Jane Smith

LSA1
DELTA, Mexico City, March 2012

Helping students at lower levels with negation using the auxiliaries do, be and have.

Jane Smith
LSA1
Mexico City, 2012

Contents

1. Introduction
2. Analysis
-Meaning
-Form
-Phonology
3. Issues for Learners
-Meaning
*Lack of translatability
*Confusion between auxiliary have and full verb have
-Form
*Misuse of auxiliaries
-L1 Interference
*Non-use of auxiliaries
-Teaching Methodology
*Treating negative do as an exception
4. Teaching Solutions
-A lexical approach
-Examining teaching methodology
-Building receptive skills
5. Conclusion
 Jane Smith
LSA1
DELTA, Mexico City, March 2012

Helping students at lower levels with negation using the auxiliaries do, be and have.

Introduction:

Auxiliary verbs are a distinguishing feature of English, used for fundamental purposes such as
negation, question formation, and the formation of tenses. For this reason, the correct use of
auxiliaries is a requirement for the accurate production of English. I have chosen to focus this
assignment on the simple negative forms of do, be and have, and on the problems typically
experienced in the learning and use of these forms by learners at lower levels. In my previous
teaching context in the US, I became aware that many learners of English live in marginalised
communities and experience discrimination based on their background and language. Many
perceive good English to be the best way to counter this discrimination, especially considering
certain common errors which are special targets of stigmatisation, and many of these errors arose
from problems with negation. One such stigmatised error is that of the formation of a negative
without an auxiliary (eg. “I no have money”), and my observation has been that many students
consider the elimination of such errors to imply social as well as economic benefits. The existence
of stigmatised errors is also explored in Chapter 11 of Rosina Lippi-Green's English with an Accent:
Language, Ideology and Discrimination in the United States.

Analysis:

Meaning: Among the many functions of the auxiliaries do, be and have is that of negation in
simple, continuous and perfect tenses (Swan, 2005: 367). Do in particular has a special function in
negation, because it is no longer common in English to negate full verbs by simply following them
with “not” (“I don't go to the park on Sundays”, NOT “I go not to the park on Sundays.”)(160).

Manipulation of the auxiliary verb changes the meaning of the sentence. For example, “We don’t go
there very often” can be contrasted to “We didn’t go there very often.” The auxiliary in both cases is
the verb do, but substituting the present form – which shows that “we” currently are not in the habit
of going there – for the past form implies that “we” were previously not in the habit, but that this
situation has somehow changed (whether because now we do go there, or because the period of
time when it might have been possible is over).

Many students’ first encounter with the auxiliary have is when they learn the fixed phrase
have/haven’t/hasn’t got to express possession. This can be confusing, because have in its full form
also implies possession, therefore it is possible to say that He has got some money is synonymous
with He has some money. It is also possible to use have got to in the same way as have to, meaning
that some action is necessary or an obligation: eg. I’ve got to pick up this mess/I have to pick up this
mess. Therefore, it is possible to generalise that have got generally means the same as the full verb
have, which can be a source of both comfort and confusion, especially in negative forms (see
Learner Issues).

Form: As Lewis points out in The English Verb (55), the negation of auxiliaries is remarkably
uniform and free of exceptions when compared to a) the majority of grammar in general and b) the
approach taken by many course books which often presents them, especially do, as being somehow
exceptional to the rule.

Simple negative phrases in English are formed by inserting the word not after an auxiliary (Swan,
 Jane Smith
LSA1
DELTA, Mexico City, March 2012

2005: 367):

I am not very tall.

He does not [doesn't] eat meat.
We have not [haven't] visited the Cathedral yet.

Lewis also makes the observation that many course books, especially those aimed at pre-
intermediate levels, treat the do negative in the present simple as being somehow exceptional,
whereas in fact it actually follows the same rule of auxiliary + not (56). Nonetheless, do serves the
unique function of allowing the formation of a negative where no other auxiliary is present, in the
case of full verbs in the present tense:

He goes to the cinema every Friday, but he doesn't go to the pub.

Many grammar references use the term “dummy” auxiliary to describe do, meaning that it's purpose
is to provide a kind of “hook” for the word not.

When the negative is formed with do, the full verb being negated is left in its base form:

He doesn't eat meat. (As opposed to: He doesn't eats meat.)

When have is a negative auxiliary, the verb that follows will typically be in past participle form:

It hasn't stopped raining yet.

Be, whether used as an auxiliary or not, follows the auxiliary+not pattern:

We are not amused.

Where be is used as an auxiliary, the verb that follows (in the forms usually taught to pre-
intermediate students) is usually in gerund form:

They aren't living together at the moment.

Phonology: In contrast to positive auxiliary forms, which are typically weak forms and/or
contracted (ref - ), negative auxiliaries, as fundamental to the meaning of a phrase, are stressed, as
in the following phrase:
o o o
I haven't visited the Cathedral yet.

In spoken English, the not after the auxiliary tends to be contracted (Leech et. al.: 319)

We don't go there very often.

He isn't an expert.

One notable exception is where I is the subject, especially with the auxiliary be:

I'm not hungry. (ref - )

 Jane Smith
LSA1
DELTA, Mexico City, March 2012

In this case, stress can be placed on not for extra emphasis, but in neutral speech carries less of a
stress than contracted negative auxiliaries (ref - ).

Issues for Learners:

Meaning:
Lack of translatability: Discomfort with auxiliaries in general is common across learners from a
variety of linguistic backgrounds, of course, and as a feature of English I have often observed that
do in particular invites a frustrated “But what does it mean?” from students struggling with
questions and negative phrases. The auxiliary do's intrinsic lack of meaning in the sense that
students want, a translatable definition, is a problem for students of many backgrounds, especially
those with more systematic learning styles.

Confusion between auxiliary have and full verb have: Have represents a particular problem due to
the fact that it is also a full verb. Many of my own students had heard the word “haven't” and
automatically assumed that it could be used in the simple present in phrases such as the following:

We haven't children.

If anything, the fact that students generally know it through experience with the context of
have=possess, means that they are thrown off by its use as an auxiliary.

Form:
Misuse of auxiliaries: Once students have accepted the fact that it is necessary to use an auxiliary to
form a negative, they are then faced with the demand not only to use it, but also to manipulate it in
accordance with the appropriate tense, person or form, leading to the following kinds of errors of
over-generalisation:

She don't want to talk to you (The auxiliary is used but is not in third person form. This error is also
highly stigmatised, also among speakers of non-standard English dialects).
The car don't worked yesterday (The auxiliary is used but is not in the correct tense, and the verb
following is not in its base form).
I don't can come to the party. (An auxiliary is used with another auxiliary).
I am not eat meat (An auxiliary is used, but it is the wrong one).
We didn't saw the movie yesterday. (The correct auxiliary is used, but the verb that follows is not in
the correct form).

L1 Interference
Non-use of auxiliaries: L1 interference is a major source of error for speakers of languages which
do not use auxiliaries, such as Spanish, Italian and Catalan (Swan and Smith, 94) in the production
of negative phrases, because Spanish makes scarce use of auxiliaries in general, and not at all for
negative phrases, which are typically formed by the insertion of no before a verb – a habit which
easily contributes to the following, much stigmatised error:

He no like this movie.

 Jane Smith
LSA1
DELTA, Mexico City, March 2012

Teaching Methodology
Treating negative do as an exception: Lewis (p.56) suggests that one of the sources of learners'
problems with do is the fact that teachers and course books present it as a kind of exception to the
rules of simple present. When compared to the formation of positive sentences in the present
simple, which is a simple matter of organising subjects, verbs, and the occasional conjugation of the
third person -

My sister sleeps in the living room. She doesn't have her own room.

- the negative simple present does look daunting, with the appearance of the phantom verb do,
which not only has to be included but also manipulated depending on the person, and in addition
contradicts what students have just learned about using the s by being followed by a verb in base
form.

Teaching Solutions
A lexical approach
Several common phrases often taught to beginning students, well before auxiliaries are addressed in
by course books as a grammatical topic, include negative auxiliaries such as don't/doesn't know and
haven't/hasn't got. Students tend to pick up “I don’t know” very quickly as a set phrase, as it can
sometimes provide them an escape route from a stressful situation in a class! This suggests that a
lexical approach to the negative present simple and present perfect tenses could help students learn
to correctly use phrases which include auxiliaries before or aside from their treatment as a
grammatical item, and thereby, as one colleague said, “help them to internalise the structure more
easily.” One advantage to treating negative phrases lexically is that there are simple strategies to
ensure that students are in contact with them frequently: common negative phrases (I don't know,
She doesn't live in Mexico, He hasn't got a pen, We aren't home right now) can be posted in visible
places around the classroom and form part of the classroom setup, together with visuals such as
pictures showing the meaning, or opposite phrases. This strategy can address both issues of
meaning, by giving students visual reinforcement, and also form, by giving students regular
receptive contact with the sentence structure, especially if one of the visuals is a grammatical
formula such as the ones below:

I + don't + V + C
He + doesn't + V + C
You + haven't got + N + C
She + hasn't got + N + C
S + be + not + C

Examining teaching methodology

In The English Verb, Lewis (59) suggests that learners should be introduced to other auxiliaries
before they are taught to use the dummy forms don't and doesn't, as a means to counter the
perception in most course books that the negative simple present is exceptional and difficult. Many
students are exposed to positive and negative phrases with be early on (I am a student, He isn't tall),
and this concept could possibly be extended to the inclusion of simple modal phrases (I can't cook)
(Some course books already attempt to do this by introducing the structure have got early on).Once
students are familiar with auxiliaries in general, the presentation of do is less affronting for them,
especially where practice of do is integrated with practice of other auxiliaries “to draw the students'
attention to the one single underlying pattern, and to develop fluency in using the forms (as opposed
 Jane Smith
LSA1
DELTA, Mexico City, March 2012

to understanding their use).” (59)

Building receptive skills

The lack of translatability of do, have and be in certain contexts (especially in simple tenses) speaks
to the need for learners to accept that functioning in English as new learners means letting go of the
need to define every word in a text. Teachers can provide learner training exercises which help
learners develop gist-reading and gist-listening skills. One example of such an exercise would be a
reading text which includes several negative sentences, and concept-check questions on selected
phrases from the text:

Selected phrase: He didn't see the car coming.

Questions: Was there a car? (Yes) Did he know there was a car? (No)

Once students have begun to develop the ability to accept the non-directness of understanding texts
via gist-listening and gist-reading exercises, the use of auxiliaries with no direct translation into
their own language will become more palatable.

Conclusion

While not typically addressed as a specific area of focus by course books, the negative forms of the
auxiliaries do, be and have represent a real challenge for students because of their tendency to
complicate what should be the relatively simple issue of negation. The fact that many students of
English come from linguistic backgrounds that do not expose them to frequent use of auxiliary
verbs complicates the problem, and the fact that the forms are treated by teachers and course books
as exceptional. To remedy these issues, a lexical approach is recommended for dealing with
problems with form and meaning. Also, the presentation of auxiliaries should be integrated and
reinforced throughout the course, rather than confined to the study of a certain tense, to ensure that
students come to see their structure and use as a normal part of communication in English. Finally,
learner training in gist-listening and gist-reading skills to help them learn to see meaning in phrases
structured differently from what they are used to seeing in their native language.

2,221 words
 Jane Smith
LSA1
DELTA, Mexico City, March 2012

Bibliography

Leech, Geoffrey, Susan Conrad and Roz Ivanič. An A-Z of English Grammar and Usage. Pearson,
2001. Harlow

Lewis, Michael. The English Verb: An Exploration of Structure and Meaning. Thomson Heinle,
2002. Boston, MA.

Lippi-Green, Rosina. English with an Accent: Language, Ideology and Discrimination in the United
States. Routledge, 1997. New York, NY.

Parrot, Martin. Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Cambridge.

Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. Oxford, 2005. Oxford.

Swan, Michael and Bernard Smith (Eds). Learner English. Cambridge, 2001. Cambridge.