Rami=Branch
Rami=Branch
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the

peripheral nervous system that supplies smooth muscle and

glands, and thus influences the function of internal organs

• The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts

largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as

the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response,

urination and sexual arousal

• Within the brain, the autonomic nervous system is regulated
by the hypothalamus

• Autonomic functions include control of respiration, cardiac

regulation (the cardiac control center), vasomotor activity (the
vasomotor center), and certain reflex actions such as
coughing, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting

• The autonomic nervous system has three branches

• the sympathetic nervous system

• the parasympathetic nervous system

• the enteric nervous system

• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a system of
motor neurons that innervate smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle and glands.
• The autonomic nervous system has two main
divisions: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
• They mostly innervate the same structures but cause
opposite effects
• The sympathetic division mobilizes the body during
extreme situations such as exercise, excitement and
emergencies. Colloquially known as “fight or flight
• The parasympathetic division controls routine
maintenance functions such as to conserve body
energy and is colloquially called as “rest and digest.”
 Enteric Nervous System
• The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of
the main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and consists of a
mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal
tract

• It is capable of acting independently of the sympathetic and

parasympathetic nervous systems, although it may be influenced by them

• The ENS is also called the second brain

• The ENS is capable of autonomous functions like the coordination of

reflexes although it receives considerable innervation from the autonomic
nervous system, it can and does operate independently of the brain and the
spinal cord
• The enteric nervous system is embedded in the lining of the
gastrointestinal system, beginning in the esophagus and extending
down to the anus
• The neurons of the ENS are collected into two types of ganglia
myenteric and submucosal plexuses
THANKS