WALL CONFINEMENT EFFECTS FOR CIRCULAR CYLINDERS

AT LOW REYNOLDS NUMBERS

by

RAAFAT TAWFIC MITRY

B.Eng.Sc. (Mechanical E n g i n e e r i n g ) , U n i v e r s i t y of A l e x a n d r i a , 1970

M.Eng.Sc. (Mechanical E n g i n e e r i n g ) , U n i v e r s i t y of A l e x a n d r i a , 1974

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF A P P L I E D SCIENCE

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

(Mechanical E n g i n e e r i n g Department)

We a c c e p t this thesis as c o n f o r m i n g to the

required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA

October, 1977

. Cc) Raafat T a w f i c M i t r y , 1977

In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s thesis in partial fulfillment of the

requirements f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

British Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t

freely available f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r agree

that permission f o r extensive copying of this thesis for

s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by t h e Head o f my

D e p a r t m e n t o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood that

publication, i n part or i n whole, or the copying of this

thesis for financial g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my

written permission.

RAAFAT TAWFIC MITRY

Department o f M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g
The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a
V a n c o u v e r , B.C.
Canada V6T 1W5
 ii

ABSTRACT

Formation, development and i n s t a b i l i t y of Foppl vortices

and a s s o c i a t e d surface pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n are investigated

experimentally f o r a f a m i l y o f two d i m e n s i o n a l circular

cylinders i n t h e R e y n o l d s number r a n g e of 5 - 20,000

and t h e b l o c k a g e ratio o f 2 - 50%. In t h e beginning,

design and c o n s t r u c t i o n a l details of a glycerol-water

solution tunnel used i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l programme is

briefly described followed by an e x p l a n a t i o n o f the models,

pressure measuring instrumentation, and t e s t procedures.

An a p p r o a c h t o t h e d a t a r e d u c t i o n , so c r i t i c a l a t low

Reynolds number, is discussed and a new d e f i n i t i o n of the

pressure coefficient, which promises t o be l e s s dependent

on t e s t facilities and p r e s s u r e gradients, is explained. ,

Finally, the t e s t data are analyzed as f u n c t i o n s of the

confinement condition and R e y n o l d s number.

The r e s u l t s suggest that influence of the Reynolds

number on t h e s u r f a c e pressure distribution is primarily

confined to the range R n < 1200. However, f o r t h e model

with the highest blockage ratio o f 50%, t h e pressure

continues t o show R e y n o l d s number dependency f o r R^

as h i g h as 3000. In g e n e r a l , effect of the Reynolds

number i s to increase the minimum as well as the wake

pressures. On t h e other hand, the effect of an increase

in the blockage ratio is just the opposite. The pressure

profiles become extremely sensitive to the wall confinement

at the lower end o f the Reynolds number r a n g e u n d e r study.

An e x t e n s i v e flow visualization study using dye

injection in conjunction with still and h i g h speed

photography complements the test program. Photographs

suggest that influence of the blockage is to retard, in

terms of the Reynolds number, evolution of the near-wake.

Location of the separating shear layers tends to move

upstream with an i n c r e a s e i n the Reynolds number, however,

the wall confinement promotes downstream shift in the

separation point, w h i c h c a n be as large as 25° for a

blockage ratio of 501.

The t h e s i s suggests for future investigation

several areas which are likely to be fruitful. In

particular, aspect ratio effects i n the presence of

blockage are likely to be significant and s h o u l d be

studied in depth.
 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 P r e l i m i n a r y Remarks 1

1.2 D r a g R e d u c t i o n Due t o L o n g - C h a i n
Polymers 2

1.3 Stationary Circular Cylinders:

P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n and Wake. . . 9

1.4 P u r p o s e and Scope o f t h e

Investigation 12

2. DESIGN AND CALIBRATION OF THE LIQUID

TUNNEL 15

2.1 Liquid Tunnel 15

2.2 D e s i g n o f Honeycomb f o r T u r b u l e n c e
Control 22

2.3 Calibration of the L i q u i d Tunnel 27

3. TEST PROCEDURES 38

3.1 Models • • • 39

3.2 P r e s s u r e Measurements 43

3.3 Flow V i s u a l i z a t i o n 54

3.4 Critical R e y n o l d s Number 60

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 61

4.1 Choice of Reference V e l o c i t y and

Pressure - . . 62
 V

Chapter Page

4.2 Effect of Reynolds Number . . . . . 69

4.3 Wall Confinement Effects 79

4.4 Drag C o e f f i c i e n t 89

4.5 S t r o u h a l Number . . . . . . . . . . 91

4.6 Flow V i s u a l i z a t i o n and Near-Wake

Analysis . . . 94

4.7 C l o s i n g Comments Ill

4.7.1 C o n c l u d i n g remarks . . . . . Ill

4.7.2 Recommendation for future

study 113

REFERENCES 117

APPENDIX I - CONVENTIONAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

C IN TERMS OF MEASURED
P
INFORMATION 126
 vi

L I S T OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1-1. A schematic diagram l i s t i n g hypotheses

a t t e m p t i n g to e x p l a i n d r a g r e d u c t i o n
due t o l o n g - c h a i n p o l y m e r s 4

1-2. A summary o f l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t i n g the

scope o f r e c e n t important c o n t r i b u t i o n s in
the f i e l d of flow p a s t a c i r c u l a r
cylinder 1

1- 3. A schematic d i a g r a m showing the plan of

study • 1 4

2- 1. A s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m showing the glycerol-

water s o l u t i o n tunnel

2-2. Calibration plot for the Venturi meter•••• 21

2-3. A p h o t o g r a p h showing d e t a i l s o f the power

unit: A , a u t o t r a n s f o r m e r ; D, d r i v e motor;
P , p ump 23

2-4. A p h o t o g r a p h o f the g l y c e r o l - w a t e r t u n n e l
c a p a b l e o f g e n e r a t i n g R e y n o l d s number i n
the range 1 - 1 8 , 0 0 0 : A, autotransformer;
D, d r i v e m o t o r ; E , h e a t e x c h a n g e r ; F , f l o w
d i s t r i b u t i n g vanes; H , p o r t h o l e s ; M, V e n t u r i
meter; P , pump; S, s c r e e n s and h o n e y -
comb; T , t e s t - s e c t i o n ; V , v e n t 24

2-5. A p h o t o g r a p h showing d e t a i l s o f the tunnel

inlet: F , flow d i s t r i b u t i o n vanes; S^,
coarse screen; S £ , fine screen; H ,
honeycomb 28

2-6. Arrangement f o r hot f i l m probe c a l i b r a t i o n :

F , f e e d worm; P , p r o b e ; S, f l u m e ; V , s p e e d
c o n t r o l gearbox 30

2-7. C a l i b r a t i o n data for the hot f i l m probe '

TSI 12 39W 31
 v i i

Figure Page

•2-8. T y p i c a l p l o t s showing the e f f e c t o f

s c r e e n s and honeycomb i n i m p r o v i n g
v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i n the t e s t - s e c t i o n 3 3

2-9. A comparison o f v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s at t h r e e
d i f f e r e n t s t a t i o n s i n t h e t e s t - s e c t i o n and
f o r two v a l u e s o f mean f l o w v e l o c i t y .
Note a l a r g e r e g i o n o f e s s e n t i a l l y u n i f o r m
flow which i s d e s i r a b l e f o r the p l a n n e d
t e s t programme . . 34

2- 10. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e p l o t s showing v a r i a t i o n o f
the t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y i n the t e s t -
section 36

3- 1. T y p i c a l models used i n the flow visualiza-

t i o n study 41

3-2. A p h o t o g r a p h showing t h e models used in

surface pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n 44

3-3. A d i a g r a m showing c o n s t r u c t i o n a l d e t a i l s
o f a t y p i c a l p r e s s u r e measurement model . . 45

3-4. A schematic diagram of the Barocel

pressure transducer 47

3-5. A p r o c e d u r e f o r compensation of the e l e c -

t r o n i c d r i f t o f the p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g
system 51

3-6. A l i n e drawing o f the i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s e t -

up u s e d d u r i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e measurements
on t h e s u r f a c e o f a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r . . . . 53

3-7. Measurement o f mean f l o w r a t e u s i n g v e n -

turimeter: B, Barocel pressure transducer;
D, d i g i t a l d . c . v o l t m e t e r ; E , h e a t
exchanger; F , f i l t e r ; H , h e a t - s i n k ;
P , power s u p p l y ; S, s i g n a l c o n d i t i o n e r ;
V , V e n t u r i meter 55

3-8. A p h o t o g r a p h showing the dye injection

probes ^7

3-9. A s k e t c h showing the equipment l a y o u t

d u r i n g the flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n . . . . . . . 58
 viii

Figure ' - ' . Page

4-1. An i l l u s t r a t i o n showing p o s s i b l e e r r o r s
i n t r o d u c e d by n o n - u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e
velocity profile 66

4-2. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e p r e s s u r e p l o t s comparing
p r e s e n t r e s u l t s w i t h t h o s e by Grove
et a l . 3 4
a low R e y n o l d s number o f 175.
t a

Note a r e l a t i v e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e p r o p o s e d
p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t to d i f f e r e n c e s i n
test conditions 70

4-3. A comparison of present r e s u l t s with those

by E l - S h e r b i n y a t a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h
R e y n o l d s number o f 15 x 1 0 3
71

4-4. S u r f a c e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f f e c t e d
by the R e y n o l d s number f o r a g i v e n b l o c k -
age r a t i o :
a) S / C = 2% ;
b) S / C = 3 . 3 % ;
c) S / C = 6.61 ;
d) S / C = 1 2 . 5 % ;
e) S / C = 25% ;
f) S / C = 501 . 73

4-5. P r e s s u r e p l o t s as a f f e c t e d by b l o c k a g e at
a g i v e n R e y n o l d s number:
a) R == 3000;
n
b) R == 1200;
n
c) R == 400;
• n
d) R == 200;
n
e) R == 30 ,
n

4-6. E f f e c t o f w a l l c o n f i n e m e n t on t h e minimum
and b a s e p r e s s u r e s , 10 < R < 1 8 , 0 0 0 : n

a) minimum p r e s s u r e ; 87
b) base p r e s s u r e ...... 88

4-7. V a r i a t i o n o f the p r e s s u r e drag c o e f f i c i e n t

w i t h R e y n o l d s number and b l o c k a g e 90
 ix

Figure . ' P a g e

4-8. V a r i a t i o n o f t h e S t r o u h a l number w i t h
b l o c k a g e a t the l o w e r end o f the R e y n o l d s
number r a n g e (R < 1000) 93

4-9. A comparison o f measured S t r o u h a l data

w i t h t h o s e by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s . . . . . . . . 95

4-10. Onset of v o r t e x shedding as affected by

the b l o c k a g e 96

4-11. A t y p i c a l p h o t o g r a p h showing f o r m a t i o n o f
Foppl v o r t i c e s behind a two-dimensional
c y l i n d e r ; R = 186, S / C = 50%
n
9 8

4-12. A f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n s t u d y showing
d e v e l o p m e n t and i n s t a b i l i t y o f v o r t e x ring
w i t h R e y n o l d s number ( S / C = 15%):
a) R = 4; b) R = 10; c) R = 17;
J
n ' J
n ' J
n '
d) R = 21; e) R = 31; f) R =42;
• n J
n J
n '
g) R = 56 ; h) R = 60 . 9 9

& J
n ' J
n
4-13. A p h o t o g r a p h o f the c l a s s i c a l Karman
v o r t e x s t r e e t ; R = 6 0 , S / C = 15%
n 103

4-14. P o s i t i o n o f s e p a r a t i o n as a f f e c t e d by the
R e y n o l d s number .and w a l l c o n f i n e m e n t :
a) f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n d a t a ; 104
b) b a s e d on s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e p l o t s
( F i g u r e 4-4) 105

4-15. E f f e c t o f b l o c k a g e on e v o l u t i o n o f the
wake a t a f i x e d R e y n o l d s number o f 100:
a) S / C = 25% ;
b) S / C = 50% 107

4-16. Photographs emphasizing influence of w a l l

confinement on e v o l u t i o n o f the F o p p l
vortices:
a) R = 85, n S / C = 25%;
b) R^ = 150, S / C = 50% 1 0 8

4-17. Dependence o f v o r t e x length on t h e Reynolds

number and b l o c k a g e 110
 X

L I S T OF TABLES

Table
Page

3-1 P r e s s u r e models used i n the t e s t 4 2

programme, c o r r e s p o n d i n g b l o c k a g e
and a s s o c i a t e d R e y n o l d s number r a n g e
a t t a i n e d t h r o u g h the v a r i a t i o n o f
mean f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y and
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the working f l u i d
 xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would l i k e to take this o p p o r t u n i t y to express

my gratitude and s i n c e r e thanks to P r o f e s s o r V . J . Modi

for the enthusiastic guidance given throughout the research

programme and h e l p f u l suggestions during the preparation of

the thesis. His help and encouragement have been

invaluable.

The cheerful assistance of the.technical staff is

gratefully acknowledged. Their skillful assistance

greatly accelerated the r e s e a r c h programme.

Finally, special appreciation is extended t o my

wife, Ragaa, f o r her patience and u n d e r s t a n d i n g during

difficult times and t o my m o t h e r , Mary, for her encouragement.

The investigation was s u p p o r t e d by t h e National

Research Council of Canada, Grant No. A-2181.

 L I S T OF SYMBOLS

overheat ratio

tunnel cross-sectional area

total drag coefficient

sectional pressure drag c o e f f i c i e n t , .

D /(l/2)pU D
p
2

skin friction coefficient

percentage concentration of glycerol-water

s o l u t i o n by w e i g h t

(P 0 - P )/(P
r 0 - P ) r

conventional pressure coefficient,

(P " PJ/(l/2)pU
e r o
2

(P e - P )/(l/2)pU
r
2

mean f l u c t u a t i n g p r e s s u r e coefficient

honeycomb c e l l - s i z e •

cylinder diameter

sectional pressure drag

eccentricity of elliptic cylinder

vortex shedding frequency

length parameter i n Roshko's d e f i n i t i o n of

' u n i v e r s a l ' S t r o u h a l number

honeycomb p r e s s u r e drop coefficient

 xiii

I length of honeycomb

L m a c r o - l a y e r thickness i n polymer induced

drag r e d u c t i o n h y p o t h e s i s .

L length scale of turbulence

base pressure

P m minimum p r e s s u r e

P Q stagnation pressure, pressure at 6 = 0

P r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e at r e f e r e n c e tap, in the
p r e s e a t c a s e r = 50

P Q s t a t i c p r e s s u r e on c y l i n d e r s u r f a c e at angle 9
from f r o n t s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t

P ro static pressure of u n d i s t u r b e d stream

R , c R Q c o l d and o p e r a t i n g r e s i s t a n c e of the probe,

respectively

R^ R e y n o l d s number b a s e d on honeycomb cell-size

R g R e y n o l d s number b a s e d on honeycomb cell-length

R n R e y n o l d s number, U D / v

R , c r i t i c a l R e y n o l d s number c o r r e s p o n d i n g to
onset of v o r t e x shedding

S diametral cross-sectional area

S R o s h k o ' s u n i v e r s a l S t r o u h a l number, fh/U

S n Strouhal number, f D / U

•T temperature of solution

u rms v a l u e of v e l o c i t y fluctuations i n downstream

direction
 xiv

average v e l o c i t y i n t e s t - s e c t i o n based on
f l o w r a t e as g i v e n by o r i f i c e m e t e r

characteristic velocity as p r o p o s e d by
Grove e t al.*^

separation velocity in.Roshko's universal

S t r o u h a l number

undisturbed free stream velocity

d.c. voltage output of constant temperature

anemometer

distance from end o f honeycomb i n downstream d i r e c t i o n

vertical co-ordinate, origin at bottom of test-section
angle of attack

angular l o c a t i o n of p r e s s u r e tap w i t h
r e f e r e n c e to f r o n t s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t

angular l o c a t i o n of s e p a r a t i n g shear l a y e r
w i t h r e s p e c t to r e a r s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t

thickness of laminar sublayer

differential pressure across Venturi meter

e r r o r i n pressure at 9=0 due t o n o n u n i f o r m i t y

of v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e

e r r o r i n p r e s s u r e at 8=6 due t o n o n u n i f o r m i t y
of v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e

e r r o r i n p r e s s u r e at 0 due t o n o n u n i f o r m i t y
of v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e

dynamic v i s c o s i t y of glycerol-water solution

kinematic v i s c o s i t y of glycerol-water solution,

y/p ,

kinematic v i s c o s i t y of water

density of glycerol-water solution

 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Preliminary Remarks

Although flow past a circular c y l i n d e r has been u n d e r

study for years resulting in a vast body o f literature,

there are several aspects associated with the problem which

remain v i r t u a l l y u n e x p l o r e d o r demand more a t t e n t i o n . One

of such a s p e c t s was brought to light through problems

associated with low R e y n o l d s number f l o w s as encountered in:

(i) the d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r a l members for off-shore

platforms;

(ii) the submarine d e t e c t i o n system u s i n g a c a b l e

s u p p o r t e d h y d r o p h o n e e x p o s e d to an o c e a n
current;
(iii) biological fluid mechanical systems.

Even i n the absence of any o t h e r complicating factors

as the free stream t u r b u l e n c e , blockage, pulsatile character of

the flow, presence of l o n g - c h a i n p o l y m e r s , e t c . , the problem

as it is has several facets which are challenging. For

example, pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e surface of a cylinder

as affected by t h e Reynolds number i n the range S - 40 and its

c o r r e l a t i o n with the f o r m a t i o n and i n s t a b i l i t y of the Foppl

vortices remains unrecorded, although it would be quite useful

in a study of the above mentioned problems.

 2

In t h e present case the investigation was motivated by

the interest i n the e f f e c t s of long c h a i n polymers on the

fluid mechanics of bluff bodies in general and, in p a r t i c u l a r ,

their influence on the generation and d i s s i p a t i o n of vorticity

at very low R e y n o l d s numbers. However, it was quickly realized

through a d e t a i l e d study of the literature that the corres-

ponding i n f o r m a t i o n even i n t h e absence of polymers is

unavailable. O b v i o u s l y , the first t a s k w o u l d be t o obtain

the fundamental i n f o r m a t i o n which then would s e r v e as a basis

for comparison in evaluating the e f f e c t s o f long-chain polymers.

In t h i s Chapter the phenomenon of drag r e d u c t i o n and the

available theories to explain it are b r i e f l y described. This

is followed by a s h o r t i n t r o d u c t i o n to the current literature

on f l o w past a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r at low R e y n o l d s ' n u m b e r s . This

vividly brings to attention the gaps i n o u r search- f o r

knowledge. Finally, i n the light of the available information,

a p l a n of study for the present thesis is formulated.

1.2 Drag R e d u c t i o n Due t o Long-Chain Polymers

Friction drag of a body submerged in a liquid can reduce

by as much as 70% i n the presence of certain additives!

Although there are numerous different solutes with the skin

friction drag r e d u c t i o n p r o p e r t y , they all have one thing in

common: they are a l l long c h a i n polymers.

 3

The phenomenon was first r e p o r t e d by T o m s 1

as early

as i n 1948 when he found the f r i c t i o n loss in pipes with

polymer solution t o be s u b s t a n t i a l l y less than that with the

solvent alone. Although this is r e f e r r e d to as 'Toms Phenomenon'

2

actually Mysels was the first to discover it w h i l e pumping

napalm d u r i n g the war years (1945) b u t was u n a b l e to publish

the results until much later.

The phenomenon has been actively researched in recent

years, the interest being l a r g e l y due t o the potential appli-

cation of the concept i n saving fluid pumping power and i m p r o v i n g

the marine p r o p u l s i v e e f f i c i e n c y . A l t h o u g h everyone agrees

that the drag is reduced, there is no g e n e r a l agreement as

to the mechanism o f the drag reduction. The c o n f u s i o n is

further accentuated by t h e fact that:

i) quantitative results by d i f f e r e n t investigators

widely d i f f e r ; 3

ii) even t h e same i n v e s t i g a t o r i s o f t e n u n a b l e t o

r e p r o d u c e h i s d a t a as p o l y m e r p r o p e r t i e s change
w i t h t i m e and s h e a r s t r e s s ^ ; 3 -

iii) c o n v e n t i o n a l f l u i d dynamic i n s t r u m e n t s l i k e p i t o t
t u b e , v e n t u r i m e t e r , hot f i l m p r o b e s , e t c . show
anomalous b e h a v i o u r ~ 7 . D

Most investigators e x p l a i n the phenomenon u s i n g one of

the two main h y p o t h e s e s ; each subclassified into two basic

concepts as indicated in Figure 1-1. Briefly they c a n be

described as follows:
 HYPOTHESES EXPLAINING DRAG REDUCTION

/
TURBULENCE WALL LAYER
.SUPPRESSION MODIFICATION
HYPOTH ESES HYPOTHESES

SOLUTION H A S MODIFICATION WALL ABSORPTION REDUCTION

VISCOELASTIC IN THE TURBULENCE OR IN THE WALL
PROPERTIES STRUCTURE MOBILE LAYER GENERATED
TURBULENCE
Figure 1-1 A schematic diagram l i s t i n g hypotheses
a t t e m p t i n g to e x p l a i n d r a g r e d u c t i o n due
to l o n g - c h a i n p o l y m e r s .
 5

(a) Turbulence Suppression Hypotheses

(a-^) S o l u t i o n has V i s c o e l a s t i c Properties: Polymer solu-

tions are v i s c o e l a s t i c and hence a b l e to store a part of the

kinetic energy, normally lost i n the flow as the potential

energy of elongation o r more g e n e r a l deformations.

(a.2) M o d i f i c a t i o n i n the Turbulence Structure: Polymer

molecules interact with the turbulent eddies and m o d i f y the

turbulence characteristics. Obviously for this to be effective,

dimensions of the molecules s h o u l d be c o m p a r a b l e to K o l m o g o r o v

microscales. In p r a c t i c e even the higher molecular weight

l o n g - c h a i n polymers do n o t possess these dimensions in

solution. Hence, to justify the hypothesis, shear stretching

of the coiled molecules, entwined with their neighbours to

form supermolecular a g g r e g a t e s has b e e n postulated.

(b) Wall Modification Hypotheses

(b-j.) Wall A b s o r b t i o n or M o b i l e Layer: Characteristics of the

wall surface are considered to be significantly altered, by

absorbtion of molecules making i t smoother or t h r o u g h orien-

tation of polymer molecules close to the w a l l , r e s u l t i n g in a

mobile w a l l layer.

(b2) R e d u c t i o n i n the Wall Generated Turbulence: This theory

appears to be t h e most widely accepted. Several reviews, for

example by G a d d 8
(1971), Landahl 9
(1972), Hoyt 1 0
(1972) and

Polyuos"'"^ (1974) when t a k e n t o g e t h e r w o u l d c o v e r maj o r i t y

 6

of the publications i n the field. Some o f the more interesting

results can be b r i e f l y summarized as follows: Walles and

12

Spangter (1967) seem t o suggest that injection of a drag

reducing fluid into the wall layer has an i m m e d i a t e effect

on d r a g (reduction) while injection of the same f l u i d into the

core region of the b u l k flow has relatively little o r no

effect until the p o l y m e r has had enough t i m e t o d i f f u s e t o t h e

13
wall region. Kowalski (1968) a r r i v e d a t t h e same c o n c l u s i o n ,
14

so d i d Van D r i e s t (1970). Later's experiments consist in

comparing f r i c t i o n drag f o r pipes of different diameters

conveying a dilute polymer solution of fixed concentration. He

noticed that for a given R e y n o l d s number, there is a critical

value of the p i p e diameter below w h i c h d r a g r e d u c t i o n ceases

to exist. It was concluded that there must be some o t h e r length

parameter c o n t r o l l i n g the d r a g r e d u c t i o n phenomenon. This

new l e n g t h p a r a m e t e r must be g o v e r n e d by the flow. He assumed

a fixed length L of the layer (macro-layer) i n which eddying

motion is damped by the e n t a n g l e d long molecules. However, a

laminar sublayer 6 still exists w h i c h may be larger or smaller

than the macro-layer thickness L. If the Reynolds number is

small enough such t h a t 6 > L then the sublayer stability will

predominate. But if the R e y n o l d s number i s large enough such

that <5 < L then eddies i n the region L-6 will be damped

depending on t h e concentrations of the polymer solutions.

 7

A r u n a c h a l a m et al. X J
(1972) showed a t h i c k e r w a l l layer for

the drag reducing solution than that for the solvent alone. They

used a n o n d i s t u r b i n g photochromic dye trace technique to

arrive at the conclusion visually. On t h e other hand, Fortuna

16
et al. (1972) using spectrum analysis i n pipe flow observed
also a change i n the turbulent sublayer. More interesting was
17

the experiment by L a t t o and E l R i e d y (1976) who i n j e c t e d a

dye i n the boundary l a y e r over a flat plate and showed that

the turbulent diffusion of polymer solution is suppressed

compared t o that of water.

From the above discussion it can be c o n c l u d e d that there

is a consensus of opinion concerning an e x i s t e n c e of a major

region of drag r e d u c t i o n i n the d i l u t e d polymer solutions.

However, the mechanism of drag r e d u c t i o n on a m o l e c u l a r level

is still not clear.

A review of the literature on t h e f l u i d dynamics of

bodies submerged i n polymer solutions suggests that, in spite

of the extensive information on t h e subject, bluff body geo-

metries remain v i r t u a l l y u n e x p l o r e d , except for a few isolated

18

papers. Gadd (1966) was the first one to study the effect

of polymer solutions on v o r t e x shedding behind a c i r c u l a r

cylinder. His r a t i o n a l e for the study was: as turbulence is

an u n s t e a d y process, the time dependent terms in any theoretical

model w o u l d a t t a i n particular significance in turbulent drag

 8

reduction. He e x p e c t e d drag reducing solutions of equal

effectiveness (in terms of drag reduction) to reduce Strouhal

number by the same amount, however, his experiments failed

3

to support this conclusion. K a l a s h n i k o w and K u d i n (1970) found

the frequency of vortex shedding to be dependent on the

c o n d i t i o n of the polymer s o l u t i o n : when f r e s h the frequency

decreased, however, a reverse t r e n d was observed with the aging

of the solution (POLYOX). Through a l a t e r study with wires,

19

Kalashnikow et al. (1976) concluded that the critical Reynolds

number c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the onset of vortex shedding is lower

in a freshly mixed solution of polyethyleneoxide but increases

with its degradation to the point,that exceeds the Newtonian

value of 41. Unfortunately, corresponding experiments with

solutions of Guar r e s i n . s h o w e d the critical R e y n o l d s number to

be a l w a y s higher than 41, irrespective of the age of the solution.

The a c c u m u l a t e d literature thus suggests that the subject

of formation of the vortices behind b l u f f bodies and its

c o r r e l a t i o n with surface pressure distribution in long-chain

polymer solutions has received no a t t e n t i o n at all. This is

.unfortunate because the process of generation and dissipation

of v o r t i c i t y may throw some l i g h t on t h e character of the

boundary layer and hence on t h e phenomenon of drag reduction.

Of course, to assess the influence of the presence of polymer

it w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y to have, as a reference, the corresponding

 9

information for a bluff body i n the solvent, normally a

Newtonian fluid, mostly water. However, s u r p r i s i n g as it may

seem, such fundamental information i n the lower end o f the

Reynolds number s p e c t r u m is v i r t u a l l y missing. Obviously

t h e n , the f i r s t step s h o u l d be to understand evolution of the

Newtonian flow as affected by t h e Reynolds number w i t h a

particular emphasis on t h e wake-body interaction.

1.3 Stationary Circular Cylinders: Pressure Distribution

and Wake

Historically, interest i n the flow past a bluff body 1

20

goes b a c k t o the fifteenth century when L e o n a r d o da Vinci

sketched a row o f vortices i n the wake of a bluff body.

However, it was only towards the later part of the last century

that the phenomenon found some q u a n t i t a t i v e expression through

21

the pioneering c o n t r i b u t i o n by S t r o u h a l . The well-known

Strouhal number c o r r e l a t e s periodicity of the vortex shedding

with the d i a m e t e r of the circular cylinder and v e l o c i t y of the

fluid stream. Ever since, theoretical and p r a c t i c a l interest

in the field has led to a continuous stream of important con-

tributions resulting in a vast body o f literature. This has

been r e v i e w e d r a t h e r a d e q u a t e l y by s e v e r a l a u t h o r s i n c l u d i n g
22 23 20' 24 25
Rosenhead , Wille , Marris , Morkovin , Parkinson and
26
Cermak . The c o l l e c t e d literature suggests that, in general,
 10

nature of the surface loading, vortex shedding frequency and

wake geometry form t h r e e important parameters i n the study

of bluff body f l u i d mechanics. The c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r appears

to have received the most a t t e n t i o n , p r o b a b l y because of its

simple symmetric configuration and t h e fluid dynamically

distinctive boundary l a y e r type separation. Unfortunately,

even w i t h a stationary circular cylinder, some o f the fundamen-

tal information concerning pressure distribution, blockage,

n e a r wake geometry, etc. are limited to relatively higher

Reynolds numbers. This is apparent from F i g u r e 1-2 which

summarizes more important contributions i n the area relevant

to the present thesis. In the range R < 175 only two contri-

butions, by Thorn"^ and Grove et a l ? \ are noteworthy. Thorn

carried out h i s experiments i n 1933 and was n o t fortunate to

have sophisticated instrumentation of the modern t i m e . His

results for the pressure distribution on t h e surface of a two

dimensional cylinder and i t s v a r i a t i o n with the Reynolds number

show q u e s t i o n a b l e trends. On t h e other hand, although the

study by Grove and h i s associates appears to be more careful,

it is l i m i t e d to a single R e y n o l d s number o f 175 thus missing

all the information concerning the formation of Foppl vortices

and i n i t i a t i o n of the vortex shedding. Furthermorethere

are several unresolved questions about the data reduction pro-

cedure, so important i n the low R e y n o l d s number s t u d i e s , and

 11

3 n

10 10 10 10 10 10

40 10 22
S/C ., WAKE GEOMETRY 4 ROSENHEAD [1930]
1.7X10 2.IX 10
27
F A G E & F A L K N E R [1931]
2X10* 7X10' 28
FLACHSBART [1932]
2.5X10 29
LI NKEet a l . [1932]
3.5 175
30
C p , S/C ( 1.1 - 7.6 % )
5 5 THOM [1933]
10 2.1X10
|c ,c p F 31
4
40 10
WAKE GEOMETRY
G I E DT [1951]

0-1 2X10' 32
WAKE GEOMETRY
ROSHKO [1953]
40 175
IC 33
6X 10 5X10 TANEDA [1955]
C
P' F' D' S
C C 9
34
G R O V E e t a l . [1963]
10 1.2X10"
35
c . c , S/C
p
ACHE NBACH [1968]
2.2X10 36
E L - S H E R B I N Y [1972]
5 5 37
Figure 1-2. A summary o f l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t i n g the 4X10 5X10 F A R E L L et a l . [ 1 9 7 6 ]
scope of r e c e n t important contributions
i n the f i e l d of flow p a s t a c i r c u l a r 38
0-23 2.6 cylinder. F A R E L L e t a l . [1977]
39
H U N E R e t a l . [1977]
 12

the definition of undisturbed free stream velocity

and p r e s s u r e employed by them.

1.4 Purpose and Scope of the Investigation

The p r o j e c t has two main o b j e c t i v e s . Firstly, it

aims at the design of a liquid tunnel particularly suitable

for studies i n the low R e y n o l d s number r a n g e . Considerable

time and e f f o r t were expended i n f i n a l i z i n g the design,

supervision of construction, modifications, and c a l i b r a t i o n

of the tunnel.

The n e x t stage is concerned with an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of

wall confinement effects on the formation, elongation and

instability of the Foppl v o r t i c e s resulting i n the classical

Ka'rman v o r t e x street.. Primarily the attention is focussed

on c o r r e l a t i n g the surface pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n of the

vortices i n the R e y n o l d s number r a n g e of around 5-20,000 and

the blockage ratio of 2-501.

Finally, the flow visualization using the dye injection

technique in conjunction with still and movie photography

complements the test results. When a v a i l a b l e , r e s u l t s by

other investigators are included for c o m p a r i s o n and to help

establish trends. The i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d is fundamental

in character and s h o u l d p r o v e u s e f u l as a basis of comparison

for more c o m p l i c a t e d studies with long-chain polymers,

 13

pulsatile flow, etc. mentioned earlier. Figure 1-3

briefly summarizes the plan of study.

 W A L L C O N F I N E M E N T E F F E C T S
F O R C I R C U L A R C Y L I N D E R S A T
L O W R E Y N O L D S N U M B E R S

Design a n d Calibration Design o f Models Test P r o g r a m m e

of Test Facilities

* Glycerol-water solution
tunnel

* Venturimeter
I
* Hot-film anemometer Reynolds Number Effect Blockage Effect
(calibration)
1 I

Pressure Distribution Strouhal N u m b e r Flow Visualization

* Pressure drag * Critical Reynolds * Formation, evolution

* Approximate location number o f onset of and i n s t a b i l i t y o f

of separation vortex shedding Eoppl vortices

* Location of separating

shear layer
Figure 1-3. A schematic d i a g r a m showing the plan * Approximate evaluation
of study. of the Strouhal number
 15

2. DESIGN AND CALIBRATION OF THE

LIQUID TUNNEL

As p o i n t e d out b e f o r e design, supervision of construc-

tion and c a l i b r a t i o n o f a glycerol-water solution tunnel

formed one of the principal objectives of the project.

This chapter aims at i n t r o d u c i n g some o f the more i m p o r t a n t

aspects of the programme. The d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n a l details

involved are often numerous and h e n c e , though important

and relevant, cannot be c o v e r e d in their entirety. One

is, therefore, f o r c e d to confine attention t o more salient

features. In t h e beginning, design specifications and

geometry of the tunnel are e x p l a i n e d followed by a d e s c r i p -

tion of the power d r i v e and t e m p e r a t u r e control systems.

Next, details of the procedure for selection of the honey-

combs to restrict the free stream t u r b u l e n c e to a permissible

level are d i s c u s s e d . Finally, the calibration plots are

presented w h i c h p r o v i d e some, a p p r e c i a t i o n as to the regions

of uniform flow. .

2 .1 Liquid Tunnel

Specifications for the t u n n e l were largely dictated by

the low R e y n o l d s number s t u d i e s planned. For t h i s it was

necessary to have a f a c i l i t y w i t h the following characteristics:

 16

(i) The t u n n e l s h o u l d be c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g
a maximum v e l o c i t y o f a r o u n d 30 cm/s l e a d i n g
t o R e y n o l d s numbers i n t h e r a n g e 1 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 b a s e d
on t h e c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r .

(ii) The t u n n e l t e s t - s e c t i o n s h o u l d be l a r g e
enough t o p e r m i t wake and b l o c k a g e . s t u d i e s .

(iii) The t e s t - s e c t i o n w a l l s s h o u l d be sufficiently

f l a t to allow' flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n through
o p t i c a l methods.

(iv) The v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t l y
f l a t to permit uniform flow s t u d i e s . The
t u r b u l e n t i n t e n s i t y s h o u l d be l e s s t h a n 2%.

(v) The t e s t - s e c t i o n s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d w i t h a
s i m p l e model s u p p o r t s y s t e m . When mounted
i n t h e t e s t - s e c t i o n , a model s h o u l d be
readily accessible.

(vi) T h e r e s h o u l d be a p r o v i s i o n f o r i n t r o d u c i n g
p r e s s u r e , v e l o c i t y and o t h e r m e a s u r i n g
instrumentation.

B a s e d on t h e s e criteria a liquid tunnel with glycerol-

water solution as a working f l u i d was designed to produce the

desired range of Reynolds number, based on c y l i n d e r

diameter and a v e r a g e velocity i n the test-section (Figure

2-1). The c h o i c e of concentration of the working fluid

provided a degree of flexibility, but only to a certain

extent, as governed by the characteristics of the power unit.

Primarily the tunnel consists of three subassemblies: the

test-section; the fluid r e t u r n system; and t h e power unit

consisting of a pump and a d r i v e motor.

 vent

Figure 2-1. A s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m showing the glycerol-

water s o l u t i o n t u n n e l .
 18

The t e s t - s e c t i o n is built of four p l e x i g l a s walls

2.1 m (6.9 ft.) long, 1.9 cm ( 3 / 4 in.) thick, and wide

enough to produce the inside cross-section of 61 cm x 15.2 cm

(24 in. x 6 in.). Both the front and t h e rear walls are

provided with recess-mounted optically flat, homogeneous

and thermally s t a b l e glass panels (88 cm x 61 cm) to facilitate

flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n . They a l s o carry three ports (2.5 cm d i a . ) ,

each w i t h a collar serving as a model s u p p o r t and an O - r i n g

to prevent leakage. This p r o v i s i o n of three stations,

30 cm a p a r t , permits a reasonable flexibility in supporting

a model at different locations i n the test-section.

To promote u n i f o r m v e l o c i t y profile and low turbulence

intensity at the test-section flow distributing vanes,

screens and honeycombs were i n t r o d u c e d at the entrance to

the tunnel. In a l l 9 v a n e s were incorporated in the

diverging duct at the inlet to effectively delay separation

and c o n t r o l fluid distribution. Two b r a s s screens of mesh-

size 14 and 18, located 3.8 cm a p a r t , helped towards

attainment of uniform v e l o c i t y distribution. This was

followed by a 15 cm l o n g honeycomb (0.32 cm cell-size)

located 7.5 cm downstream from t h e f i n e r mesh screen. The

dimensions of the honeycomb were g o v e r n e d by t h e maximum p e r -

missible . turbulence intensity (<2%) i n accordance with the

design p r o c e d u r e p r o p o s e d by Lumley et al?^'^ Like screens,

 19

honeycomb a l s o tends to promote u n i f o r m i t y o f the velocity

profile through flow resistance, however, the process is

not p a r t i c u l a r l y efficient. Screens, honeycomb and models

were readily accessible t h r o u g h two large portholes located

on t h e top face of the tunnel. In a d d i t i o n , several

smaller portholes, which c o u l d take 1.6 cm p l u g s , were

drilled and t a p p e d i n t h e top w a l l of the test-section.

These openings proved u s e f u l i n i n t r o d u c i n g hot film probes,

dye i n j e c t i o n system and p r e s s u r e conducting tubings. At

the outlet, the rectangular section of 61 cm x 15.2 cm

gradually changes to a 10.2 cm d i a . PVC d u c t through a

converging section w i t h vanes (same as that at the inlet)

providing for smooth t r a n s i t i o n . Exit end o f the test-section

also carried a vent (8.9 cm d i a . ) to accommodate fluid

e x p a n s i o n as w e l l to p r o v i d e an e s c a p e route for air bubbles.

It was also used as an i n l e t f o r the working f l u i d during

filling of the t u n n e l and s e r v e d as an e f f e c t i v e check

against over p r e s s u r i z a t i o n of the test-section.

L o c a t e d between the end o f the plexiglas converging

section and t h e power d r i v e s y s t e m is the return section

essentially comprising of a heat exchanger and a V e n t u r i meter.

A copper p i p e , 1 . 6 m x 10.2 cm,in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a 1.4 m

x 17.8 cm PVC p l a s t i c pipe formed an a n n u l a r s i n g l e pass

heat exchanger. With the coolant s u p p l i e d by a w a t e r main,

 20

it was possible to maintain temperature of the working

fluid within ±0.1°C. PVC elbows and s e c t i o n s of the

radiator hose p r o v i d e d r e l a t i v e l y easy a n t i c o r r o s i o n and

vibration free connections. The b r a s s V e n t u r i meter with a

contraction ratio of 4:1 was designed a c c o r d i n g to the ASME

42

specifications and was located 74 cm u p s t r e a m o f t h e pump

inlet. The l o c a t i o n was so selected as to make its

performance insensitive t o u p s t r e a m and downstream d i s t u r b -

ances i n the form o f elbows, change in section at t h e pump

inlet, pump s u c t i o n , etc.

Before the final assembly the Venturi meter and

associated p l u m b i n g were c a l i b r a t e d , under s i m u l a t e d test

conditions, by pumping w a t e r from a l a r g e constant head

sump i n t o a tank of known v o l u m e . A gate v a l v e controlled

the flow rate. For a given valve setting and a f t e r the

flow had a t t a i n e d the steady state condition, time taken to

collect 44 5 kg (1000 lb.) was recorded together with the

pressure drop a c r o s s the Venturi meter as g i v e n by the

Barocel pressure transducer. In g e n e r a l , three readings

were taken for each of the valve settings and t h e i r mean

was u s e d i n p r e p a r i n g the c a l i b r a t i o n chart (Figure 2-2).

The power u n i t consists of a c e n t r i f u g a l pump: Para-

mount model 3V/6, 9.6 l/s (160 gpm), 9.4 m head, 1750 rpm.

It is d r i v e n by a t h r e e horsepower variable speed d.c. motor.

 -5
R x l O
n

U,cm/s

VP, P s i

Figure 2-2. Calibration plot for the V e n t u r i meter.

 22

The pump i m p e l l e r and h o u s i n g a r e of cast brass to guard

against possible corrosion. The motor i s e n e r g i z e d by a

three phase grid, the voltage b e i n g a d j u s t e d t h r o u g h an

autotransformer and r e c t i f i e d by s e l e n i u m d i o d e s . No

further smoothing o f the d.c. o u t p u t was required. A

photograph of the power s y s t e m is shown i n F i g u r e 2-3.

It was' i m p o r t a n t t o m i n i m i z e d i r t contamination of

the tunnel fluid. T h i s was a c h i e v e d by i n c o r p o r a t i n g a

lOu filter i n a bypass c i r c u i t across the pump. The system

filters the entire volume a t least once in twenty-four

hours of operation. Figure 2-4 shows t h e entire tunnel

assembly.

2.2 D e s i g n o f Honeycomb f o r T u r b u l e n c e C o n t r o l

Although screens have been u s e d r a t h e r r o u t i n e l y in

wind t u n n e l s to reduce t u r b u l e n c e and make f l o w u n i f o r m by

improving m i x i n g , they have n o t p r o v e d p a r t i c u l a r l y satis-

factory for reducing turbulence i n water tunnels. Furthermore,

screens, with t h e i r wire d i a m e t e r d i c t a t e d by strength

requirements to withstand i n e r t i a of water, normally operate

in the R e y n o l d s number r a n g e where v o r t e x shedding occurs

and hence are susceptible to resonance and a s s o c i a t e d failure^

On t h e other hand, honeycombs i n which the cells have a large

length-to-diameter r a t i o have been u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y to

Figure 2-3. A p h o t o g r a p h showing d e t a i l s o f the power
unit: A , a u t o t r a n s f o r m e r ; D, d r i v e motor
P , pump.
Figure 2-4. A p h o t o g r a p h o f the g l y c e r o l - w a t e r t u n n e l c a p a b l e o f g e n e r a t i n g R e y n o l d s number i n
the range 1-18,000: A , a u t o t r a n s f o r m e r ; B , d r i v e motor; E , heat exchanger; F , flow
d i s t r i b u t i n g v a n e s ; H , p o r t h o l e s ; M , v e n t u r i m e t e r ; P , pump; S, s c r e e n s and h o n e y -
comb; T , t e s t - s e c t i o n ; V , v e n t .

t o
 25

reduce turbulence to an a c c e p t a b l e level. Thus screens

are particularly effective i n making t h e flow uniform while

honeycombs tend to reduce turbulence.

As m e n t i o n e d earlier, two' b r a s s screens, no. 14 and

18 (mesh s i z e 0.18 and 0.09 cm, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , located 3.8

cm a p a r t were u s e d to assist i n r e n d e r i n g the flow .uniform.

The honeycomb cell size and i t s length were selected

according to the theory p r o p o s e d by L u m l e y ^ ' ^ . The

procedure involves the use of design charts which r e q u i r e

the-knowledge of turbulence level, mean f l o w velocity and

length scale i n a b s e n c e of t h e honeycomb as input information.

Of c o u r s e , the permissible maximum f o r the turbulence

intensity during actual operation (i.e. with the honeycomb)

must also be identified.

To t h i s end t h e t u r b u l e n c e measurements were undertaken

(without screens and h o n e y c o m b ) w h i c h showed the intensity

to be about 101 when t h e mean f l o w velocity was 15 cm/s.

The p r e d o m i n a n t length s c a l e was estimated at 61 cm, the

height of the tunnel test-section. The maximum p e r m i s s i b l e

turbulence intensity was l i m i t e d to 2%. From c o r r o s i o n

consideration it was decided to use a p a p e r honeycomb impreg-

nated with p l a s t i c . B a s e d on t h e standard sizes i n which

s u c h honeycombs are manufactured, the one w i t h 0.32 cm c e l l

size and 1 5 . 2 5 cm l e n g t h was tentatively selected for use.

 26

However, it was n e c e s s a r y to check its performance against

the desired specification.

In t h e present case £ / d = 48, L / £ = 4, R = 2.28 x

i
10 , 4
and R,. = 4 . 76 x 1 0 2
where:
cl

L = length scale;

I = length of the honeycomb;

d = cell diameter;

R ^ , R ^ = R e y n o l d s numbers b a s e d on c e l l
d i a m e t e r and l e n g t h , respectively.

With these data, Lumley's design charts gave pressure

coefficient of friction (K) = 7 and t u r b u l e n c e reduction

factor =0.09. Thus the s e l e c t e d honeycomb c a n be expected

to reduce the turbulence level from 10% t o 0.9%.

However, while r e d u c i n g the turbulence level of the

incoming flow, the honeycomb c r e a t e s its own t u r b u l e n c e .

In g e n e r a l , the c o n t r i b u t i o n comes from t h e flow w i t h i n the

cells and t h e wake e m a n a t i n g from t h e individual cell. In .

the present case, as the flow i n the cells is laminar (R n =

450 based on c e l l diameter), its c o n t r i b u t i o n to the tur-

bulence may be n e g l e c t e d , i.e. the turbulence energy at the

model location is entirely due t o t h e wake and c a n be given

, 41
by ,

u /U
2 2
=
x/d
 27

Here x c o r r e s p o n d s to the distance downstream from t h e end

of the honeycomb and d i s the cell-size. This gives the

honeycomb g e n e r a t e d turbulence intensity as 0.9%, i.e. the

total turbulence intensity at the test-section of 1.81.

However, it must be n o t e d that i n the design, the worse

condition (maximum v e l o c i t y ) has been c o n s i d e r e d , h e n c e the

actual tunnel t u r b u l e n c e c a n be e x p e c t e d t o be lower.

Figure 2-5 shows d e t a i l s of the flow distributing vanes,

screens and honeycomb u s e d i n the design of the tunnel.

It was n e c e s s a r y to confirm the above p r e d i c t i o n by

a systematic measurement of v e l o c i t y profiles and t u r b u l e n c e

intensity. This is d e s c r i b e d i n the following section.

2.3 Calibration of the Liquid Tunnel

The items o f utmost i m p o r t a n c e were the uniformity of

the velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n at various stations i n the test-

section at different flow rates and t h e associated turbulence

intensity distribution. T h i s was achieved through the

hot-film anemometry.A Thermo-Systems h e m i s p h e r i c a l probe

(model TSI 1239W) w i t h the cold resistance of 7.20, was used

at the overheat r a t i o of 1.0972 (i.e., operating resistance of

7.9P-). However, the p r o b e must be c a l i b r a t e d f i r s t to use it

in the c a l i b r a t i o n of the tunnel. For t h i s it was mounted on

 29

the tool holder of a lathe and towed at controlled speeds

in a slotted flume employing the feed mechanism. The

multispeed gear box a l l o w e d satisfactory determination of

the tow v e l o c i t i e s . The p r o b e was immersed i n the fluid to

a depth of at least ten times its diameter. The arrangement

worked satisfactorily up t o a velocity of a r o u n d 16 cm/s

beyond w h i c h n o i s e caused by s p u r i o u s vibrations substan-

tially affected the signal. F u r t h e r m o r e , at higher velocities

the towing time became so short, due t o the limited length

of the flume (1.52 m), that the output signal from the probe

could not reach a steady state condition. The t e s t arrange-

ment is shown i n F i g u r e 2-6 while the calibration plot is

presented in Figure 2-7.

For c h a r t i n g of the velocity profile, the probe was

s u p p o r t e d by a t r a v e r s i n g gear with a positional accuracy

of ± 0 . 1 cm. It w o u l d be u s e f u l to mention two p r o b l e m s en-

countered d u r i n g the measurements: formation of air bubbles

on t h e probe surface and d u s t contamination. The presence

of a i r bubbles changes p r o b e ' s cold resistance thus

affecting its sensitivity and c a l i b r a t i o n . Furthermore, it

promotes corrosion'of the probe c o a t i n g thus reducing its

life. The p r o b l e m was essentially eliminated through the

addition of a "wetting agent" (Kodak P h o t o - F l o 200) which

has a property of reducing surface tension of the solvent.

 31

300

• /
/
/ •

250

2 2
V .volt

200 Probe:TSI 1 2 3 9 W
/• R c - 7-2 n
R 0 = 7 - 9 A
a = 1-097
T - 2 0 °C
v
A
/
/

A 50

,1/2 d
• 1/2
U , (cm/s)

Figure 2-7. C a l i b r a t i o n data for the hot film probe

TSI 12 39W. '
 32

Contamination of the p r o b e by d u s t particles and other

deposits posed a serious challenge. To m i n i m i z e d i r t contami-

nation the surface of the l i q u i d was always kept shielded.

Furthermore, a part of the circulating fluid was continuously

filtered. In s p i t e of these p r e c a u t i o n s it was necessary

to c l e a n the probe p e r i o d i c a l l y u s i n g methyl alcohol.

To a s s e s s effectiveness of the screens and t h e honey-

comb i n r e n d e r i n g t h e flow u n i f o r m , velocity measurements

at a typical station (x = 90 cm) were carried out without

and w i t h t h e straightening devices in position. The results

are compared i n F i g u r e 2-8. Rather spectacular improvement

in the velocity profile is apparent. Note, t h e velocity

is essentially uniform over c e n t r a l 30 cm o f the test-

section beyond w h i c h t h e r e is a tendency to increase, finally

diminishing to zero at the top and b o t t o m w a l l s . Even during

the rise in velocity, the maximum d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e mean

was f o u n d t o be 8%. Thus t h e t u n n e l has an adequate

region of uniform v e l o c i t y suitable f o r the planned tests.

Figure 2-9 shows v e l o c i t y profiles at three different

stations and f o r two v a l u e s of the mean f l o w v e l o c i t y , U =

7 cm/s and 12 cm/s. These v a l u e s approximately e s t a b l i s h the

range o f v e l o c i t i e s used d u r i n g the pressure measurements.

Essential character of the plots remains the same as that

observed i n the previous diagram. There continues t o be a

 Y, c m 33

+ 30 •
• •
• •
•
•

• •

• without s t ra igh ten ing devi

• • • • with straightening device

o H

• •
- 15 H
•

• •
• •
-30 -I
10 20 U , c m / s

Figure 2-8. T y p i c a l p l o t s showing t h e e f f e c t o f

s c r e e n s and honeycomb i n i m p r o v i n g
v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i n the t e s t - s e c t i o n .
 34

Y, c m

x =•3 0
« 9 0
• 1 3 0

•B4

U =7 c m / s '"•11.9 cm/s

• "4*

5 1 0 U , c m / s
gure 2-9. A c o m p a r i s o n ' o f v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s at three
d i f f e r e n t s t a t i o n s i n the t e s t - s e c t i o n and for
two v a l u e s of- mean flow v e l o c i t y . Note a
l a r g e r e g i o n of e s s e n t i a l l y u n i f o r m flow
w h i c h i s d e s i r a b l e f o r the p l a n n e d t e s t
programme'.
 35

large region ( ± 1 5 cm) symmetrically located around the

tunnel centerline where t h e v e l o c i t y profile is essentially

uniform. The n o n u n i f o r m i t y b e y o n d t h i s is p r o b a b l y due to

a large change i n the cross-sectional area, by a f a c t o r of

11.5;, at the entrance to the test-section. Although guide

vanes tend to distribute the flow evenly over the test-

section because of their c a r e f u l l y arranged s e t t i n g , apparently

'they are not entirely effective, p r o b a b l y due t o non-

uniformity of the flow at the entrance.

Although the test programme d i d n o t aim at a

systematic study of the turbulence effects on t h e fluid

mechanics of b l u f f bodies, it was desirable to have some

apprecitation as to the average level of turbulence in the

40 41

test - sect i o n . B a s e d on t h e t h e o r y p r o p o s e d by Lumley ' ,

the average turbulence level was expected to be a r o u n d 1.8%,

however, this has to be v e r i f i e d . Measurement o f turbulence

intensity across the tunnel test-section at different

stations and f l o w rates showed it t o be e s s e n t i a l l y inde-

pendent of the location (over the short span o f 40 cm},

however, as can be e x p e c t e d , the turbulence level increased

w i t h the flow rate.

Figure 2-10(a) shows t h e c a s e when t h e mean f l o w velocity

was about 12 cm/s. The t u r b u l e n c e level is around 1% i n

the m i d d l e - h a l f of the test-section and g e n e r a l l y less than

 36

Y,cm
(a) ( b ) •(c)
3 0 -
o

o U = "11 • 9 cm/s n
U - 7 cm/s > U= 7 cm/s

ox
n
X ; 9 0 c m > x -13 0 c m
= 9 0c m

15 -

0-1

o • 0

>
•

a
-15-

o
o
o
o
- 3 0 -
I i i i

0 2 4 0 2 4 0 2 4

u/u A
Figure 2-10. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e p l o t s showing v a r i a t i o n o f
the t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y i n t h e test-section,
 37

21 e x c e p t for the lower quarter. With a decrease in the

flow rate o r a change in station (Figure 2-10b,c), the

character of the plot remains essentially the same except

for a reduction i n the value of the turbulence intensity.

W i t h the design and c a l i b r a t i o n o f the ,tunnel satis-

factorily accomplished the attention was focussed on the

design of test models, selection of pressure measuring

instrumentation and c o n s t r u c t i o n of a dye injection system

for flow visualization. These are described i n the following

chapter.
 3. TEST PROCEDURES

Before p r o c e e d i n g to present the test results and

their discussion it w o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e t o b r i e f l y describe

some o f the important test procedures. In g e n e r a l , the

instrumentation employed c o n s t i t u t e s a standard equip-

ment i n any w e l l equipped f l u i d mechanics l a b o r a t o r y and

hence needs no e l a b o r a t i o n . On t h e other hand, design,

constructional and o p e r a t i o n a l features involved with

reference to a specific equipment are often too numerous

to account completely. The a t t e n t i o n is, therefore, focussed

on more s i g n i f i c a n t aspects of the instrumentation relevant

to the study i n hand.

The test procedures employed a r e conceptually well

known b u t their implementation often attains complexity of

a higher o r d e r , mainly because of the character of the

working fluid (glycerol-water solution). Often p e c u l i a r -

ities of specific experiments make c e r t a i n measurements

quite difficult. T h r o u g h o u t , t h e emphasis is on p r a c t i c a l

considerations involved in executing the experimental

programme. At times the factors involved are, seemingly, so

trivial that one w o u l d seldom g i v e them a s e c o n d look.

However, it is a common e x p e r i e n c e o f most experimenters

that resolution of apparently simple problems occasionally

 39

takes days, if n o t weeks o r m o n t h s . This is p a r t i c u l a r l y

true i n the c a s e where liquid is the working fluid.

The g l y c e r o l - w a t e r solution tunnel representing a

fundamental facility for the entire test programme and its

c a l i b r a t i o n using the h o t - f i l m anemometry was described

earlier, In t h i s c h a p t e r models used i n the test programme

are introduced f i r s t . This is followed by a discussion

of the highly sensitive pressure t r a n s d u c i n g system used

in the measurement of the surface pressure distribution.

Finally, details of the flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e , which

proved extremely useful in obtaining physical appreciation

as to the character of the flow, are presented.

3.1 Models

Two s e t s of circular cylindrical models, one for the

surface pressure measurements and t h e other for flow visual-

ization study, were u s e d i n the test programme. The p r e s s u r e

models were r e l a t i v e l y more e l a b o r a t e because of the

presence of the pressure conducting l i n e and t h e externally

located mechanism f o r changing r e l a t i v e orientation of the

pressure tap w i t h r e s p e c t to the free stream. This required

draining of the tunnel fluid during changing of the pressure

models. Flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n models were s i m p l e r (no pressure

 40

tap, models rigidly fixed in position) and hence avoided

this time c o n s u m i n g and n e c e s s a r i l y messy o p e r a t i o n , i.e.,

t h e s e models can be introduced without emptying the tunnel.

The ends were provided with soft black rubber pads,

w h i c h when p r e s s e d against the w a l l h e l d the cylinder in

position (Figure 3-1).

For p r e s s u r e measurements, a family of seven two-

dimensional, cylindrical models, ranging i n diameter from

0 . 5 - 3 0 cm and 15.2 cm l o n g , were c a r e f u l l y machined

either from s t a i n l e s s steel or p l e x i g l a s tubes. Deviation

from c i r c u l a r geometry,checked using micrometer, was found

to be less than 0.2%. The a c c u r a c y was considered quite

adequate for the test programme. The r a n g e of diameter

was so chosen as to cover the blockage ratio variation from

2-50%, and t h e R e y n o l d s number r a n g e of 7-20,000 through

the concentration c o n t r o l of the working f l u i d (Table 3-1).

A model was s u p p o r t e d by t w o - e n d sleeves with 0-rings

to guard against leakage of the working f l u i d . A static

pressure tap, 0.5 mm i n d i a m e t e r , was located on the

central station and c o n n e c t e d to a polyethylene tube, run-

ning inside the model, which conveyed the pressure to an

externally located transducer. Size of the pressure conduct-

ing line was c a r e f u l l y chosen (1.7 - 5 mm i n s i d e diameter,

110 cm l e n g t h ) so that the resulting time constant has a

Figure 3-1. T y p i c a l models used i n the flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n study.
Table 3-1 P r e s s u r e models u s e d i n t h e t e s t programme, c o r r e s p o n d i n g b l o c k a g e and
a s s o c i a t e d R e y n o l d s number r a n g e a t t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e v a r i a t i o n o f
mean f r e e s t r e a m v e l o c i t y and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e w o r k i n g f l u i d

\ C , °"o
S/C
NO. . 0 (v/v = 1) 41 (v/v = 4) 66 (v/v = 15) 76 (v/v = 40)
% w w w w
D ,cm

1 0.8 0.5 200 - 600 7 5 - 200 . 30 - 60 7 - 13

2 2 1.2 600 - 1500 150 - 400 40 - 150 16 - 30

3 3.3 2 1200 - 3000 300 - 600 60 - 300 30 - 50

4 6.6 5 3000 - 7300 800 - 2500 150 - 750 75 - 200

5 12. 5 7.6 4500 - 11000 3000 - 11000 250 - 1100 120 - 250

6 25 15 9000 - 15000 2000 - 6000 450 - 2200 200 - 500

7 50 30 12000 - 30000 3000 - 8000 300 - 3000 150 - 300

 43

reasonable value. A systematic rotation of the cylinder

in small increments through 1 8 0 ° provided d e s i r e d pressure

distribution over the cylinder surface. F i g u r e 3-2 shows

the set of p r e s s u r e models used i n the test programme

while F i g u r e 3-3 presents constructional details of a

typical model.

3.2 Pressure Measurements

The mean p r e s s u r e component being extremely small

2

(of the order of 0.7 N/m ) demanded a h i g h l y sensitive

instrumentation for its measurement. This was accomplished

using the " B a r o c e l Modular Pressure T r a n s d u c i n g System"

developed by D a t a m e t r i c s Inc. of Watertown, Massachusetts.

The t y p e 550-5 B a r o c e l s e n s o r is designed to operate with

2

fluids over the pressure range of 0 - 10 p s i a (68.98 kN/m ) .

The U n i t is a high p r e c i s i o n , stable capacitive voltage

divider, the variable element of which i s a thin pre-

stressed steel diaphragm p o s i t i o n e d between f i x e d capacitor

plates. The d i a p h r a g m d e f l e c t s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y to the

magnitude of the applied pressure. To i s o l a t e the external

pressure medium from the sensor diaphragm-capacitance

system, the unit uses h i g h l y sensitive metallic bellows. The

volume between t h e bellows, isolator and s e n s o r d i a p h r a g m

is filled with degassed silicone o i l which serves both as

3-2. A photograph showing the models used i n surface pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n .
 To pressure
transducer

End sleeve

End sleeve

Figure 3-3. A d i a g r a m showing c o n s t r u c t i o n a l d e t a i l s of

a t y p i c a l p r e s s u r e measurement m o d e l .
 46

pressure transmitting fluid and as a dielectric. A

pressure signal from t h e external liquid medium i s trans-

m i t t e d by the bellows to the silicone oil which i n turn

deflects the diaphragm to produce the r e q u i r e d change in

capacitance. An a . c . carrier voltage at 10 Hz i s applied

to the stationary capacitor plates, and a b r i d g e circuit

determines an o u t p u t voltage dependent on t h e ratio of the

capacitance of the diaphragm to each of the stationary

plates. The c a r r i e r voltage is therefore modulated accord-

ing to the input pressure. The u n i t sensitivity is 10 ^

psi (0.07 N/m ) p r o v i d e d the pressure sensor is fully

isolated from e x t e r n a l sources of v i b r a t i o n and n o i s e . It

was imperative to ensure removal of all traces of air

pockets from t h e pressure ducting for statisfactory operation.

Barocel is accurately calibrated for steady pressures.

Figure 3-4 presents a schematic diagram of the pressure

transducer.

It was important to minimize the effect of ambient

temperature excursions on t h e Barocel's performance. This

was achieved by m o u n t i n g t h e t r a n s d u c e r on a h e a t sink, a

large aluminum b l o c k w i t h w o r k i n g f l u i d circulating inside.

The a r r a n g e m e n t v i r t u a l l y eliminated the influence of .

temperature transients.
 47

Power
input

Stationary Diaphragm
c a p c i t o r plates

Figure 3-4. A schematic diagram of the Barocel.pressure

transducer.
 48

After a complete removal of a i r bubbles from the

fluid, a model was positioned i n the test section with

its center 90 cm downstream o f the end o f the honeycomb.

Next, the pressure d u c t i n g was f i l l e d w i t h the test fluid

and was connected to a Barocel pressure transducer v i a a

set of polyethylene and M y l a r t u b i n g s after removal of air

pockets from t h e line. The p r e s s u r e sensing unit was

b a l a n c e d to r e a d zero output i n the no-flow condition.

With the pump o p e r a t i n g at a preselected speed to give a

d e s i r e d R e y n o l d s number and t h e test fluid h e l d at a constant

temperature, the mean p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n around the vertical

meridional cross-section was measured.

A point c o n c e r n i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e c h o i c e of the

size of the pressure tubings must be e m p h a s i z e d h e r e . A

systematic study w i t h tubes of different size and associated

time to reach steady state pressure showed t h e tubes with

internal diameter less t h a n 1.6 mm-to have an excessively

large time constant (>20 min.). Of c o u r s e , as suggested

by s e v e r a l theoretical and e x p e r i m e n t a l studies on t h e dyna-

mic r e s p o n s e of fluid lines ^ 4

the time constant would

depend on -a number o f p a r a m e t e r s i n c l u d i n g the diameter

and l e n g t h of the tubings, viscosity of the fluid, inline

volume i n c l u d i n g the transducer's cavity, character of

pressure signals, etc. F o r the mean p r e s s u r e measurements

 49

under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , it was convenient to use fluid lines of

1.7.-5 mm d i a . r e s u l t i n g i n the time constant of around 3

minutes.

To i n s u r e a c c u r a c y as w e l l as repeatability of the

measured d a t a , it was o f utmost i m p o r t a n c e t o m i n i m i z e and

compensate for any d r i f t of the pressure t r a n s d u c e r and

associated electronic circuitry. Minute character of the

-4

pressure signals (10 psi) together w i t h the relatively

long time involved i n r e a c h i n g the steady s t a t e made this

all the more n e c e s s a r y . Chart recordings of the drift over

periods of 24-48 h o u r s showed them t o be q u i t e significant,

at times as large as 50% o f the actual signal, but of no

well defined pattern. The d r i f t compensation procedure

involved three successive measurements at equal intervals

of time c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the time constant of the system.

This is explained in d e t a i l below.

L e t t h e o b j e c t i v e be t o measure a differential
pressure P - P , where P r e p r e s e n t s p r e s s u r e on t h e sur-
a r a

face of the c y l i n d e r at point 'a' and P^. c o r r e s p o n d s to the

pressure at a reference point. In g e n e r a l , a known external

pressure source (e.g. a liquid column) or p r e s s u r e at a

given location i n the tunnel can serve this purpose. ,In

the present case p r e s s u r e at a point on t h e bottom w a l l of

the t u n n e l was used to serve this end. Let the arbitrary

 zero drift of the electronic s y s t e m be as indicated in

Figure 3-5. The d i a g r a m a l s o shows t h e corresponding

drift of the differential pressures A-P and A P ^ , where

a

AP = P - P and AP = P - P . Here P represents

a a w r r w w 1

pressure at a suitable location, taken to be on t h e tunnel

wall i n the present case. Thus, the desired P - P

cl T*
AP„ - AP.. .
a r
Now, f r o m F i g u r e 3-5 :

AP + 6 + 6
a 1 2

(AP ) + (AP ) „ (AP^. +. 6 J + (AP + 6 +• + )

^ r 1
J
. ^ r 3 6 6

2 2

= AP + 6
r 1

Hence,
 51

<*fV^^—
(Ap ), r

< r'3
Ap

(^Pr^- r" " I

h ? " i 05

3 1 |
Drift

\1 Vb< I! '
1
!I
| — T *j j

Ti T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5

Figure 3-5. A procedure f o r compensation o f the e l e c t r o n i c

d r i f t o f t h e p r e s s u r e measuring system.
 52

Assuming that the electronic zero setting drifts

linearly during the i n t e r v a l marked by t h e pressure measure

ments (AP ) (AP ) „ then

v
r 1 r 2

S
2 " «3

i.e. ,

(AP ) + (AP )
(AP ) a 2 ^ I_i.= P a - P r . (3.1)

Thus d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the differential pressure

involved the measurement of (AP ) , (AP ) and (AP ) in

that order. The p r o c e d u r e gave d a t a t h a t can be r e p r o d u c e d

within an a c c u r a c y o f ±2%. Note, the evaluation of the

differential pressure P^ - P^, a t some d i f f e r e n t location on the

cylinder would f o l l o w the same p r o c e d u r e . Thus

(AP ) + (AP )
P u - P =• ( A P , ) , - r 5
^—i •
b r b '4

4 6 47

Modi et al. ' have u s e d s i m i l a r procedure for drift

compensation in their s t u d i e s w i t h an a o r t i c heart valve

and s p h e r i c a l m o d e l s . Figure 3-6 shows instrumentation

layout during the static pressure measurments.

 53

ss/sssj?sssssssssss/ssssssssss\
r

fo fo fo fo fo: air supply

tof lush
manifold
liquid in line
reference \
pressure Jj
Barocel
signal
conditioner

d.c. d i g i t a l
voltmeter

u- v.
osci Hoscope recorder filter

1i

Figure 3-6. A l i n e drawing o f the i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s e t - u p

u s e d d u r i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e measurements
on t h e s u r f a c e o f a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r .
 54

The mean f l o w rate t h r o u g h the t u n n e l was maintained

constant d u r i n g the pressure measurements. This was

achieved by a c o n t i n u o u s monitoring of the Venturi meter

output as i n d i c a t e d by t h e differential pressure transducer

(Barocel) and c o r r e c t i n g for any f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e pump

speed due t o changes i n the line voltage. Temperature of

the working f l u i d was held constant (±0.1°C) using the

heat exchanger system d e s c r i b e d b e f o r e . Figure 3-7

shows a p h o t o g r a p h o f the mean f l o w measurement system.

3.3. Flow V i s u a l i z a t i o n

To b e t t e r appreciate the physical character of the

fluid field associated w i t h c i r c u l a r c y l i n d r i c a l models

under confined condition, flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n was undertaken.

The dyed g l y c e r o l - w a t e r solution of the same concentration

as that of the test fluid was injected approximately 10 cm

upstream of the model. The dye employed was an imitation

cochineal food colour. A p p r o p r i a t e volumes of the dye and

pure g l y c e r i n were m i x e d t o produce a glycerol-water

solution of the same d e n s i t y as that of the test fluid. A

dye injecting probe,consisting of s e v e n #23 syringe needles

(0.38 mm) p l a c e d 0.5 - 1.0 cm a p a r t on a s t r e a m l i n e d support,

was constructed. O c c a s i o n a l l y a long stainless steel

Measurement o f mean f l o w r a t e u s i n g v e n t u r i m e t e r : B, Barocel pressure transducer;
D, d i g i t a l d . c . v o l t m e t e r ; E, h e a t e x c h a n g e r ; F , f i l t e r ; H , h e a t - s i n k ; P , power
s u p p l y ; S, s i g n a l c o n d i t i o n e r ; V , v e n t u r i m e t e r .
 56

tubing ( 3 mm d i a . , 30 cm l o n g ) , b e n t at right angle near

the tip, was used in conjunction with a c l i n i c a l syringe.

It proved to be p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l in injecting dye in

the near-wake region (Figure 3-8). "Intramedic" tubings

(0.6 mm i n s i d e diameter) were u s e d to connect the needles

to a manifold. The. r a t e of injection was controlled with

brass needle valves. To e n s u r e adequate flow through each

needle, i.e., to provide sufficient head, the supply bottle

was suspended f r o m the ceiling 4 m above the injection level.

A schematic diagram of the complete set-up is shown in

Figure 3-9.

After ascertaining successful operation of the entire

assembly, flow patterns were p h o t o g r a p h e d , using still and

16 mm movie cameras, over a range of R e y n o l d s number and

blockage. The a t t e n t i o n was primarily focussed on c a p t u r i n g

the formation, evolution and o n s e t of instability of the Foppl

vortices as affected by t h e s e parameters.

It w o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e t o point out here the type

of lighting system used as it played a c r i t i c a l role in

the photographing process. A combination of three variable

intensity photo floods (maximum 500 w a t t s , 3400°K) back-

illuminated the subject through the tunnel g l a s s window. To

eliminate hot spots, the light beam was evenly diffused by

masking the test section wall with a t r a c i n g paper. A set

Cn
camera
Figure 3-9. A s k e t c h showing the equipment
l a y o u t d u r i n g the f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n .
 59

of trial runs helped a r r i v e at the appropriate aperture

setting and e x p o s u r e time f o r the type of f i l m used (Kodak

high speed Ektachrome type EHB-135 (still) or EF-7242

(movie), tungsten, 3200°K, ASA 125, filter 81A) .

During the course of visualization study, it was

discovered that in spite of the large volume of the test

fluid (==265&) , a relatively small amount of dye (200 cc)

was sufficient to pollute the working f l u i d to the point

that no c l e a r photographs c o u l d be taken. This presented

a rather serious p r o b l e m i n terms of time, effort and cost

involved in replenishing the working f l u i d . Clearly, it was

necessary to find an a g e n t that would n e u t r a l i z e the dye

w i t h o u t a t t a c k i n g the tunnel material or its circulating

s y s t e m and w h i c h does n o t alter the physical properties of

the test fluid. Unfortunately, no s u c h a g e n t has been reported

in the literature. A considerable amount o f patient testing

w i t h numerous oxidizing agents led'to sodium hypochlorite

w h i c h has all the desirable attributes. Only 300 cc of the

a g e n t was sufficient to" c o m p l e t e l y neutralize the dye. To

keep the concentration of the test fluid constant, sufficient

amount o f g l y c e r i n was p e r i o d i c a l l y added t h u s offsetting

the diluting effect of the dye r e m o v i n g agent.

 60

3.4 Critical R e y n o l d s Number

The f l o w visualization models were a l s o u s e d for

determination of the critical R e y n o l d s number as affected

by t h e blockage. In the low R e y n o l d s number studies,

'critical' refers to the onset of instability of the Foppl

vortices. The wake b u b b l e b e g i n s to oscillate and w i t h

any i n c r e a s e i n the R e y n o l d s number beyond t h e critical

value results i n shedding of v o r t i c e s leading to the organized

Karman v o r t e x street.

Determination of the critical R e y n o l d s number f o r a

given c y l i n d e r was accomplished using a hot film anemometer

system i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a h i g h frequency filter to

eliminate turbulence generated noise. The h o t film probe

was suitably located a few diameters downstream to yield

strong clear signals. The R e y n o l d s number o f the flow was

gradually increased by i n c r e a s i n g the pump rpm. Evolution

of the Fbppl v o r t i c e s was t r a c e d t h r o u g h dye injection and

was correlated with the hot film response as displayed on

an o s c i l l o s c o p e . The o n s e t of i n s t a b i l i t y was reasonably

s h a r p and was i n d i c a t e d by a s t r o n g sinusoidal signal from

the hot film probe.

 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

With some a p p r e c i a t i o n of background to the problem,

instrumentation used and the experimental procedures

adopted, we a r e ready to look into the test results and

their interpretation. The amount of experimental data

obtained is rather extensive, however, the guiding principle

has been t o include only those results w h i c h have immediate

relevance to the study i n hand and h e l p in establishing

definite trends. In g e n e r a l , the sequence i n which the

results are p r e s e n t e d a l s o denotes the chronological order

of the tests. To b e g i n with, an a p p r o a c h t o data reduction,

so c r i t i c a l at low R e y n o l d s number, is discussed. This

is followed by p r e s e n t a t i o n of the surface pressure dis-

tribution results as functions of Reynolds number and

blockage. Next, the attention is focussed on t h e pressure

integrated drag data and the S t r o u h a l number as affected

by the wall confinement. Finally,near-wake structure is

studied using flow visualization in conjunction with still

and 16 mm movie photography. Available results from

literature are i n c l u d e d where appropriate for comparison

and t o assist i n emphasizing the influence of blockage.

 62

4.1 Choice of Reference V e l o c i t y and P r e s s u r e

Before proceeding with presentation and analysis

of the test results, one must address to several fundamental

questions which are p a r t i c u l a r l y significant i n the low

R e y n o l d s number f l o w studies. Clearly, with a model

immersed i n an unbounded u n i f o r m stream there is no

ambiguity concerning reference or c h a r a c t e r i s t i c velocity

and p r e s s u r e : It is the constant velocity and p r e s s u r e

of the stream f a r away from t h e m o d e l . F o r low R e y n o l d s

number f l o w in a tunnel, however, the fluid velocity and

pressure vary significantly along the axis of the test .

section, even i n absence of the model due t o boundary l a y e r

growth a l o n g the walls. Presence of the model and associated

wake w o u l d o n l y a c c e n t u a t e the problem. O b v i o u s l y some

compromise is indicated in selection of these parameters.

Acrivos et al?^'^ have s u g g e s t e d use of the pressure

directly below the centerline of t h e i r model as the refer-

ence static pressure and t h e centerline velocity, with the

model a b s e n t but at the same s e t t i n g of the pump, as the

characteristic velocity. F o r models w i t h a s m a l l blockage

this choice of reference p r e s s u r e may p r o v e t o be adequate

but w i t h a l a r g e r b l o c k a g e , due t o acceleration of the flow

at the model l o c a t i o n , the reference pressure is indeed

affected and becomes a f u n c t i o n o f w a l l c o n f i n e m e n t (besides

 63

other parameters). To p u t it differently, the choice of

reference pressure as s u g g e s t e d above has a degree of

optimism implicit in it. It assumes t h a t effects of the

upstream adverse pressure gradient created by p r e s e n c e of

the model exactly cancels the influence of acceleration

in gaps a t the model l o c a t i o n thus giving the desired P ^ .

One p o s s i b l e improvement i n the choice of P o t would

be to take it as the pressure at the model location (but

without the model) with operating condition of the tunnel

kept the same as that used w i t h the model in position.

However, this still cannot account for the changes in

velocity profile from s e c t i o n to section in a given tunnel,

and between t u n n e l s used by d i f f e r e n t investigators.

Usefulness of the centerline velocity as a charac-

teristic velocity a l s o poses several questions. In general,

the velocity profiles are substantially affected by

location, boundary l a y e r growth, screen's mesh s i z e , blockage,

pump speed and t h e total circuit resistance. Hence, the

characteristic velocity U c p r o p o s e d by Grove et a l , can

h a r d l y be considered a suitable reference.

Another p o s s i b l e compromise would be t o take uniform

portion of the velocity profile f a r u p s t r a m and use i t , - a s

a characteristic velocity. However, the distance involved

to account for boundary l a y e r effects would, in general,

depend upon the tunnel used, model and i t s location.

 64

A rather significant point to keep i n mind in presenting

data is to ensure its r e p e a t a b i l i t y by o t h e r investigators,

using different test facilities, to permit comparison.

With t h i s i n mind and a f t e r c a r e f u l consideration of the

alternative methods discussed above a compromise c h a r a c -

teristic velocity, average velocity i n the test-section

based on t h e mean f l o w rate ( U ) , was adopted. This approach

has several obvious advantages. It eliminates most of the

problems mentioned above.

Obviously, tests c o n d u c t e d w i t h and w i t h o u t model (but

at the same m e t e r setting as w i t h t h e model) would leave

the average velocity i n the test-section unchanged. Thus,

not o n l y does it eliminate the question o f model location,

type of tunnel, flow straighteners u s e d and s i z e of the test

section but also overcomes problems of p r e s s u r e gradient

and b l o c k a g e . The c h o i c e would f a c i l i t a t e d u p l i c a t i o n of

R , reference velocity b e i n g more p r e c i s e l y defined.

Furthermore, its measurement is quite simple and involves

only conventional instrumentation. However, it must be

emphasized t h a t this does n o t correct f o r changes in velocity

profile with distance and hence the r e s u l t i n g pressure effects

due t o location of the model.

This b r i n g s us to that elusive task of selecting P ,

48
As d i s c u s s e d earlier, the P^ a d v o c a t e d by A c r i v o s et al.
 65

has little meaning here i n view of the large blockage

presented by t h e model. From t h e p o i n t of view of repeat-

ability and c o m p a r i s o n o f data, the use of pressure at a

specified tap on the surface of the model as reference

appears quite attractive. Although this cannot account

for local variations due t o blockage effects (from p o i n t

to p o i n t at the surface of the model), it could effectively

compensate for it i n an a v e r a g e fashion.

Thus one way t o present pressure data in coefficient

2

form w o u l d be as C p = (P Q - P ) / ( p U /2)
r where P r corres-

ponds to the pressure at a specified t a p on t h e surface of

the c y l i n d e r and U as calculated from t h e average flow rate

(average flow rate/test-section area of 61 cm x 15 cm).

However, this definition is still susceptible to errors,

i n t r o d u c e d by n o n - u n i f o r m i t y o f the velocity profile (at

a pressure tap and t h e reference location) particularly

because the denominator remains u n a f f e c t e d by t h i s change.

One way t o v i r t u a l l y eliminate this shortcoming is to express

pressure coefficient as e x p l a i n e d below (Figure 4-1).

Let errors in pressure due to n o n - u n i f o r m i t y o f the

velocity profile be at P^, e Q at P Q and at P^. Express-

ing pressure coefficient as a ratio of the differential

pressures, between t h a t at a tap in question and t h e stag-

nation point with respect to the reference pressure, gives

 66

Figure 4-1. An i l l u s t r a t i o n s h o w i n g p o s s i b l e e r r o r s
i n t r o d u c e d by n o n - u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e
velocity profile

c = CP e + e )
9 - (P r + S )
5

where P ,Q P ^ , p- correspond to pressures with uniform

velocity profile. Thus

P. - P

0 r j 1
1 +
(e 0 " e )/(P - -
r 0 P )
r
Note that e Q - and - are likely to be v e r y small.

On t h e other hand, P - P and P . - P

N represent relatively
' 8 r O r '

large quantities compared t o the respective error dif-

ferentials. Therefore,

£ - £ F - £
= 19 _x_ , = ^0 ^r
e
9r P - P
a n d e
0r P - P
O r O r
N N

are likely to be v a n i s h i n g l y small. Consequently, the

term

1 + £
9r _o r
and
1 + £
Or 0 r

B o t h n u m e r a t o r and d e n o m i n a t o r being sensitive, the

proposed d e f i n i t i o n of the pressure coefficient promises to

provide adequate compensation for errors i n t r o d u c e d by n o n -

uniformity of the velocity profile.

The r e f e r e n c e l o c a t i o n was taken to be a t 6 = 50°. The

choice was p r o m p t e d by the test d a t a w h i c h showed C^ t o

reach zero i n the general v i c i n i t y of 8 = 50°, i.e., P^QO

± P^. Of c o u r s e , in general, location of the reference

pressure is entirely arbitrary. The p r e s s u r e data presented

inthis c h a p t e r use the definition of pressure coefficient as

 68

P - P
0 50°
C
P P - P
0 50°

It is easy to recognize the term PQ - P^QO as an a p p r o -

x i m a t i o n to (1/2)pU^. H o w e v e r , now we a r e likely to

account for the e r r o r s itttroduced'by n o n - u n i f o r m i t y of the

velocity profile. Thus, i n summary, t h i s coefficient

has several advantages: it tends to compensate for the

pressure gradient, blockage effects, i r r e g u l a r i t y of the

velocity profile and p o s s i b l e errors in pressure measure-

ments c a u s e d by e l e c t r i c a l drifts of the pressure sensing

system (the electrical drift was discussed i n Chapter 3).

Furthermore, i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the R e y n o l d s number (based

on a v e r a g e flow velocity and s p h e r e diameter), it promises

to assist in comparison with s i m i l a r d a t a by o t h e r inves-

tigators using different test facilities.

1
A question may a r i s e as to the possible difficulty

this new d e f i n i t i o n may c a u s e i n comparing t e s t data with

other published information. Fortunately, this does not

present any p r o b l e m . As shown i n Appendix I , conventional

pressure coefficient C can be w r i t t e n i n terms of measured

P '
information as
with an e r r o r of <3% i n t h e R e y n o l d s number r a n g e investi-

gated here.

It is of interest to point out here that similar data

r e d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e was first e m p l o y e d by Modi and

46
Aminzadeh . in t h e i r studies with aortic heart valves
where the R e y n o l d s number r a n g e of interest was 100-1200.
49

More r e c e n t l y , extensive tests with s p h e r e s by A k u t s u have

substantiated relative insensitivity of the proposed

pressure coefficient to test-section geometry, velocity

profile, R e y n o l d s number and blockage.

4.2 Effect of R e y n o l d s Number

Figure 4-2 t h r o u g h 4-4 summarize a rather comprehensive

set of d a t a on t h e surface pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n for two

dimensional circular cylinders as affected by the Reynolds

number f o r a given blockage i n the range 2-50%. The

information is presented using the new d e f i n i t i o n of the

pressure coefficient discussed before.' A l t h o u g h the use

of conventional definition (CT) showed essentially the same

trends, it magnified the influence of R e y n o l d s number and

 70

1.0

0.8 -1-5 *
R
n -175
34 S/C
0.6 -1.0\ A G R O V E etal 10 %
\

12.5%
1

C. • PRESENT

0.4 L05

0.2 0

0 U -0.5
c
p ,Grove etal

• •
0-2 U - 1 0

- 04 L-1-5

-0.6
0 30 .6 0 90 120 150 180
e

Figure 4.2. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e p r e s s u r e p l o t s comparing present r e s u l t s

w i t h t h o s e by Grove e t a l . a t a low R e y n o l d s number o f
175. Note a r e l a t i v e i n s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e p r o p o s e d
p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t to d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e s t c o n d i t i o n s .
 71

1.0 .1-0

36 - H 3

0.8 >0.5 \f A EL-SHERBINY 15x10

3
• PRESENT 15x10

0.6 -0

C
P
0.4 -0-5

0.2 L -10
Cp , El-Sherbiny

0 _1.5

A *

0-2 --2.0 A •

AV

0.4

0 30 60 90 120 150

Figure 4-3. A c o m p a r i s o n o f p r e s e n t r e s u l t s w i t h t h o s e by E l - S h e r b i n y
a t a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h R e y n o l d s number o f 15 x 10^.
 ,72

wall confinement (Figures 4-2 and 4 - 3 ) . Akutsu came

to the same conclusion during his studies with spherical

models. Note the new d e f i n i t i o n correlates different

sets of results quite well although they correspond to

investigations conducted in different test facilities.

At the outset one can say that the effect of Reynolds

number is essentially confined to the r e g i o n downstream of

the zero p r e s s u r e point ( F i g u r e 4-4) and even here it is

limited to R^ o f up t o a r o u n d 1200, except for the higher

blockage ratios of 25% and 501. In g e n e r a l , an i n c r e a s e in

the R e y n o l d s number l e a d s to a corresponding increase in

the minimum as well as the wake p r e s s u r e s . Furthermore,

location of the minimum p r e s s u r e point together with the

approximate location of the separation point (as indicated

by t h e beginning of the uniform pressure region of the

wake) tend to shift a little upstream.

At higher blockage ratios (Figures 4-4 e, f) essentially

the same trend is maintained., however, the R e y n o l d s number

dependency is extended to around R n = 3000. It is of interest

36
to note here that Sherbiny also observed the same trend
in his study with a circular c y l i n d e r of 35.5 % blockage in
4 4 '
the R e y n o l d s number r a n g e of 5 x 10 - 12 x 10 .
 73

1-0

0.8 S / C =2% [D 1.2cm] =

R
n= 18 •
0.6 34 o
160 A
400 A
0.4 720 •
1200 *
1560 o
0.2

C.
0 A

Km*- O
- 0.2 • • • A
o
A
\ A A A

J3'
0-4 a \
^ °
o
\ o o o
a-

-0-6 Dennis and Chang

50

0.8

-1.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
0°
Figure 4-4 S u r f a c e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f f e c t e d by the Reynolds
number f o r a g i v e n b l o c k a g e ratio:
a) S / C = 21.
 74

1.0
S/C 3.3'%CD= 2 cm]
=

0.8 R =n 30
55 .
300 •
0.6 12 00 •
3000 <

0.4

T
0.2

c p 0

-0.2

- 0-4

- 0-6 D n D •

-08

-1.0
0 30 60 90 120 150
o
0
Figure 4-4 S u r f a c e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f f e c t e d by t h e Reynolds
number f o r a g i v e n b l o c k a g e ratio:
b) S/C =3.3%.
 75

to
S/C= 6.6% CD = 4cm]

0-8 R: 60 D

n 80 O
130 A

600 •
0-6 <
120 0
3000
6000
0-4
c
0-2

0
l «1 2 i f
e < •
A A
A D
-0-2 A O
a
o O
O •
A

8 A A

•0-4 O A
° o
A
o
O •
^ oo •
• D

• •a
-0-6

-0-8
0 30 60 90 120 150
0

Figure 4-4. S u r f a c e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f f e c t e d by t h e Reynolds

number f o r a g i v e n b l o c k a g e ratio:
c) S/C = 6 . 6 % .
 76

10

0-8 S/C =12.5 % [ • =7.6 cm]

110 •
n= R

230 o
120 0 o
0-6 3000
61 50
11000
0-4

0- 2 a

c 0
p u

o o o o
-0-2 ®• . J o o o
D a
n °
OoO°
•
-0-4 •
• • •

- 0-6

-0-8

-1.0
30 60 90 120 150 1 8 0

Figure 4-4 S u r f a c e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f f e c t e d by the Reynolds

number f o r a g i v e n b l o c k a g e ratio:
d) S / C = 12.5%.
 77

1-0
S/C= 25 % [ D=15 cm J
0-8 R = 190
0
360
800 V

0-6 120 0 o
2000 o
3000
0.4 5000

C p 0.2

6
O o o
-0-2
4* O
o
o
• 8~o<>
0 o v
V

-0-4
V v

-0-6 D

-0-8 O n
a

30 60 90 1 20 1 50
e

Figure 4-4 S u r f a c e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f f e c t e d by t h e Reynolds

number f o r a g i v e n b l o c k a g e ratio:
e) S / C = 25%.
 78

1.0

0-8 S/Cz50 % CD= 30 cm]

R= R 350
0.6 730
1200
0-4 240 0 V

3000 o
18000 o
0-2

C 0
P

0.2

- 0,4
A
A

- 0-6
• T

0-8

- 1.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
6°

Figure 4-4 S u r f a c e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f f e c t e d by the Reynolds

number f o r a g i v e n b l o c k a g e ratio:
f) S / C = 50%.
 79

It must be e m p h a s i z e d that such d e t a i l e d measurements

of pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n on.the surface of a circular

cylinder (even i n absence of blockage effects) in the

indicated range of the R e y n o l d s number (R < 20,000) have

not been r e c o r d e d i n the literature, except for the attempts

by Thom*^ and Grove et al. 3 4

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , Thorn d i d n o t

have access to the modern s o p h i s t i c a t e d instrumentation.

His experiments, carried out w i t h oil or water as a working

fluid and i n t h e R e y n o l d s number r a n g e of 3-174, required,

for pressure measurements, reading of a manometer with

differential column o f less than 1 mm! And t h a t too w i t h the

system h a v i n g a time constant of one h o u r ! His results show

questionable trends and a r e generally considered misleading.

On the other hand, r e s u l t s by Grove and h i s associates are

indeed reliable, however, they are l i m i t e d to a single Reynolds

number o f 145. Hence t h e y fail to throw any l i g h t on c o r r e -

lation between s u r f a c e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n and evolution

of the Foppl vortices leading to instability and vortex

shedding. Recently, Dennis and C h a n g ^ have developed a finite

difference scheme for solution of equations of motion. Present

results tend to c o n f i r m t h e i r p r e d i c t i o n up t o R^ = 100

(Figure 4-4a).

4.3 Wall Confinement Effects

Figure 4-5 summarizes results on the influence of blockage

 80

for circular cylinders at a given R e y n o l d s number. It must

be recognized that the minimum and maximum a t t a i n a b l e speeds

in any l i q u i d tunnel are l i m i t e d by d e s i g n considerations.

F o r the present facility, t h e y were 0.5 cm/s and 15 cm/s,

respectively. However, the useful range is further restricted

by the sensitivity of the pressure transducer and a d d i t i o n a l

load imposed on t h e drive s y s t e m d u r i n g the high blockage

condition. Hence for a given blockage, it was n o t always

possible to cover the desired range of R e y n o l d s number

(10 - 3000). This has led to unavoidable gaps i n the results

presented here. However, the trends are reasonably well

established. From F i g u r e 4-5 it is apparent that, as before,

the wall confinement effects at a given R e y n o l d s number are

significant only over the region downstream of the zero

pressure point. The b l o c k a g e has a definite tendency to

reduce the minimum and b a s e p r e s s u r e s . The minimum p r e s s u r e

point shows a d i s t i n c t rearward s h i f t with an i n c r e a s e in the

blockage. S i m i l a r downstream movement of the separation

point can a l s o be discerned, although it is not always quite

distinct. A flow visualization study described later (section

4.6) confirmed this trend.

As c a n be expected from the previous discussion, the

blockage effects remain e s s e n t i a l l y the same f o r R n > 3000.

However, what is more s i g n i f i c a n t is an i n c r e a s i n g dependence

 81

1.0
R =3000
n
.0,8 S/C % 3.3 .
6.6 o

0-6 12.5 A

25 •
50 .
04

0.2

C
0
•o 2 2
• o• • A
A

• •
•o
0.2 o• o •
aa a
o • •
• D
a o

.0.4

-0-6

-0-8

- 1-0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
0°
Figure 4-5. Pressure plots as a f f e c t e d by b l o c k a g e at a given Reynolds
number: a) R = 3000.
. n
 82

1-0
R p z1200
0.8 S/C % , 3.3
•
6.6 o
12.5
0-6
25
50
0-4
c
0.2

0 <5
o •
• o
• •o •
rt
V
• O * v
.0-2 '* A *
•V •O° A
• •

V V

-0-4 • •

.0-6 a •

0-8

-1.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
9°

Figure 4-5. Pressure plots as a f f e c t e d by b l o c k a g e at a given Reynolds

number: b) R = 1200.
 83

to

0.8 R = 400
S/cL 2 .

0-6 3.3 o
C. 12.5 -
'P
0-4 25 D

50 T

0-2

0
• o o o
• o
• o
• 9 • o •
o •
0-2

- 0-4 •
•
•
•
0-6
P •

0.8

1-0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
0°

Figure 4-5. Pressure plots as. a f f e c t e d by b l o c k a g e at a given Reynolds

number: c) R = 400.
J
n
 84

i-o
R .-200
n

• S/C; 2
0-8 T
°/o T

12.5 °/o a

25 I. •
0-6

0-4

0-2
C
0 •
•
r
D
•
•
•

r •
a •
- 0-2 T

• •
n • • •

-0-4

0.6

0.8 • -

1-0
0 30 60 90 o 12 0 150 180
6

Figure 4-5. Pressure plots as a f f e c t e d by b l o c k a g e at a given Reynold*

number: d) R = 200.
n
 85

1.0,

0.8 R
n=30

S/C = 2 /
Q

0.6 3-3 °/ 0 r

0.4

C
0.2

- 0.2
T

-0.4

-0.6 T
• T T •
•

-0.8

-1-0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
e

Figure 4-5. Pressure plots as a f f e c t e d by b l o c k a g e at a given Reynolds

number e) R = 30
J
n
 86

of the surface pressure on b l o c k a g e at lower Reynolds numbers.

The p o i n t is well e m p h a s i z e d by F i g u r e 4-5e, w h i c h shows a

substantial modification i n the pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n for a

change i n blockage by l e s s t h a n 1.5%. In g e n e r a l , analytical

approaches in this range of the R e y n o l d s number have tended

to be u n r e l i a b l e b e c a u s e of the drastic assumptions involved

and breakdown i n t h e schemes o f n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n ^ . On

_the other hand, t h e o r e t i c a l predictions on b l o c k a g e effects

are indeed none. In t h e s e circumstances, results presented

in Figure 4-5 represent an i m p o r t a n t p i e c e of information.

Figure 4-6 shows v a r i a t i o n o f the minimum p r e s s u r e and

the average base p r e s s u r e w i t h R e y n o l d s number and b l o c k a g e .

In g e n e r a l , for a constant blockage ratio, b o t h t h e minimum

and b a s e p r e s s u r e s increase with the R e y n o l d s number attaining

nearly uniform values around R = 3000. Note, the rate of

rise i n b o t h the cases is somewhat g r a d u a l at lower blockage

b u t becomes r a t h e r s t e e p under the higher confinement condi-

tions of 25%and 50%. For a given R e y n o l d s number, t h e effect

of blockage is to reduce these parameters, under c e r t a i n con-

ditions rather dramatically. Interestingly, ~ Cp m

1 S n o t

49

independent of blockage, as o b s e r v e d by A k u t s u in his studies

with spheres, but is strongly dependent on i t (not shown).

Numerical results by D e n n i s and Chang*^ compare r a t h e r well.

Unfortunately, their finite difference procedure is valid

o n l y up t o R n = 100 and t h a t too i n absence of blockage.

 S/C %
c.
ml * 2
o 3-3
* 6-6
0 a 12.5
* 25
• 50
o o
0.2 A
A
• D

0-4

0-6

0.8

10 10' 10 v
10 R
n CO
Figure 4-6 E f f e c t o f w a l l confinement on t h e minimum and base p r e s s u r e s ' , 10 < R < 18,000
a) minimum p r e s s u r e . . n
 c I S/C7 0

P b
r . 92
• _Dennisand C h a n g 5 0

o 3-3
0 A
6-6
• 125
O A A A A
•
25 D A A
•
• 50

0-2
A
•

0-4

0-6

0-8
10 10 2
io 3
io 4
R n

Figure 4-6. E f f e c t o f w a l l . c o n f i n e m e n t on t h e minimum and base p r e s s u r e s , ' 10 <. R < 18 , 0 0 0 :

b) base p r e s s u r e . n '
 89

4.4 Drag Coefficient

Pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e surface of a cylinder

h a v i n g been established, the next logical s t e p was to obtain

pressure integrated value of d r a g and ass,ess its dependence

on b l o c k a g e . This, of course, cannot account for the skin

friction contribution. On the other h a n d , the direct measure-

ment o f skin f r i c t i o n is confined to the h i g h R e y n o l d s number

range of 6 x 10 4
- 5 x 10^ by A c h e n b a c h * ^ and the low Reynolds

number r a n g e of 10 - 300 by Thom^"*". As p o i n t e d out before,

Thorn's r e s u l t s are generally considered u n r e l i a b l e , and

Achenbach's are not relevant to the present study.

One w o u l d e x p e c t p r e s s u r e drag coefficient to be primarily

g o v e r n e d by m a g n i t u d e and l o c a t i o n of the minimum p r e s s u r e

point and the pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n downstream o f it. Since

the pressure profiles do n o t change substantially beyond

R n = 1000 - 3000 (R = 1000 for lower blockage ratios and

R n = 3000 at the higher confinement condition), the pressure

drag coefficient for a given blockage is expected to remain

essentially constant beyond these critical values of the

R e y n o l d s number (Figure 4-7). As can be anticipated, the

effect of blockage is to increase the drag coefficient pri-

marily because of the local increase i n the free stream

velocity. Note, over the blockage ratio range of 50%, the

drag coefficient can i n c r e a s e by as much as 125%. Numerical

 cD,
S/C%
. 2-3.3
12.5 Present
A- 25
50 54
Rosenhead
50
Dennis and Ghang

•
A

I I I I I I I I I

10 10' 10 v

10
R
n

Figure 4-7. Variation of the pressure drag coefficient with Reynolds number and blockage.
 91

results by D e n n i s and C h a n g J U
, for < 100, compare favor-

ably with the measured d a t a . The s o l i d line corresponds to

52 53
experimental results by R e l f and P r a n d t l et al. as quoted

by Rosenhead^ . 4

4.5 S t r o u h a l Number

The factors governing the vortex f o r m a t i o n and shedding

frequency for b l u f f bodies are not yet clearly understood.

Several length parameters have been p r o p o s e d w h i c h a r e thought

to have direct r e l a t i o n with the shedding frequency. One o f

this is the projected height of a model ( n o r m a l to the free

stream) which w i t h incident velocity and v o r t e x frequency

forms the S t r o u h a l number, S . n Importance of the Strouhal

number l i e s i n the fact that, for a given orientation of a

body, it tends to be u n i f o r m i n t h e subcritical range of the

Reynolds number, 1 0 4
< R < R . Attempts have been made'
J
' - n .- n,cr ' r

to define a more g e n e r a l form o f the S t r o u h a l number that

does n o t depend on the body shape or i t s orientation. The

55

most w e l l known i s that due to Roshko where the normal dis-

tance between the separated shear -

layers after they become

parallel, h, and t h e separation velocity u" a r e u s e d

s as

characteristic parameters to give

 92

* = fh
b
U
s '

The 'universal' S t r o u h a l number was f o u n d t o have the value

of 0.181 for circular cylinders, 9 0 ° wedges and n o r m a l flat

plates. This suggests that the distance between the shear

layers represents one of the important parameters associated

w i t h the vortex shedding.

In t h i s context it is pertinent to mention here experi-

ments with a f a m i l y of elliptic cylinders c o n d u c t e d by Modi

and D i k s h i t " ^ . Their effort at correlating results over a

wide range,of the cylinder eccentricity and a n g l e of attack

showed S to fair poorly for slender ellipses (e = 0.92,

0.98) at a < 50°. However, the c o r r e l a t i o n improved sub-

stantially with the normal distance between s e p a r a t i o n points

as the characteristic length.

Variation of the S t r o u h a l number (based on t h e cylinder

diameter) with the R e y n o l d s number and b l u f f n e s s is presented

in Figure 4-8. In g e n e r a l , for a given blockage, the Strouhal

number i n c r e a s e s with the R e y n o l d s number t e n d i n g to approach

a uniform value around R n = 1000. Comparing these results

32 57
with t h o s e by Roshko , Relf and Simmons , and Modi and
58 '
El-Sherbiny (for negligible blockage) i n the R e y n o l d s number
4

range of 40 < R^ < 10 suggests that this apparently constant

value represents a peak followed by a drop i n the Strouhal

 S/C %
A 5
0-4 • 1 5
• 25

0-3

'n
0-2 • A

A A*

0-1

A •

0 J L I J I L». J- I I
20 100 1000
R
n

Figure 4-8. V a r i a t i o n of the S t r o u h a l number w i t h b l o c k a g e at the lower end o f the Reynolds

number range (R < 1000).
 94

number f o r 10 J
< R '5 1 0 H
(Figure 4-9).

As a n t i c i p a t e d , the effect of blockage is to increase the Strou

hal number . because of the local increase i n the freestream

velocity. F o r the blockage ratios considered, this trend is

apparent for R n > 2000. However, at lower R e y n o l d s number,

the trend is r e v e r s e d because of the delay i n the onset of

vortex shedding at higher blockage. Thus, at lower Reynolds

numbers, rate of generation of v o r t i c i t y diminishes w i t h an

increase i n the blockage.

It is i m p o r t a n t to emphasize here that the only other relevant

58
information on t h e subject is due t o Modi and S h e r b i n y in
4 5

the R e y n o l d s number range of 10 - 1.2 x 10 . Their results

show s i m i l a r t r e n d and a r e p r e s e n t e d for comparison in

Figure 4 - 9.

Figure 4-10 shows v a r i a t i o n o f the R e y n o l d s number

corresponding to the i n i t i a t i o n of the vortex shedding as a

function of wall confinement. Note, i n absence of blockage

the vortex shedding initiates at R = 41. However, it is

delayed to R n = 300 for the blockage ratio of 501!

4.6 Flow V i s u a l i z a t i o n and Near-Wake A n a l y s i s

To p r o v i d e b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n as w e l l as substantiation

of the c e r t a i n b e h a v i o u r e x h i b i t e d by t h e measured d a t a , it

was decided to undertake an e x t e n s i v e flow visualization

 0.4

'n
S/C°A

" 5
)
• 15 / Present
• 25
0.3

35.5 %
32
Roshko ..---26.5 ? Q

14.8 %
0.2
S/C = 4-5 \
59 Modi and £ 8

Nishioka and Sato El-Sherbiny

0.1
10 10 10" R 10 V
to
n on
Figure 4-9 A c o m p a r i s o n o f measured S t r o u h a l d a t a w i t h t h o s e by o t h e r investigators
300 n R n .cr.

Flow visualization

Hot film probe measurements

200-

100 -

0
10 20 30 40 50
S/C %

Figure 4-10. Onset o f v o r t e x shedding as affected by the blockage <o

ON
 97

programme.A s e t of cylinders ranging i n diameter from 1-10 cm

were u s e d i n the glycerol-water solution of 761 concentration

by w e i g h t . The main o b j e c t i v e was to observe the formation,

development and i n s t a b i l i t y of the Foppl vortices and the

associated influence on the measured p r e s s u r e data. It was

a l s o hoped t h a t this would p r o v i d e some i n d i c a t i o n concerning

location of the separation position and i t s movement. The

use of dye injection procedure, explained in detail earlier,

proved to be q u i t e effective in achieving these objectives.

It showed formation of the vortices in a rather spectacular

fashion as presented i n F i g u r e 4-11. Numerous photographs

were t a k e n at systematic increments of the Reynolds number.

Only a few of the typical pictures illustrating formation,

symmetric elongation, onset of asymmetry and instability

followed by t u r b u l e n t shedding are p r e s e n t e d in Figure 4-12.

The e x i s t e n c e of an a x i s y m m e t r i c , stable vortex system for

low R e y n o l d s number i n a s t r e a m , essentially free o f macro-

scopic turbulence is shown i n F i g u r e 4-12(a) through 4-12(f).

For the R e y n o l d s number above a c r i t i c a l value (corresponding

to the first formation of a s t a b l e bubble or Foppl vortices,

R^ - 2), the streamlines separate from t h e surface and form

a closed region immediately b e h i n d the cylinder. A single

s t r e a m emerges from the vertex of the closed region extending

to a long distance b e h i n d the cylinder. The s i z e of the bubble

is such as to m a i n t a i n an e q u i l i b r i u m between the rate at

98
 99

Figure 4-12 A flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n s t u d y showing development

and i n s t a b i l i t y o f v o r t e x r i n g w i t h R e y n o l d s
number ( S / C = 15%): (a) R = 4; (b) R = 10;
(c) R = 17; (d) R = 21
n n
n n
 100

Figure 4-12 (cent.) A flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n study showing

development and i n s t a b i l i t y o f v o r t e x ring
m
( )
f
\ R e y n
R
?J d s

= 42;
n

(g)
u m b

R
e r

=
( S / C

6;
= 15%): (e) R
(h) R ^ ' = 6 0 N
= 31-
n R 5
 101

which v o r t i c i t y is generated and d i s s i p a t e d into the main

stream. As the Reynolds number i s increased, the Foppl

vortices become e l o n g a t e d i n the flow direction to maintain

this e q u i l i b r i u m , and the separation points move upstream

towards the front stagnation point. This forward movement

of the separation points was also s u g g e s t e d by t h e pressure

plots presented earlier (Figure 4-4).

For Reynolds number between 42-300 (depending on the

wall confinement condition, see Figure 4-10), an asymmetry

in the c i r c u l a t o r y motion w i t h i n the vortex sheet produces

a corresponding asymmetry i n the c i r c u l a t o r y motion i n the bub-

ble itself and a r e s u l t a n t shift from t h e centerline. Note

the beginning of a small vortex i n F i g u r e 4-12 (g) which pro-

gressively enlarges accentuating the asymmetry as in Figure

4-12(h).

The state of unsymmetrical but s t e a d y wake is disturbed

by f u r t h e r increase i n the Reynolds number. The r a t e at which

vorticity is diffused from the sheet into the main body o f the

fluid appears to remain p r a c t i c a l l y constant, but the increased

rate at which it is transferred to the vortices creates unstable

condition within the vortex sheet. Basically, the process is

one of b u i l d - u p and r e l e a s e , b u t no s i z e a b l e portion of the

bubble escapes t h r o u g h an o p e n i n g i n the end o f the vortex

sheet d u r i n g the cycle. T h i s i n t u r n causes the oscillation

 102

of the a s y m m e t r i c a l wake about the axis of symmetry (Figures

4-12 g , h) . When t h e v o r t e x strength of the bubble reaches

a critical value, a sudden m o t i o n o f the Foppl vortices dis-

turbs the sheet, which i n turn is responsible for release of the

vorticity and a c o n s e q u e n t return of the bubble to its

original position and s h a p e . In t h e cycle o f b u i l d - u p and

release, the v o r t i c i t y generated i n the boundary l a y e r becomes

c o n c e n t r a t e d on d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e sides of the flow axis

within the vortex sheet. The s e c t i o n s i n which the vortex

strength is the greatest are alternately discharged into the

main body o f the fluid. With each e j e c t i o n , a p o r t i o n of the

sheet is carried away. The v o r t e x element discharged into the

stream i n t e r a c t s with the dispersed liquid to form a r e g u l a r

wake p a t t e r n , familiarly known as the Karman v o r t e x street

(Figure 4-13).

As m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , the flow visualization results pro-

vide useful information concerning l o c a t i o n of the separating

shear layer. To t h i s end, the p h o t o g r a p h s were analyzed

systematically and the separation position plotted as a func-

tion of as shown i n F i g u r e 4-14(a). The c o r r e s p o n d i n g

results as g i v e n by p r e s s u r e p l o t s are shown i n F i g u r e 4-14(b).

In t h e common r a n g e o f R e y n o l d s number ( R n - 10 •-. 260) , the

c o r r e l a t i o n between the two s e t s of results is rather good.

Note that the s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t moves f o r w a r d by about 10° for

 u
100 200 300
Figure 4-14. P o s i t i o n o f s e p a r a t i o n as a f f e c t e d by the Reynolds number and w a l l confinement: !
a) flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n d a t a . •
150 o »o • • T o
•
•
o

100 S/C 2% -6.6% .

12.5 %
25 %
50 % o

50
10 10' 1Cf 1CT
R
n
Figure 4-14. Position o£ separation as affected by t h e R e y n o l d s number and w a l l confinement
•u ^ 1 ^„J 1 _ J. _ /" ^
 106

the blockage ratio of 5% over the small R e y n o l d s number

range of 9-28, and can move u p s t r e a m by as much as 45° o v e r

the range R n = 30 - 6000 ( F i g u r e 4-14 b ). For comparison,

available results by o t h e r investigators are also included.

Here the line a t t r i b u t e d to Dennis and C h a n g ^ represents

results of the numerical i n t e g r a t i o n .of the governing equa-

tions of motion using a finite-difference scheme. The figure

also shows e f f e c t of blockage on p o s i t i o n of the separating

vortex sheet. In g e n e r a l , the effect of wall confinement

is to move location of the shear layer separation downstream,

by as much as 2 5 ° over the blockage ratio range of 2-50%. It

must be emphasized that the visual determination of separation

point is, at best, approximate. Considering this and the

unstable character, of the process, scatter i n the experimen-

tal results is surprisingly small.

Typical photographs of t h e wake a s s o c i a t e d with cylinders

offering different blockage are presented in Figure 4-15 and

4-16. Effect of blockage on e v o l u t i o n of t h e wake a t a fixed

R e y n o l d s number o f 100 is v i v i d l y depicted in Figure 4-15.

At a lower blockage of 25%, instability of t h e wake has just

set in ( F i g u r e 4-15 a) , however, at the same R e y n o l d s n u m b e r ,

the wake b e h i n d a c y l i n d e r o f 50% b l o c k a g e is still developing

and is quite stable ( F i g u r e 4-15 b) . Photographs in Figure

4-16 f u r t h e r emphasize this point. Note, the wake b u b b l e

 108

(b) R n = 150 , S/C= 50%

Figure 4-16 Photographs emphasizing i n f l u e n c e of w a l l

confinement on e v o l u t i o n o f t h e F o p p l v o r t i c e s :

(a) R n = 85, S / C = 25%;

(b) R n = 150, S / C = 50%
 109

associated w i t h the c y l i n d e r of 50% b l o c k a g e is smaller and

stable even at a R e y n o l d s number as h i g h as 150. On t h e

other hand, the Foppl v o r t i c e s have e v o l v e d f u r t h e r and wake

is approaching i n s t a b i l i t y at R n = 85 f o r the c y l i n d e r with

blockage of 25%.

Figure 4-17 attempts to assess, quantitatively, effect

of the R e y n o l d s number and b l o c k a g e on the development of the

Foppl vortices by u s i n g length of the cavity i n the direction

of the flow as a measure for comparison. Experimental results

33

by T a n e d a and n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s as o b t a i n e d by D e n n i s and

Chang^, i n absence of blockage, are also included. As

expected, the cavity length increases with the R e y n o l d s number.

However, wall confinement d r a s t i c a l l y diminishes its rate of

growth. Note, there is considerable d i s c r e p a n c y between the

33

present results f o r S / C = 5% and t h o s e of Taneda as well

as Dennis and C h a n g * ^ . Taneda c a r r i e d out his experiments

in 1956 towing cylinders coated with condensed milk. Although

Taneda's excellence in experimental technique is quite well

known, the procedure is likely to give data of limited

accuracy. Dennis and C h a n g ' s r e s u l t s are through numerical

analysis of the Navier-Stokes equations as mentioned earlier.

As p o i n t e d out by t h e authors themselves, the procedure is

susceptible to instability and has occasionally shown vortex

length to diminish with an i n c r e a s e i n the R e y n o l d s number!

 33
Taneda
50
Dennis&Chang

s/c %
o 5
T 15
25
•
50

R
n
100 200 300
Figure 4-17 Dependence of vortex length on the R e y n o l d s number and b l o c k a g e
 4.7 C l o s i n g Comments

Before closing it w o u l d be. a p p r o p r i a t e t o review

some o f t h e more s i g n i f i c a n t results and e x p r e s s a few

thoughts on p o s s i b l e avenues f o r f u t u r e e x p l o r a t i o n which

are l i k e l y to be p r o f i t a b l e .

4.7.1 C o n c l u d i n g remarks

Important conclusions b a s e d on t h e experimental

results may be s u m m a r i z e d as follows:

(i) The use of average v e l o c i t y i n the test-section

(based on t h e mean f l o w rate) as a reference velocity

together w i t h the p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t defined as

Pn - P
C = J 1
P

p r o m i s e s t o p r o m o t e r e p e a t a b i l i t y and c o m p a r i s o n o f data

by o t h e r investigators regardless o f the test facilities

used. This approach tends to compensate for irregularity

of the velocity p r o f i l e and p o s s i b l e errors in pressure

measurements c a u s e d by e l e c t r i c a l d r i f t of the pressure

measuring system.
 112

(ii) For pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e surface of a cylinder,

the effect of R e y n o l d s number i s essentially confined to

the r e g i o n downstream o f zero p r e s s u r e point and even here

it is l i m i t e d to R n < 3000. In g e n e r a l , the effect of

R e y n o l d s number i s to increase the minimum as w e l l as the

wake p r e s s u r e s . Furthermore, locations of t h e minimum

pressure and s e p a r a t i o n tend to shift little upstream.

(iii) Pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e surface of a cylinder

is substantially affected by t h e blockage. Pressure

profiles become extremely sensitive to the wall confinement

particularly at the lower end o f the R e y n o l d s number r a n g e .

In g e n e r a l , there is a definite tendency to reduce the

minimum and b a s e p r e s s u r e s . The minimum p r e s s u r e

point shows a d i s t i n c t rearward s h i f t w i t h an increase

in the blockage.

(iv) Drag c o e f f i c i e n t o b t a i n e d by i n t e g r a t i n g pressure

distribution data agrees r a t h e r w e l l w i t h the results,

at small blockage, by o t h e r investigators substantiating

reliability of the measuring i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . In general,

the drag coefficient increases with blockage because of

the local rise i n the free stream velocity.

 113

(v) Flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n p r o v i d e d b e t t e r appreciation

as to the physical character of the flow i n terms of

formation, elongation and i n s t a b i l i t y of the Foppl vortices.

It showed the separation location t o move downstream with

an i n c r e a s e in blockage.

(iv) Results o b t a i n e d here should serve as a useful

reference i n comparing c o r r e s p o n d i n g data o b t a i n e d in:

(a) turbulent, shear and p u l s a t i l e flows;

(b) long c h a i n polymer solutions.

4.7.2 Recommendation f o r future study

As p o i n t e d out before, the present efforts at

obtaining some a p p r e c i a t i o n as to the physics of the wall

confinement effects at low R e y n o l d s numbers r e p r e s e n t only

a modest beginning. T h e r e a r e numerous avenues along

which the r e s e a r c h programme may p r o g r e s s in future. Some

of the more i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s , recommended f o r future

studies, are summarized below:

(i) In t h e present set of experiments, blockage effects

on t h e surface pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n c o u l d not be studied

 114

over the entire range of R n of interest in a l l the cases.

Limiting factors were power of the d r i v e s y s t e m and sen-

sitivity of the pressure measuring instrumentation. The

surface pressure at lower R e y n o l d s numberswas found to be

so small [0(10 ^)psi] that it presented a problem of

measurement with an a c c e p t a b l e degree of a c c u r a c y and

repeatability. Therefore, it is suggested that pressure,

measumrenents at lower Reynolds numbers(and higher

blockage) s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n t o p r o v i d e a comprehensive

picture of w a l l confinement effects. This can be accomplished

using:

(a) more s e n s i t i v e and s t a b l e p r e s s u r e transducer

(e.g., Digiquartz pressure transducers);

(b) a m o d i f i e d d r i v e and t h e pump s y s t e m so

that higher concentration of glycerol-water

solution c a n be handled.

(ii) No e f f o r t has been made t o evaluate pressure

distribution, turbulence character and s h e a r stress in the

wake. In f a c t shear stress on the surface of a cylinder,

even i n a b s e n c e o f blockage, i n t h i s range of Reynolds

number r e m a i n s unrecorded. The , i n f o r m a t i o n i s quite

important in evaluating performance of long-chain polymers.

 115

(iii) A direct measurement of the skin f r i c t i o n though

desirable presents several challenging problems. On t h e

other h a n d , measurement of the total d r a g as a function of

the Reynolds number and b l o c k a g e is relatively simple.

It is suggested that a sensitive drag balance be designed

for the purpose and a s y s t e m a t i c programme o f total drag

measurement initiated. With the pressure drag data in

hand, this should y i e l d rather u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n on

skin f r i c t i o n v a r i a t i o n with blockage near the lower end

of the R e y n o l d s number r a n g e .

(iv) Tests s h o u l d be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h c y l i n d r i c a l models

under d i v e r s e conditions of v e l o c i t y profile, blockage,

turbulence and p r e s s u r e gradient to firmly establish

universal character of the pressure distribution using

proposed d e f i n i t i o n of the pressure coefficient.

(v) Blockage corrections for bluff bodies such as

circular cylinder, flat plate, sphere, etc. i n shear flow

should provide useful information.

(vi) An i m p o r t a n t a r e a o f interest, which i s particularly

significant in biological fluid mechanics, w o u l d be the

study of p u l s a t i l e flow past bluff bodies under w a l l

confinement simulating a t y p i c a l cardiac cycle. T h i s may

also involve modeling of turbulence character of the

biological fluid flow and e l a s t i c i t y of the region. The

field is relatively new and r e m a i n s v i r t u a l l y u n e x p l o r e d

to date.

(vii) It would b e . u s e f u l to study effect of aspect ratio

in the presence of w a l l confinement.

 117

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Proceedings of the 3rd I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on

Wind E f f e c t s on B u i l d i n g s and S t r u c t u r e s , Editor:

Japanese O r g a n i z i n g Committee, Saikon Shuppan C o . ,

Ltd., Tokyo 1971, pp. 365-375.

59. Nishioka, M . , and S a t o , M . , "Measurements of

Velocity Distribution i n the Wake o f a Circular

Cylinder at Low R e y n o l d s Numbers," Journal of Fluid

Mechanics, V o l / 65, Part 1, 1974, pp. 97-112.

 126

APPENDIX-I

CONVENTIONAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT C~ IN TERMS

p
OF MEASURED INFORMATION

In a low Reynolds number e x p e r i m e n t using a liquid

tunnel, difficulties i n establishing characteristic

reference velocity and p r e s s u r e , P and U , were discussed

•* c
' CO CO '

before. However, f o r comparison and t o e s t a b l i s h relative

effectiveness of t h e new definition of pressure coefficient,

one can c a l c u l a t e the conventional pressure coefficient

— 2

Cp = (Pg - P^) ( 1 / 2 ) p U ^ quite readily using differential

pressure data measured during the experiment.

The x component o f Navier-Stokes equation along the

stagnation streamline y = 0 c a n be w r i t t e n as

3u 1 3P , r 3 u
2
, 3 u,2

U TT- ~ — — "TT— + V [ T + o]
3x p 3x .2 2
3x 3y-

Integrating from front stagnation point to,minus infinity

upstream o f the sphere yields,

u
3u ,
-r—dx
= - —
p
. — dx + v
3x
[ n
. 2
+ —sH
2 J
dx
,
3x • ' -co J-co a x 3y
J —CO J

2
u
CO
2
 127

u 2 2
9 u . 9 u, ,
+ + V r

[—j +
—2"^
3x* 3y

0 00
3 U ,3 U ,
1 + r n

1/2 P u; 1/2 u" -6 3x dy

rd U , 3 U, ,
+ L—o + — t - J dx
3x' •3y

where 6 is the boundary-layer thickness. The second integral

vanishes' because of i r r o t a t i o n a l i t y of the outer flow while

in the f i r s t integral usual boundary layer approximation

2 2
3 u > > 3 u
3x* 3y

can be introduced. Since

3u 3v
at x = 0
3x 3y

0 °o
= 1 - 3u
1/2 P ^ 1/2 u f 3 x
= 1 +
i +

x = 6
y = 0

where A is a constant and R is the Reynolds number.

 128

Here the numerical value of A follows directly from the

outer flow solution.

Using the potential flow analysis, Hon 1 3 1 1 1 1 a s

well as

Grove et a l . 3 4
have shown, independently, the value of A

to be 8. Thus,

P - P
0 °° _ , . 8 .
— _[_ -\- — -J- • • • •
1/2 p U 2 R

i.e.,

P
- P
50° = ( P
0- 50^ P
~ +
• • " ) l / 2 PU 2

Now

p
e- < «,- 5tf>
p p = p
e- { ( p
o- 5op o )
- ( 1 +
l ---*
+ ) 1 / 2 p U
c» }
>

p
e p
» _ r
e "5 0° '<d r
5(f ± „ j ±

2" ~ 2 ~ 2 R
1/2 p Vt 1/2 p u: 1/2 p ui

Recognizing that for a Reynolds number as l o w as 300 con-

tribution of 8/R term is less than 3%, the above expression

reduces to

P
6 - P
~ =
( P
8- 5(^-< 0- 5^
P P P
+ x

V2 p l£ 1/2 p uj