ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

What is the endocrine system?

- The word endocrine is derived from the Greek terms "endo," meaning within, and "krine,"
meaning to separate or secrete. The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising
feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the
circulatory system, regulating distant target organs.

What are its functions?

- Your endocrine system continuously monitors the amount of hormones in your blood.
Hormones deliver their messages by locking into the cells they target so they can relay the
message. The pituitary gland senses when your hormone levels rise, and tells other glands to
stop producing and releasing hormones.
- Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream. This lets the hormones travel to cells
in other parts of the body. The endocrine hormones help control mood, growth and
development, the way our organs work, metabolism, and reproduction.

What Are the Parts of the Endocrine System?

 hypothalamus.
 pituitary.
 pineal body.
 thyroid.
 parathyroids.
 adrenals.
 the ovaries.
 the testes.

HYPOTHALAMUS

A structure deep in your brain, acts as your body's smart control coordinating center. Its main
function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis. It does its job by directly influencing
your autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones

The hypothalamus is arguably the most essential of the endocrine system. By alerting the
pituitary gland to release certain hormones to the rest of the endocrine system, the hypothalamus
ensures that the internal processes of your body are balanced and working as they should.
Location:

Functions of the Hypothalamus

 Heart rate and blood pressure

 Body temperature
 Fluid and electrolyte balance, including thirst
 Appetite and body weight
 Glandular secretions of the stomach and intestines
 Production of substances that influence the pituitary gland to release hormones
 Sleep cycles

Hormones of the Hypothalamus

 Sent to Posterior Lobe of Pituitary Gland

 Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
 Oxytocin
 Sent to Anterior Lobe of Pituitary Gland
 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
 Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) or Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
 Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) or Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
 Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
 Dopamine

Hypothalamic Disease

Hypothalamic diseases can include appetite and sleep disorders, but because the hypothalamus affects
so many different parts of the endocrine system, it can be hard to pinpoint whether the root cause of
hypothalamus disorders is actually related to another gland.

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are so tightly connected that it’s often difficult for doctors to
determine whether the condition is associated with the hypothalamus or pituitary gland. These are
known as hypothalamic-pituitary disorders.
PITUITARY GLAND

Hormones of the pituitary gland help regulate the functions of other endocrine glands. The
pituitary gland is often dubbed the “master gland” because its hormones control other parts of the
endocrine system.

Two Lobes of the Pituitary Gland

 Anterior (Secretes hormones involved in the body’s growth and development)

 Posterior (Secretes hormones that increase the reabsorption of water into the kidneys.)

Location:

Hormones of the Pituitary Gland:

 Anterior Lobe Hormones:

- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

-Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

-Growth hormone (GH)

-Luteinizing hormone (LH)

-Prolactin

-Thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH)

 Posterior Lobe Hormones

-Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

-Oxytocin
Diseases and Disorders of the Pituitary Gland:

Pituitary tumors are the most common pituitary disorder, and many adults have them. Pituitary tumors
can disrupt the gland’s normal ability to release hormones.

There are two types of pituitary tumors—secretory and non-secretory.

These hormonal imbalances can cause problems in many different areas of the body. If you have a
secretory tumor that is overproducing thyroid-stimulating hormone, for instance, you will experience
hyperthyroidism.

The pituitary gland is immensely important to the overall function of your endocrine system—and to
your overall health. By working with the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland ensures that all your body’s
internal processes work as they should.

PINEAL GLAND

- The Pineal body is located below the corpus callosum, in the middle of the brain. It produces the
hormone melatonin, which helps the body know when it’s time to sleep.

- Pineal gland is a tiny but powerful gland when it comes to your body’s circadian rhythm. Circadian
rhythms are physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hour cycle.

- What is melatonin? Melatonin is carried by the circulation from the brain to all areas of the body.
Tissues expressing proteins called receptors specific for melatonin are able to detect the peak in
circulating melatonin at night and this signals to the body that it is night-time.

- Melatonin also interacts with biologically female hormones. Research has shown that it helps in
regulating menstrual cycles.

- Melatonin can also protect against neurodegeneration, which is the progressive loss of function of
neurons. Neurodegeneration is present in conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's
disease.

What is Pineal Gland made of?

- Your pineal gland consists of portions of neurons, neuroglial cells and specialized secreting cells
called pinealocytes, the main cells contained in the pineal gland, located behind the third ventricle and
between the two hemispheres of the brain. The pinealocytes create melatonin and secrete (release) it
directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, the fluid that flows in and around the hollow spaces of your brain
and spinal cord, which then takes it into your bloodstream.

- Pineal gland is a tiny, cone-shaped gland that’s only about 0.8 centimeters (cm) long. In adults, it
weighs about 0.1 grams.
What conditions and disorders affect the pineal gland?

- Pineal gland tumors

- Pineal gland tumors are very rare, and there are several different types of them. They’re more likely to
affect children and adults younger than 40.

Pineal tumors aren't always cancer, but they still cause problems as they grow because they press
against other parts of your brain.

-Injuries that affect the pineal gland

- Damage to your pineal gland can cause it to work improperly. Approximately 30% to 50% of people
who experience a traumatic brain injury (TBI) have issues with at least one endocrine gland in their
brain, which includes the pineal gland.

-Pineal gland calcification

- Calcification happens when calcium builds up in body tissue, causing the tissue to harden. Your pineal
gland tends to calcify as you age. While some calcification is normal, excessive calcification can prevent
your pineal gland from functioning properly. Some studies have revealed that the degree of calcification
of the pineal gland is higher in those affected by Alzheimer’s disease.

What are the symptoms of pineal gland problems?

- Seizures.

- Memory issues.

- Headaches.

- Nausea and vomiting.

- Vision changes.

What are common tests to check the health of the pineal gland?

- Healthcare providers can look at your pineal gland with imaging tests, such as an MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging) or a CT (computed tomography) scan.

- Providers may also use X-rays to check for pineal gland calcification.

- Blood tests

How are pineal gland conditions treated?

- Surgery

- Radiation Therapy

- Chemotherapy
THYMUS GLAND

THE THYMUS IS A PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGAN ESSENTIAL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF T

LYMPHOCYTES WHICH ORCHESTRATE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES.

Location:

Functions of the Thymus

The thymus is responsible for producing and maturing lymphocytes, or immune cells. These include T
cells, a type of white blood cell that defends the body from infections. Additionally, the thymus
suppresses the effects of aging, according to a 2016 study. Hormones released by the thymus inhibit the
aging processes.

Hormones of the Thymus

Three major thymus hormones, thymosin, thymopoietin, and thymulin
-Thymosin is the hormone of the thymus, and it stimulates the development of disease-fighting T cells.
-Thymopoietin: fuels the production of T-cells and tells the pituitary gland to release hormones.
-Thymulin induces differentiation and function of T cells.

Thymus Diseases
The most common thymus diseases are myasthenia gravis (MG), pure red cell aplasia (PRCA) and
hypogammaglobulinemia, according to the NLM.
- Myasthenia gravis occurs when the thymus is abnormally large and produces antibodies that block or
destroy the muscles' receptor sites.>
-Pure red cell aplasia (PRCA) is a rare disorder of blood production in which the bone marrow, the
spongy tissue in the center of the bones, fails to function in an adequate manner resulting in anemia.
-Hypogammaglobulinemia is a disorder caused by low serum immunoglobulin or antibody levels.

THYROID GLAND

The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in the base of your neck. It releases
hormones that control metabolism—the way your body uses energy.

Functions of the Thyroid

The main job of the thyroid is to control your metabolism. Metabolism is the process that your body
uses to transform food to energy your body uses to function.

Hormones of the Thyroid Gland:

It makes two hormones that are secreted into the blood: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
-Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine plays a crucial role in heart and digestive function, metabolism, brain
development, bone health, and muscle control.

Diseases and Disorders of the Thyroid Gland:

The two main types of thyroid disease are hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.
-Hypothyroidism is a common condition where the thyroid doesn't create and release enough thyroid
hormone into your bloodstream.
-Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) occurs when your thyroid gland produces too much of the
hormone thyroxine.

PARATHYROID GLAND
The parathyroid glands lie behind the thyroid. They produce parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in
regulating the body's blood level of calcium and phosphorus.

Functions of the Parathyroid

They produce parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in regulating the body's blood level of calcium
and phosphorus.

Hormones of the Parathyroid Gland:

Parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone.
-Which plays a key role in the regulation of calcium levels in the blood. Precise calcium levels are
important in the human body, since small changes can cause muscle and nerve problems.

Diseases and Disorders of the Parathyroid Gland:

There are three types of parathyroid disease: hyperparathyroidism, parathyroid cancer and
hypoparathyroidism.
-Hyperparathyroidism is when your parathyroid glands create high amounts of parathyroid hormone in
the bloodstream.
-Parathyroid cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of a
parathyroid gland.
-Hypoparathyroidism occurs when the parathyroid glands don't produce enough parathyroid hormone

ADRENAL GLAND

- Adrenal glands are also known as suprarenal glands, are small, triangle-shaped glands that are located
on top of each of your two kidneys.

- Adrenal glands are normally about a half-inch high and three inches long. They’re shaped like rounded
triangles.

- They’re a part of your endocrine system and produce certain hormones that help regulate several
important bodily functions, including:

Metabolism.

Immune system.

Blood pressure.
Response to stress.

Development of sexual characteristics.

What do your adrenal glands do?

- adrenal glands are responsible for producing and releasing the following essential hormones:

Cortisol: Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone that plays several important roles. It helps control your
body’s use of fats, proteins and carbohydrates.

Aldosterone: Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone that plays a central role in regulating blood
pressure and the levels of sodium and potassium (electrolytes) in your blood.

DHEA and androgenic steroids: These hormones are weak male hormones, meaning they don’t have
much biologic impact.

Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine): These hormones are known as the “fight
or flight” hormones and are called catecholamines.

Catecholamines: Catecholamines are a group of similar substances that your body releases into your
blood in response to physical or emotional stress.

Steroid hormones: Steroid hormones help control metabolism, inflammation, immune system functions,
salt and water balance, development of sexual characteristics and the ability to withstand injury and
illness.

What are the parts of the adrenal glands?

- Medulla: The medulla is the inner part of your adrenal gland, and it releases the hormones adrenaline
(epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

- Cortex: The cortex is the outer part of your adrenal gland, and it releases corticosteroid and
mineralocorticoid hormones.

What common conditions and disorders affect the adrenal glands?

- Addison’s disease (primary adrenal insufficiency): This is a rare autoimmune disease.

- Cushing’s syndrome: This condition happens when your adrenal glands produce too much cortisol.

- Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: This is a condition you’re born with where your body lacks an enzyme
that your adrenal glands need to make hormones.

- Excessive hair growth (hirsutism): This condition happens when women and people assigned female at
birth (AFAB).

- Primary aldosteronism (Conn’s syndrome): This condition happens when your adrenal glands produce
too much aldosterone.
- Massive bilateral adrenal hemorrhage (Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome): This is an acute condition
that leads to adrenal gland failure due to bleeding into the gland.

What are the early warning signs and symptoms of adrenal gland problems?

- Metabolism symptoms: Unexplained weight gain or weight loss, fatigue, frequent high blood sugar or
low blood sugar, weakness.

-Immune system symptoms: Frequent sickness or infections.

-Blood pressure symptoms: High blood pressure (hypertension) or low blood pressure (hypotension).

-Sexual characteristics symptoms that affect females and prepubescent males: Growing facial hair and or
balding, developing acne, having a deeper voice and becoming more muscular.

PANCREAS
 A part of the endocrine system that plays a significant role in the digestive system
 An organ located in the abdomen
 Plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for our body’s cells
 Has two main functions: (1) exocrine function that helps in digestion; and (2) endocrine
that regulates blood sugar

CHARACTERISTIC
 Spongy
 About six to ten inches long
 Shaped like a flat pear or a fish

LOCATION
 Located behind the stomach in the upper left abdomen
 Surrounded by other organs (small intestine, liver and spleen)

FUNCTIONS OF PANCREAS
FUNCTION AS AN EXOCRINE GLAND
 It contains exocrine glands that import to digestion
 Releases chemicals called enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase, lipase)
FUNCTION AS AN ENDOCRINE GLAND
 The endocrine component of the pancreas consists of islet cells (islet of Langerhans)
that creates and releases important hormones directly to the bloodstream
TWO MAIN PANCREATIC HORMONE
1. Insulin - acts to lower blood sugar
2. Glucagon - acts to raise blood sugar

DISEASE OF THE PANCREAS

PANCREATITIS
 An inflammation of the pancreas that happens when pancreatic enzyme secretions
buildup and begins to digest the organ itself
  Occurs when while digestive enzymes become activated while still in the pancreas that
irritates the cells of the pancreas causing inflammation
 May be acute or chronic
PAPILLARY MUCINOUS NEOPLASMS (IMPNs)
 A benign pancreatic cyst in the ducts of the pancreas
 A cystic tumor and considered precancerous 
 Is not a cancer, but has the ability to become one in the near future
PANCREATIC INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA (PanIN)
 Considered a precursor for invasive pancreatic cancer
 Is a microscopic papillary or flat noninvasive epithelial neoplasm arising from the
pancreatic ductal epithelium 
PANCREATIC CANCER
 The most common is pancreatic adenocarcinoma 
 A disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the pancreas

OVARY

In women, the ovaries release sex hormones; primarily estrogen and progesterone that are vital to
normal reproductive development and fertility

CHARACTERISTICS

Small, oval-shaped glands located either side of a female’s uterus

Makes hormones that control menstrual cycle and pregnancy

FUNCTION

Produce eggs for fertilization and makes hormones

Estrogen and Progesterone play an important role in the reproductive cycle.

ESTROGEN

Produced in the first half of a menstrual cycle

Regulates growth, development and physiology of the human reproductive system

Responsible for the sexual development of girls when they reach puberty

Controls the growth of the uterine lining during menstrual cycle and at the beginning of pregnancy

Causes breast changes in teenagers and pregnant women

Regulates food intake, body weight, glucose metabolism, and insulin sensitivity
PROGESTERONE

Rises during the second half of a menstrual cycle to prepare uterus for fertilized egg (if conception
occurs)

Prepares the body for pregnancy

Helps increase your mood

Encourages the growth of milk producing glands in the breast during pregnancy

DISEASE

POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME

Also known as PCOS, is a condition in where the ovaries produce abnormal amounts of androgen, a male
hormone that are usually present in woman in small amount

Describes the numerous small cyst that forms in the ovary

Can not be curable but can be controlled by taking pills

Has lots of side effects like hormonal acne, irregular menstrual period, excess hair growth, infertility and
weight gain

TESTES

In men, testes (or testicles) is a pair sperm producing organs that maintain the health of the male
reproductive system

Has the distinction of being an endocrine gland because it secretes testosterone, a hormone that is vital
to the normal development of male physical characteristics

CHARACTERISTICS

twin oval-shaped organ about the size of a large grape

Located within the scrotum

Provides a cooler temperature for other organs

FUNCTION

releases a hormone called testosterone, that is necessary for proper physical development in boys

TESTOSTERONE

Primary sex hormone in male

Deepens the voice during puberty

Responsible of the development of the penis and testes

Appearance of facial hair

Bone growth and strength

Responsible for sperm production

DISEASE

TESTICULAR CANCER

One of the less common concerns (because it is rare)

Can affect males between the age 15-49

Only affects 1% if male population

It is curable