Chapter-I

CHAPTER –I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. SOCIETY

A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other

through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical
or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural
expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social
relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given
society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent
members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification and/or
dominance patterns in subgroups (Weber, 2007).

More broadly, a society may be described as an economic, social, or industrial

infrastructure, made up of a varied collection of individuals. Members of a society
may be from different ethnic groups. A society can be a particular ethnic group, such
as the Saxons; a nation state, such as Bhutan; or a broader cultural group, such as a
Western society. The word society may also refer to an organized voluntary
association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic,
or other purposes. A "society" may even, though more by means of metaphor, refer to
a social organism such as an ant colony or any cooperative aggregate such as, for
example, in some formulations of artificial intelligence (McKay, 2009).

Adam Smith wrote that a society "may subsist among different men, as among
different merchants, from a sense of its utility without any mutual love or affection, if
only they refrain from doing injury to each other Used in the sense of an association, a
society is a body of individuals outlined by the bounds of functional interdependence,
possibly comprising characteristics such as national or cultural identity, social
solidarity, language, or hierarchical organization. (Williams, 1976)

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1.2. SOCIETY AND SPORTS

Sport is accepted as a part of society and culture throughout the world. It gets
attention and involvement from the people to the extent of capturing newspaper
headlines, media attention and revenues for entrepreneurs. Sports also affect social
processor, human values, social life and international affairs. Thus, sociologists
examine sport as any other major aspect of the society. An objective study of small
group of athletes, the team and the significance of sport to the society can present as
a study of its culture, heritage and values. A sports sociologist may develop a social
theory besides a deep insight and understanding of sport in relation to the society
(Gruneau, 1975).

Most of the sociological studies concluded that participation in sport has

countless benefits for individuals. Among the most obvious positive outcomes are
improvements in physical health, such as weight control, strength building, increased
flexibility, enhanced coordination and motor skills, improved cardiovascular health,
and pain reduction. People who are physically active often tend to develop healthier
lifestyles and better eating habits (Markovits, 2003).

A second, but no less important, beneficial aspect of sport is the impact that it
has on psychological and emotional healing and well-being. Sport provides a positive
outlet for stress and aggression. Participation in sport can help alleviate depression or
anxiety (Jarvie, 2006).

Physically active people also often experience enhanced self-confidence and

improved self-image. There is also evidence that participation in sport improves
concentration and mental functioning. Beyond what it contributes to physical,
psychological and emotional well-being, sport also plays a significant role in healthy
social development and interaction. Sport helps people learn how to set and achieve
goals through discipline and hard work. It nurtures the development of decision-
making and leadership abilities, while teaching people to manage both success and
failure. People who participate in sport have the opportunity to improve their
communication skills and gain valuable experience in collaboration and teamwork.
Sport brings people together who might not otherwise have a chance to meet and
allows them an opportunity to share their experiences and work together toward a

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common goal. These social skills and experiences are readily transferable to other
aspects of life and may improve a person‟s ability to succeed as a student, employee,
community member, or advocate for a particular cause. Sport also provides an
alternative to risky or anti-social behavior, creating sufficient structure, discipline, and
incentive to keep some people away from drugs, violence, or criminal activity.

Social inequality may appear between Rich and Poor, Dominant and
Minority Groups, Males and Females, on the classification of Social Stratification
(Wealth, Power, Prestige); Class Structure (Upper, Middle, Lower); Minority
Groups (Race, Ethnicity); Gender Roles (Masculine and Feminine, Education, Work
and Job, etc.) (Gruneau, 1975)

Now a day sports has become a way of life. It has also been increasingly
realized that accomplishment in sports depends on physical and psychological
factors, too numerous to name, yet these factors are being identified and isolated.

The complexity of sports situation and factors influencing one‟s participation

in Sports suggest for identification and analysis of role- played by sociological
variable in determining sports participation. Sociological variables are the
dimensions or the factors affecting an individual‟s way of life with one‟s interaction
with Family, society, environment and socio economic status. These dimensions
also are indicative of both the Social and Economic achievement of an individual or
group Socio-Economic in terms of primary conditions and characteristics is
determined through vacation, income and wealth, home and its location, education,
activities and associates of an individual or group.(Mc Dermott, R.P., 1977)

1.3 SOCIETY AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social
standing. Social stratification refers to a society‟s categorization of its people into
rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and
power.

The word “stratification” comes from geology class. The distinct vertical layers
found in rock, called stratification, are a good way to visualize social structure. Society‟s
layers are made of people and society‟s resources are distributed unevenly throughout the

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layers. The people who have more resources represent the top layer of the social structure
of stratification. Other groups of people, with progressively fewer and fewer resources,
represent the lower layers of our society (Chan, 2007).

Strata in rock illustrate social stratification. People are

sorted, or layered, into social categories. Many factors
determine a person’s social standing, such as income,
education, occupation, as well as age, race, gender, and
even physical abilities

Factors that define stratification vary in different societies. In most societies,

stratification is an economic system, based on wealth, the net value of money and
assets a person has, and income, a person‟s wages or investment dividends. While
people are regularly categorized based on how rich or poor they are. Other important
factors influence social standing. For example, in some cultures, wisdom and
charisma are valued, and people who have them are revered more than those who
don‟t. In some cultures, the elderly are esteemed; in others, the elderly are disparaged
or overlooked. Societies‟ cultural beliefs often reinforce the inequalities of
stratification (G.Therbom, 2000).

Social Stratification

Social stratification is when societies have a permanent hierarchy, in which a

superior group has a disproportionate amount of power, money and prestige than the
lower ranking groups. Social stratification can be seen in western societies in social
and economic classes; termed as lower, middle and upper class. Some anthropologists
believe social stratification is necessary to keep a society functioning at its desired
level of proficiency. Karl Marx saw social stratification as similar to a caste system.
Gender is part of the stratification system, gender ranks men above women of the
same race and class (patriarchal society), but this is not always the only form of social
stratification. In some societies, women are ranked above men; these societies are
termed matriarchal. Working classes were unlikely to move up in social economic
power due to their means of production while the wealthy would continue their reign
over the lower classes, maintaining a social status quo through manipulation and
exploitation. The degree of social stratification in a given society is dependent at least
partially on what type of society it is. For instance, in a hunter-gatherer society or a

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pastoral society, there is very little economic and social stratification, because
everything is shared. In an industrial or postindustrial society, on the other hand,
economic stratification is greater and social stratification grows partly out of that
economic disparity. The reason for economic stratification is that in the modern
workplace, the amount of money that someone earns varies greatly based on location,
education, competence, and luck. The CEO of a large corporation might make
millions of dollars each year, while the lower level employees of that same
corporation might make minimum wage. What makes social stratification based on
wealth better than other forms of social stratification is that, although it might be very
difficult, it is almost always possible for someone to change their status for the better
(Kuppuswamy, 1984).

System of Stratification

Sociologists distinguish between two types of systems of stratification. Closed

systems accommodate little change in social position. They do not allow people to shift
levels and do not permit social relations between levels. Open systems, which are based
on achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and classes. Different
systems reflect, emphasize, and foster certain cultural values, and shape individual
beliefs. Stratification systems include class systems and caste systems, as well as
meritocracy (Doob, 2013).

Systems of Social Stratification

Inequalities exist in all types of human society. There are inequalities between
individuals, men and women, the young and old, even in the simplest cultures where
variations in wealth or property are virtually non-existent. Stratification thus can also
be defined as structured inequality between different groupings of people. Giddiness
suggests that it is useful to think of stratification as like the geological layering of
rock in the earth‟s surface. Societies can be seen as consisting of „strata‟ in a
hierarchy, with the more favored at the top and less privileged nearer the bottom.

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1.4. THEORIES OF STRATIFICATION

Two classic approaches to social stratification provide interesting insights into

this phenomenon, structural-functionalism and social-conflict theories. A third
approach, dependency theory, has roots in and extends Marxist thought and conflict
theory by applying that approach to the world at a global/international level.

1.4.1.Structural-functionalism

The structural-functional approach to social stratification asks the same question

of social stratification that it does of the other components of society: What function
or purpose does stratification serve? Underlying this question is the assumption that
stratification serves some purpose because it exists in virtually every society (though
it is almost non-existent in hunter-gatherer societies). The resulting answer is often
that it must exist in society in order to facilitate stability and equilibrium; some level
of hierarchical organization must be necessary in order for complex societies to
function. Additionally, the structural-functional approach argues that positions higher
in the social hierarchy must be of more functional importance to the society, which is
why they result in greater rewards. In other words, according to this perspective, it
makes sense for the CEO of a company whose position is more important functionally
to make more money than a labour working for the same company (Renson, 1998).

There are several obvious problems with this approach to social stratification.
First, the answer to the function of stratification of society results in an answer that is
guilty of begging the question. The answer only exists because the question is asked
the way that it is; it is assumed from the asking of the question that there must be a
function, thus, a function is found. The second major problem with this approach is
that it assumes social stratification is necessary for the functioning of society. While it
may be the case that only hunter-gatherer societies have existed with minimal
stratification and no complex societies have developed a purely egalitarian system, it
should not be assumed that such a system is impossible. The third significant problem
with this approach is that it supports the status quo of existing systems, regardless of
how the power of the ruling group is derived (e.g., totalitarianism, dictatorship,
oligarchy, etc.).While it may be the case that social stratification facilitates the

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stability of societies, the structural-functional approach falls short in developing lucid
arguments to that end (Cousins, 1975).

1.4.2. Social-Conflict Theory

The social-conflict approach to stratification sees social hierarchies, like most

other elements of society, as embodying inequality. The conflict theory approach
argues that individuals at the top of social hierarchies are there at the expense of
people in lower positions. People higher up in the hierarchy will use their power to
strengthen both the hierarchy and their standing in it (Marx, 1971).

Marx also argued that individuals at the top of the hierarchy develop
ideologies to justify their positions. People generally wish to feel they are just,
worthy, and sensible. When they recognize that they are at the top of the social
hierarchy and see the enormous disparity between what they have and what others
have, this can lead to the development of elaborate systems of justification, like
religion and racial discrimination. These ideologies also have justifications for the
statuses of individuals lower in hierarchy. Once such systems are in place, people of
similar status reinforce each other‟s position within the group because they accept
similar ideologies. This leads to the belief that status, as related to an individual's view
of themselves, equally applies to those people at the top of society and at the bottom.

A particularly clear example of the social-conflict perspective is Marx's early

analysis of capitalism. Marx argued that positions in the social hierarchy were directly
related to an individuals' relationship to the means of production. Individuals in the
upper-class are the owners of the means of production or bourgeoisie. Those who
produce goods (or services) through contractual employment for their labor, the
proletariat, are members of the lower or working classes. Marx viewed this as
exploitation since the cost of hiring labour and the prices of the goods produced were
controlled by small elite. Marx believed the proletariat would eventually rise up in
protest against their exploitation. Marx believed that society was following an
"evolutionary" path through different political and economic stages and that the final
stage would be when the workers of the world developed a collective conscience or
universal sense of injustice that would lead them to overthrow the ruling class of
capitalists and institute a new socio-economic system, communism (Marx, 1971).

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1.5. PROSPECTIVE OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

"By looking at Karl Marx and Max Weber's work we can begin to see the
different dimensions of social stratification. Marx believed that there was a division in
capitalist societies, "between those who own and control the crucial means of
production, the oppressing capitalist class or the bourgeoisie, and those who have only
their labor to sell, the oppressed working class or proletariat." (Hughes, 173)
According to Marx these are the only two groups and the conflicting interests between
the two, "provide the foundation for stratification in capitalist nations. (Hughes, 173)
Weber on the other hand believed that this was a too simplistic image provided by
Marx. He felt that stratification was more multidimensional than what Marx
envisioned, with other divisions existing independent of the class or economic aspect
(Weber, 2012).

1.5.1. Max Weber’s Prospective

Max Weber came up with the theory of class, status and party which was
basically due to property, prestige and power. He divided stratification within the
different groups

 Class group

 Status group

 Party group
These groups were divided on the basis of economic and political terms. Men‟s need
was not only that of power but also of social behavior and prestige. Class, status and
party are phenomenon of power distribution in the community (Weber, 1994).

Class Group and Power

He defined class as a group of people whose „life chances‟ and market

opportunities were similar. The concept of class was determined by situation of the
market. He said that those who have no faith and chance to use goods and services for
themselves in the market are not class group. Therefore the power of a class is
determined by the kind of property that is usable for returns and kind of services that
can be offered (Vanreusel, 1998).

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Status Group and Power

In contrast to the class, status groups are normal community. They are made
up of more social qualities and prestige rather than property. Much property-less
people can belong to a particular status group. They are more likely to have a
powerful sense of common identity and separate boundaries from others especially if
there is racial, religious or ethnic component present. Weber argues social status
groups emerges within the class i.e. property system or outside the class that is
ideology (Helmer, 1993).

Party Group and Power

As classes exist with the economic order and status is within the social order
(honor), parties may represent interest determined through class situation and status
situation. Parties always structurally and strategically favor for the domination within
same group of class and status. Weber identified two different types of parties:

 Parties of Patronage

 Parties of Principle

Parties of patronage do not have moral commitment and firm structures and goals
whereas parties of principles have firm doctrines and have a marked tendency to
become heavily bureaucratized.

1.5.2. Argument of Weber’s Theory with Karl Marx’s Theory

Karl Marx said that society has two main classes: the ruling class or the bourgeoisie
and the subject class or the proletariat and the means of production determined the
social class of a person. Whereas Weber‟s theory was about property, prestige and
power combines to from social class. Karl Marx looked at the time of industrialization
whereas Weber looked at the time of pre-world war, during which many different
division of the society took place.

1.5.3. Brief views given by other Sociologist

In sociology and other social sciences, social stratification refers to the

hierarchical arrangement of individuals into divisions of power and wealth within a

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society. Stratification derives from the geological concept of strata - rock layers
created by natural processes. The term most commonly relates to the socio-economic
concept of class, involving the "classification of persons into groups based on shared
socio-economic conditions. A relational set of inequalities with economic, social,
political and ideological dimensions, one of the major changes (transformations) that
occurred in the late 18th and early 19th centuries was the emergence of sharp
heterogeneity, differentiation, and stratification in social, economic, and political
arena among the human population (Emile Durkheim, 1989).
In India we come across of special type of social stratification in the form of
castes. Although evidence of caste are to be found in many part of the world as
among the present day massai, the Polynesians , the Burmese and the Americans ,
the most perfect instance is that which exists in India. Here we find a social
organization “as elaborate in it‟s helped up storeys as one of its own pagodas and
vastly more intricate” (Sachdeva, 2001).

Inequalities exist in all types of human society. There are inequalities between
individuals, men and women, the young and old, even in the simplest cultures where
variations in wealth or property are virtually non-existent. Stratification thus can also
be defined as structured inequality between different groupings of people. Giddiness
suggests that it is useful to think of stratification as like the geological layering of
rock in the earth‟s surface. Societies can be seen as consisting of „strata‟ in a
hierarchy, with the more favored at the top and less privileged nearer the bottom
(Giddens, 1971).

Marvin Harris and Lewis Henry Morgan's accounts of egalitarian hunter-

gatherers formed part of Karl Marx and Engels's inspiration for communism. Morgan
spoke of a situation in which people living in the same community pooled their efforts
and shared the rewards of those efforts fairly equally. He called this "communism in
living." But when Marx expanded on these ideas, he still emphasized an
economically-oriented culture, with property defining the fundamental relationships

Social stratification is viewed as "the ranking or grading of individuals and

groups into hierarchical layers," which in turn, represents structured inequality in the
allocation of rewards, privileges, and resources. Research further investigate that the

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current trends of social stratification and explores whether the achievement of total
equality is realistic goal for society. The paper looks at the current American class
system and discusses whether the U.S. really is a 'land of opportunity' for all its
citizens (Michael Hughes)

There are two types of mobility, horizontal and vertical, and social stratification
researchers only care about vertical mobility. Keep in mind that vertical mobility can
be ascending as well as descending and unless people specify otherwise, when they
mention mobility they mean both directions of movement. Societies with no vertical
mobility are closed or immobile; societies with intensive and general vertical mobility
are open or mobile (Sorokin, 1997).

Stratification is the organization of society into hierarchical layers of unequal

“worth.” In a stratified society, individuals are organized into layers where some
individuals are valued more than others (Steckley, J., & Letts, G. K, 2007).

Social stratification is the division of groups into different layers on the basis of
property, power, prestige, age and gender. It doesn‟t specify an individual but to a
group as a whole. Social stratification is present in every society. „It is a way of
ranking large group of people into a hierarchy according to their relative privileges‟.
(Grusky, 1998).

1.6. CLASS

Class system differs in many respects from slavery and caste. An individual‟s
class is at least in some part achieved, not simply „given‟ at birth as in common in
other types of stratification system. Classes depend upon economic differences
between grouping of individuals-inequalities in possession and control of material
resources. The major classes that exist are an upper class (the wealthy, employers and
industrialist); a middle class (which include most white-collar workers and
professionals); and a working class (those in blue collar or manual jobs).

Class-Concept

A group whose boundary has been demarcated on any reason except for birth
is called a social class. This kind of division of society is found in every social

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structure. Class systems differ in many respects from slavery, castes or estates. The
main differences are as follows:
 Unlike the other types of strata, classes are not established by legal or religious
provisions; membership is not based upon inherited position.
 An individual‟s class is at least in some part achieved, not simply given at
birth as is common in other types of stratification system.
 Classes depend on economic differences between groupings of individuals –
inequalities in possession and control of material resources.
As compared to other kind of stratification where inequalities are expressed primarily
in personal relationship of duty and obligation, Class operates mainly through large-
scale connections of an impersonal kind. For example, one major basis of class
differences is to be found in inequalities of pay and working conditions; these affect
all the people in specific occupational categories, as a result of economic
circumstances pertaining to the economy as a whole.

In short, class can be defined as a large-scale grouping of people who share

common economic resources that strongly influence the type of life-style they are able
to lead (Ossowski, 1963).

The Class System

A class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement.

A class consists of a set of people who share similar status with regard to factors like
wealth, income, education, and occupation. Unlike caste systems, class systems are open.
People are free to gain a different level of education or employment than their parents.
They can also socialize with and marry members of other classes, allowing people to
move from one class to another (Marshall, 1992).

In a class system, occupation is not fixed at birth. Though family and other
societal models help guide a person toward a career, personal choice plays a role. As per
the study, chose a career similar to that of his parents. His sister Lisa chose a career based
on individual interests that differed from her parents‟ social class.

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Types of Class

 Upper Class:-Ownership of wealth, together with occupation, is the chief

bases of class differences. Upper class is major class that constitutes the
wealthy, employers and industrialists, plus top executives those who own or
directly control productive resources.

 Middle Class:-Middle class includes most white-collar workers and

professionals.

 Working Class:-Working class constitutes of those in blue-collar or manual

jobs.

1.6.1. Social Class and Sports

Social class refers to the hierarchal distinctions between individuals or groups

in society. These distinctions are based on a combination of income, wealth,
education, occupation, and social connections (Coakley, 322).

According to Coakley, ones social class begets his or her life chances. Life
chances are the chances one individual or group will be successful and powerful
economically in society. The fact that life chances vary across society enforces the
proliferation and variety of social classes.

Social stratification is the hierarchal arrangement of social classes in a

society. This term is used to emphasize that people who are born into a wealthy
social class will have better opportunities for success than those born into a poor
social class. Social inequality in society is the basis of social stratification.

The term class relations explain how those with power in society create
sporting organization in their image of the way things should be. A standard of
character and behaviour is created and anyone who wants to be part of the
organization/league is expected to have similar values. Class relations are very
evident in the relationship between professional sports and mass media. The degree of
wealth and control of major companies one has, along with their gender and race
greatly influences who has power in sports. According to Coakley, “when it comes to
power in sports, it‟s a white man‟s world” (Coakley, 327). People with power in
sports, especially major media moguls, influence which sports are available to the

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media and to what degree. Those in power make available the sports programming
that is most profitable to their company (Percheski, 2008).

Lifelong commitment to be involved in sports fond more in lower class not

with standing, the participants belong to upper class are found to have dropped the
sports as carrier activity, because they have more another bright carrier activity
(Coaklay, J. 1998).

The social hierarchy in sports reflects the social identity differently between
rich and poor class. In this way, social, economic inequality, money, class relation
and resources are crucial factors in participation of sports (Kaviaho & Simola,
1974).
“Social class and class relations influence who plays, who watches, who
consumes information about sports, and what information is available to the
mainstream media” (Coakley, 329). Economic status, power, and life chances are
closely related to involvement with sports. The wealthier and more educated people
participate in sports, and attend and watch Sports than the lower socially classed
individuals. One study has shown that Olympic athletes and officials have higher
social class backgrounds. High-income groups have more time to participate in leisure
activities such as swimming, golfing, and going to the gym than low-income
groups. Those with higher income also have better exercise/leisure facilities due to the
fact they have the money to pay for such amenities (Saunders, 1990).

Social mobility is occurring because of social inequalities in the society, this

social mobility is a sociology term that can be applied to sports. It is used to refer to
“changes in wealth, education, and occupation over a person‟s lifetime or from one
generation to the next in families” (Coakley, 343). These changes can change for the
better or worse over time. There are three main factors affecting social mobility in
sports. First, there is a less than abundant number of career opportunities in the sports
field, especially when athletic careers are relatively short. Last, but not least, the
number of on and off field career opportunities for women and blacks, though
growing, are still limited (Borjas, 2006).

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1.6.2. Relation between Social Class and Sports

Social class plays a vital role in sports. It dictates who can participate in what
sports and to what level of participation. The limiting factor associated with social
class is money. Money is the means which to obtain the equipment and facilities
necessary to partake in the sport, without money, one cannot perform organized
sports. Furthermore, this issue is only limiting the already restricted minorities.
However, some have risen up to be some of the best athletes in the world, leaving one
to wonder, is social class affecting sports participation that greatly (Madanipour,
2003).

The people who are being affected the most are minorities, because they lack
sufficient funds for participation. This and not genetics could be the reason why black
minorities are less commonly seen in expensive sports such as hockey, and are more
commonly seen in easily accessible sports such as basketball, where there is a
basketball court at the majority of local playgrounds. This is a good reason as to
perhaps why the NBA is mostly composed of black people and the NHL is mostly
white dominated. Perhaps it has nothing to do with genetics, but what sports you have
access to growing up (Sarvestani, 2004).

Social class and media are connected in that the media represents how it
wishes to present the certain classes. In movies, the extremely wealthy people play
Polo, the middle class people play organized sports such as football or baseball, and
the lower class people play unorganized sports at the local playground or park. These
representations give people the idea that is how their social class should act and which
sports they should participate in. If they feel they "belong" in one type of sport, they
may not desire to move to a different sport where they may be able to excel further in
moving to a higher level of Sports play such as college of even high school can be
impossible depending on your social class. Some high school athletes may have to
give up their passion for sports in order to obtain a job and earn money for their
family so they can help put food on the table or buy clothes. Many college students
either have to give up sports because they have to get a job to pay for their tuition or
do not have the resources available to even make it to college, thus ending their
careers (Zadegan, 2005).

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 When looking back at it, social class and its ability to limit participation are
highly positively correlated. If one does not have the means necessary to participate in
the sport they desire due to the limiting affects of social class, then their sports career
is simply over. By raising money through other sporting events where a percentage of
the money raised is donated to minorities participation in sports, it can help level out
the playing field and help lower the walls dividing the social classes. However, some
minorities have made it over that wall and moved on to college and professional
careers showing that money is not everything and with enough talent and motivation
athletes can get to the top no matter the circumstances (Yahoo, 2011).

1.7. THE CASTE SYSTEM

India used to have a rigid caste system. The people in the lowest caste suffered
from extreme poverty and were shunned by society. Some aspects of India‟s defunct
caste system remain socially relevant. In this photo, an Indian woman of a specific
Hindu caste works in construction, demolishing and building houses (John, 1998).

Caste systems are closed stratification systems in which people can do little or
nothing to change their social standing. A caste system is one in which people are born
into their social standing and will remain in it their whole lives. People are assigned
occupations regardless of their talents, interests, or potential. There are virtually no
opportunities to improve one‟s social position.

In the Hindu caste tradition, people were expected to work in the occupation of
their caste and to enter into marriage according to their caste. Accepting this social
standing was considered a moral duty. Cultural values reinforced the system. Caste
systems promote beliefs in fate, destiny, and the will of a higher power, rather than
promoting individual freedom as a value. A person who lived in a caste society was
socialized to accept his or her social standing (Kumar, 2002).

The Origin of Caste System

Indian caste system is an ancient institution; therefore the question of its origin
is disputable and complex. Various thinkers have put forward different theories of its
origin. Every theory indicates towards probable. The Verna model of the caste system
seems to have evolved gradually during the Vedic period of Indian history, and the
early Brahmin writers seem to have accepted it as providing a rough description of

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caste system as it existed then. These writers laid down the rights and duties of the
first three varnas, which were regarding as twice-born on account of their undergoing
the ritual of donning the sacred thread (N.P.Gist, 1954).

Meaning of Caste

The origin of the caste system dates back to the age of the Rig-Veda. There is
a reference to the word Verna (color) in the rig-Veda. Caste in English is equivalent
of the Hindi word jati. It originated from the Portuguese word Casta meaning race,
breed or difference. The main features of castes are:-

 Common name,
 A common decent,
 Professing, the same hereditary calling, and
 Forming a single homogeneous community.
For society as a whole, G S Ghurye has given a comprehensive definition of
caste and its functions. According to him the six main features of system are: (1)
segmental division of society, (2) hierarchy of groups, (3) restrictions of feeding and
social intercourse, (4) allied and religious disabilities and privileges of the different
sections, (5) lack of the unrestricted choice of occupation, and (6) restrictions on
marriage. Endogamy is the stable feature of the caste system. However, in the recent
years, inter-caste and inter-religious marriages have been taking place in the big cities
and towns.

Caste in India

Hindu society has traditionally been divided into several thousands of groups,
castes or communities called Jatis. The phrase "Hindu Caste System" mixes up two
different schemes - the Varna (class/group), which is the theoretical system of
grouping found in Brahminical traditions and some medieval codes, and the Jati
system prevalent in Indian society since historical times. Despite the present day use
of the same phrase to describe both Varna and Jati, some observers have claimed that
the Varna system is of no significance to an understanding of the present day caste
situation except in broad ideological terms. Any attempt to examine the caste system
by fitting it into the classical Varna model would be of limited relevance in

17
understanding its role in the socio-political processes of contemporary India
(G.K.Karanth, 1996).

Varna

Early Indian texts like the Rigveda (10.90.12), Manusmriti and the Puranas
speak of 'Varna,' which means order, category, type, colour (of things), and groups the
human society into four main types as follows:

 Brahmins (scholars, teachers, priests)

 Kshatriyas (warriors, kings)
 Vaishyas (merchants, agriculturists)
 Shudras (workers, farmers, service providers (P.Kolenda, 1986).

According to some researchers, by the 4th century AD, and certainly by the 7th
century AD, there were people excluded from society altogether - the group of out
castes now referred to as Dalits or the "downtrodden." Thus, an untouchable, or an
"out caste", was a person who was deemed to not have any "Varna by those who
claimed to possess it.

Jatis

In "A New History of India," by Stanley wolpert states." a process of

expansion, settled agricultural production, and pluralistic integration of new people
led to the development of India's uniquely complex system of social organization by
occupation

Under the Jati system, a person is born into a Jati with ascribed social roles and
endogamy, i.e. marriages take place only within that Jati. The Jati provided identity,
security and status and has historically been open to change based on economic, social
and political influences (Sanskritization). In the course of early Indian history, various
tribal, economic, political and social factors led to the closing and consolidation of the
existing social ranks which became a traditional, hereditary system of social
structuring. It operated through thousands of exclusive, endogamous groups, termed
Jati. Though there were several kinds of variations across the breadth of India, the jati
was the effective community within which one married and spent most of one's
personal life. Often it was the community (Jati) which one turned to for support, for

18
resolution of disputes and it was also the community which one sought to promote.
People of different Jatis across the spectrum, from the so-called upper castes to the
lowest of castes, tended to avoid intermarriage, sharing of food and drinks, or even
close social interaction with other Jatis. Indeed, most of the Jati castes did not see
themselves as socially inferior to the others in any way. If at all, it was the other way
round and most of them had folk narratives, traditions, myths and legends to bolster
their sense of identity and cultural uniqueness (Zwart, 2000).

The Indian government, too, has denied the claims of equivalence between
caste and racial discrimination, pointing out that the issues of social status is
essentially intra-racial and intra-cultural. The view of the caste system as "static and
unchanging" has also been disputed. The Indian government has been working
towards creating equality between castes with guaranteed seats in educational
institutions, government jobs (and promotions) and even in the parliament for those of
the Scheduled Untouchable castes and tribes. Scholarships have also been available to
all of these groups, so that they can go on to further education more easily and this has
raised their social status. Sociologists describe how the perception of the caste system
as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste
system as a more processional, empirical and contextual stratification. Others have
applied theoretical models to explain mobility and flexibility in the caste system in
India. According to these scholars, groups of lower-caste individuals could seek to
elevate the status of their caste by attempting to emulate the practices of higher castes
(J.Parry, 1980).

Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribe and Other Backward Castes

The Government of India has officially documented backward castes and sub
castes, primarily to determine those deserving reservation (positive discrimination in
education and jobs). The Indian reservation system relies primarily on quotas for the
Hindu backward castes and classes and does this by reserving almost 50% of the seats
or vacancies in educational institutions and in government jobs for them. Promotions
in government employment are also made with these criteria. The Government lists
consist of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward classes (Beteille
A. , 1992).

19
Difference between Caste and Class

Western scholars have observed that the caste and class are polar opposites
and they also observe that caste and class are different forms of social stratification.
According to this view change is taking place from caste to class, hierarchy to
stratification, closed to open, and from organic to segmentary system.

Table 1

Difference between Caste and Class

S. No Caste S .No Class

1 Based on birth 1 Based on economic social status

2 Occupation gets transferred to 2 Occupation rigidity is not explicit
children
3 It is more or less a closed group 3 It is considered an open group
4 Personal traits and 4 Personal traits and economic
achievements, don‟t have place achievements, Determine the
classes of People
5 It is static in nature 5 It is dynamic in nature. With the
passage of Time members as well
criteria change.
6 Rules are strict for marriage 6 Rules are relatively flexible
and social Intercourse etc.
7 Social prestige associated with 7 Social status of the class itself
caste is almost fixed keeps changing
8 Social distance is normally 8 There is change in social distance
constant among various castes among various classes.

1.8. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS

Socio-Economic Status refers to social and Eeconomic standing of a person in

his society. Socio-economic condition means it include with social and economic
achievements of an individual or group in society. A sport is an institutionalized

20
competitive activity that involve vigorous physical exertion or the use of whose
participation is motivated by a combination of intrinsic factors (S.R. Sirin, 2005).

The present Socio-Economic Status has been to seek clarity of distinct aspects
of Social and Economic Statuses of an individual separately and integrally. The
contention of Hurlock (1964)- „The economic status of a family frequently determines
what the family social status will be‟- does not appear to be appropriate and quite
vocal in the Indian socio-cultural setting where a Pandit (Katha-Vachak) or a Primary
school Teacher has a very high social status but he may not be financially well placed,
whereas we may have a merchant or a miser money-lender having a very sound
economic position but possessing no rank in the society. Keeping this dilema of the
dian socio-cultural setting in view, it has been considered appropriate to determine
social and economic status separately in the two areas of social and economic aspects,
and then the two scores of different areas switched to one continue or in standard
scores, which can give the socio-economic status of an individual. With this object the
test envisages to determine nine types of statuses namely social status (ascribed),
social status (achieved), social status (as a whole), economic status (ascribed),
economic status (achieved), economic status (as a whole), socio-economic status
(ascribed), socio-economic status (achieved), socio-economic status (as a whole).
Again the present scale will hold good equally in both urban and rural areas (Shah,
1993).

As we see that due to interest in sports most of the sports person lose interest
in studies. This kind of development is really a threat to their future life. Because if
they lose interest in studies in their initial stages it won't take them further and as a
result their future will be danger. It has been observed that for the development of the
sports person are given with proper training having provided both outdoor and indoor
facilities. In some places especially in interior village the modern facilities are very
rare even then also with the help of some sports and Sports accelerate the job
opportunities only when they are consider under sports quota boots for each Sports,
while at home he repeatedly arranges his cola cans to face the same way in the fridge
door (Elite, 2005).

According by Max Weber, who saw three main dimensions of stratification

(class, status, and party); contemporary sociologists often define stratification in terms

21
of socioeconomic status (SES). There are a variety of ways to measure SES, including
educational attainment, income, wealth, and occupational prestige. These measures
reflect three characteristics of individuals: power, property, and prestige. These three
characteristics combine to indicate someone's social class or socioeconomic status.

1.8.1. Power

Power refers to someone's ability to get others to do his/her will, regardless of

whether or not they want to. Legitimate power, power given to individuals willingly
by others, is called authority. Illegitimate power, power taken by force or the threat of
force is called coercion. Weber delineated three types of authority:-

 Traditional authority is authority derived from tradition. It is authority

passed down from generation to generation, often through a lineage (e.g.,
monarchies).

 Legal-rational authority is authority derived from a legal system that is

generally widely accepted by those who will be subject to the authority of the
individual chosen based upon the laws that regulate the decision. This is the
system used in most democracies and republics, like the U.S.

 Charismatic authority is authority derived from one's force of personality.

Charismatic individuals are individuals imbued with power to attract
followers, like Martin Luther King, Jr. or Joseph Smith, Jr.

1.8.2. Property

Property, as used in this context, refers to the sum total of one's possessions as
well as their regular income. Property goes beyond income as a measure of social
class as it reflects the accumulated wealth (e.g., homes, stocks, bonds, savings) in
addition to one's earning potential. Property is a better overall measure of social class
than income as many individuals who are considered wealthy actually have very small
incomes. A good example of this is the founders and current CEO of Google - Larry
Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt. All three individuals receive an annual salary of
just $1, but each has property (stock) worth more than a billion dollars (E.L.Herr,
1970).

22
1.8.3. Prestige

Prestige refers to the reputation or esteem associated with one's position in

society. Prestige used to be associated with one's family name, but for most people in
developed countries prestige is now generally tied to one's occupation. Occupations
like physicians or lawyers tend to have more prestige associated with them than
occupations like bartender or janitor. An individual's prestige is closely tied to their
social class - the higher the prestige of an individual (through their occupation or
maybe family name), the higher the social class.

The Connection between Power, Property and Prestige

While it is possible for an individual to have only one of these indicators of

social class (e.g., lots of property but no power or prestige), that is seldom the case.
These three indicators tend to go hand-in-hand or lead to each other. A good example
of this is former U.S. President William Jefferson Clinton. President Clinton was
raised by a single mother in Arkansas. He was not born into a wealthy family with
lots of power, property, or prestige. Over time, as President Clinton worked his way
up the social hierarchy, he gained prestige -as a Rhodes Scholar, lawyer, politician,
governor, and eventually as President of the United States. This prestige translated
into power, especially as president. But since leaving office, the prestige has also
translated into property. When President Clinton left the White House in 2001 he and
his wife had very little money and substantial debt from legal bills. But between 2001
and 2008, President Clinton and his wife, Senator Hillary Clinton, earned a combined
total of $109 million dollars. Almost half of that money is a direct translation of
prestige into property - President Clinton regularly receives more than $250,000 as a
public speaker delivering speeches to groups of interested parties. Additionally, both
of the Clintons received substantial monetary advances from book publishers to write
books; this is a perquisite generally reserved for prestigious individuals. Thus, the
Clintons illustrate how prestige can become property, which can, in turn, become
power (V.H.Hewer, 1963).

23
1.9. CAREER ASPIRATION

Adolescence is a time when teenagers develop certain aspirations regarding their

education and future careers. Aspirations represent a person‟s orientation towards
particular goals (Domenico & Jones, 2007).

High school is an important period in which students must make a number of

decisions that will impact their transition into adulthood. Students who leave high
school with more focused career interests, realistic evaluations of their own interests
and aptitudes, and who have taken part in activities to strengthen their career
knowledge are more likely to succeed in meeting their postsecondary educational and
career goals (Gray, 2009). Rural youth often face challenges in meeting such
milestones due to a variety of contextual factors unique to rural communities. For
example, rural youth typically face higher rates of poverty, restricted curriculum
offerings, fewer opportunities to come into contact with adults in professional and
technical careers, and less availability of career counseling and career exploration
opportunities in both the school and community. (Crockett, Shanahan, & Jackson-
Newsom, 2000; Morrissette, 2000; Save the Children, 2002). Each of these factors
can negatively impact career knowledge, which could contribute to rural youth having
unrealistic expectations about their futures. Few studies to date have focused on the
educational and occupational aspirations of rural youth, particularly the degree of
congruence between rural youth‟s future educational and occupational aspirations
(Super, 1957).

1.9.1. Theory of Career Choice

According to the wide variety of research available, most theorists agreed that
there were many factors that enter into the selection of a career. The choices a person
makes, the values a person holds, the successes and failures a person experiences, the
social class in which a person has developed, and the interests, strengths, and
capacities of the person all enter into this decision. In other words, career aspiration is
a product of heredity and environment, and the person's self-concept was vitally
important in that decision (Herr, 1970; Hewer, 1963; Super, 1957). The choice of a

24
career is not merely a decision of a moment: it is a complex and difficult process that
spans a number of years (Ginsberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, & Herma, 1951).

The attitude with which a child enters a learning situation is dependent, among
other things, on his previous success and failure experiences in similar situations. The
level of aspiration, which is a measure of the level of performance an individual sets
for himself, is based on these success and failure experiences. Sears found that
children who have consistently experienced success--subjectively in their day-to-day
schoolwork and objectively in tests and school marks--continue to set aspiration
levels just beyond their past achievements. However, when children have been
consistently frustrated in their day-to-day learning efforts and disappointed in their
marks, they set unrealistic aspiration levels; either too high or too low (S.W. Axelrad,
1951).

It is widely accepted that because of prejudice, negative stereotypes, social

denigration, and generally lower class membership, economically and socially
disadvantaged children have less opportunity to develop feelings of worth and dignity.
This lack of self-esteem is carried into the classroom, resulting in negative
experiences and consequently a low level of aspiration (Pauline, 1940).

Franciscan states that, "In as much as success or failure affect so significantly

an individual‟s learning efficiency, interests and aspirations, it is obvious that every
child and youth needs a curriculum in which he can succeed. He needs to succeed
with sufficient frequency to reinforce his feelings of self-esteem, confidence, and
pleasure in learning."

Parents also have an effect on their children‟s levels of aspirations. Weiner and
Murray contend that lower socioeconomic parents have high levels of aspiration for
their children‟s education just as middle class parents do. The real problems, as
Weiner and Murray state, are (1) the difference in the willingness to preserve goals
while encountering obstacles, and (2) the difference between the reality and the ideal
of these goals.

25
1.10. GRADES: A FORM OF STRATIFICATION IN SCHOOL SYSTEM

The grading system in schools, colleges, and universities can be a form of

socially stratifying students. They have special classes for students who excel and are
elite students, the gift ones. Then, there are the underachievers, the ones who fallen
behind and are grouped to together and away from the rest of the students. The
grading system is to prove the student followed the academic curriculum and passed
the requirements of the educational standards. It can segregate students into different
classes by the GPA earned. The elite students congregate among their peers of the
same caliber as would the other different social status groups would do. Scholar
believes stratification of students is caused more by the income and lifestyle
characteristics of the group of people (William, 1960).

The student‟s home life, parental guidance, relationship of authority figures, and
size of the family all have effect on the student‟s effort to success at learning. There is
a relationship between the means of a student‟s aspiration and their social
stratification. The better resources and support, the better a student has to earning
higher grades. This will in turn, promote the student to a higher class with better
opportunities for higher education and better opportunities in the business world for
advancements. Belonging to a higher class of any social groups, will always have
advantages of opportunities over its lower class or classes. In the conclusion, the
grading system is a form of stratification, separating the elite and all the layers below
to classify a students‟ hierarchy with the entire student body (Murray, 1963).

1.11. RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Every society is divided into more or less distinct groups. Even the most
primitive societies had some form of social stratification. As Sorokin (1947) pointed
out‟ „unstratified society with real equality of its members, is a myth which has
never been realized in the history of mankind. “He writes, “Social stratification
means the differentiation of a given population into hierarchically superimposed
classes. It is manifested in the existence of upper and lower social layer. A sport
being the integral part of society is also structured by stratification process, in which
different social classes may be engaged in particular Sports as per the bearing
capacity of playing those Sports regarding their economic, cultural capital. The

26
sports which require costly equipments are played by upper class; it is not only the
matter of much expenditure, but also a matter of social prestige and cultural symbol
to invest the money which is apparently reflected in high class society. The costly
sports like Golf, Tennis, and Billiards etc are played by upper class for sustaining
their class cultural values. On the contrary, sports like Kho- Kho and Kabaddi
especially in India are played by lower class (Singh, R. 2006) and sports like
Wrestling, Boxing, football etc. are played by lower class. The sports played by
lower class are a natural selection opted in socio- economic conditions relating to
their cultural values norms and permitting their economic and cultural resources.
The social hierarchy in sports reflects the social identity differently between rich and
poor class. In this way, social, economic inequality, money, class relation and
resources are crucial factors in participation of sports (Kaviaho & Simola, 1974).

Generally, Sport is only recognized in term of „performance‟ as mechanical

physical attributes marked with height, speed, strength, endurance, flexibility, agility
and skill display etc., and not in the sense of socio-economic status and class of
sports persons. But, the performance is multidimensional phenomenon which is also
nurtured by socio- economic conditions provided to athlete in lieu of their class
position. Economic resources play a big role not only for training of athlete but also
in organization of competition, developing the sports infrastructure, and even in
construction of psychological domain of an athlete. Novices in sports system find
easy to engage themselves in sports activities if they belong to higher class. It is very
difficult for lower class participants to continue the sports for future career in spite
of their good natural movement and technical efficacy due to life conditions and
chances. Long economic inequality influences the involvement of lower class in
sports (Bordiu, 1984; Laberage & Sankoff, 1988), so the life style of upper class,
make them capable to have interference in power to handle the sport‟s affaires and
to take the advantage of their higher social status, is marked to have the utility of
sports and sports organization for sustaining their luxurious activities. Then, it
becomes a strong nexus with upper class life style when politicians and bureaucrats
come together to enjoy the special privileges by occupying the posts in sports
organization (Singh. R., 2008).

27
 Sports performance is multidimensional phenomenon which has to be
understood with several perspectives including psychological and sociological
aspect. It is certain that sports system is stratified, in other words sports system is
divided in various classes. There is discrimination and inequality implicitly
effecting weaker sections involved in sports.

1.12. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Within the given argument presented above in the literature, it seems as a

measure to assess the sportsperson‟s socio-economic status and caste position; it
would be a useful addition to assess the social stratification, and further will help in
the analysis of career desire in regard to sports aspiration. Literature also revealed that
social stratification of society can be made by caste and social class of the individual
(Ashtamak , 2010) Social stratification is based on social or biological characteristics such
as social class, caste, gender and ethnicity). However, no attempt have been made to find
out the social structure of the Delhi school system in regard to social class and their
future desire from sports, therefore the purpose of the study was to find out the social
stratification in sports with respect to Delhi sports system. Therefore, the study had
been entitled as:

“Social Stratification in School Sports System”

1.13. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

As per the need of the study following objectives were framed:

1. To assess the Socio-Economic Status of Sportsperson belonging to Individual

Sports.
2. To assess the Socio-Economic Status of Sportsperson belonging to Team
Sports.
3. To assess the Career Aspiration of Sportsperson belonging to Individual
Sports.
4. To assess the Career Aspiration of Sportsperson belonging to Team Sports.
5. To categorize different Caste in relation to Classes among the Sportsperson
belonging to Individual Sports.

28
 6. To categorize different Caste in relation to Classes among the Sportsperson
belonging to Team Sports
7. To find out the relationship between Socio-Economic Status and Career
Aspiration among the Sportsperson belonging to Individual Sports
8. To find out the relationship between Socio-Economic Status and Career
Aspiration among the Sportsperson belonging to Team Sports

1.14. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Is there any relationship between Socio-Economic Status and Career Aspiration

of Senior Secondary School Sportsperson belonging to Individual Sports?

2. Is there any relationship between Socio-Economic Status and Career Aspiration

of Senior Secondary School Sportsperson belonging to Team Sports?

1.15. HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

1. It was hypothesized that there would be a significant relationship between

Socio-Economic Status and Career Aspiration among the Sportsperson
belonging to Individual Sports
2. It was hypothesized that there would be a significant relationship between
Socio-Economic Status and Career Aspiration among the Sportsperson
belonging to Team Sport.

1.16. DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

1. The study was delimited to Delhi and NCR region only.

2. The study was further delimited to 420 Male subjects, studied in senior
secondary classes from different Government or Private Delhi schools.
3. The study was also delimited on selected 14 sports (7 Individual sports and 7
Team sports).
4. The study was further confined to players who have represented at least state
level in their respected specialized sports.
5. The age of the subjects selected for the study was 15 to 18 years.

29
 6. The study was delimited to Socio-Psycho variables i.e. Socio-Economic Status
and Career Aspiration.
7. The study was delimited to the Social Categories of SC/ST Caste, OBC and
Other Caste (General Caste)

1.17. LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Questionnaire research has its own limitations, the mood state of the
respondents while replying to various statements in the scale was beyond the control
of the research scholar. This was also considered as one of the limitation imposed on
the investigation inadvertently.

1.18. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1. The study will help to identify the Social Class and Caste position of the
Sportsperson in respect to Socio-Economic Status from different Sports in
Delhi Region.

2. The Result of the study will help to contribute in Talent Identification on

particular Sports Research based Program.

3. The Career Aspiration Questionnaire will help the Sportsperson to identify the
Specific Career Opportunities in Sports.

4. The data of the present study will help to construct the Policies for new
planning in the Sports Specific Curriculum.

5. The study will help to know the Socio-Economic Status as determinant for
Status of participation in Sports belonging to various Social Categories.
6. It will facilitate to identify the factors responsible as Aspiration to adopt
particular Sport as Career Activity.
7. It will be useful to find out the Social pattern of the involvement in Sports by
various Social Categories in Sports.
8. It will help to categorize the Social groups as potential Social pool for
selecting the particular Sports in better utilization of resources invested in
developing Sports performance.

30
 9. It will help to justify the Social insight as a essential feature to understand
the structure of Sports
10. It will help to fill the gap of paucity in developing the body of knowledge in
line with Social Stratification Perspective with special emphasis on Sports
participation in School System
11. The study will help to provide the data regarding Social dimension existing
in Sports
12. The study will help to provide the results for analyzing the Sports System in
Social Perspective for further programming.
13. The study will help to deal the issues, challenging in Sports for Researchers,
Administrator, Leader Teachers and Sportsperson.
14. The result of this experiment would add new facts about Reserved Category
and General Category in Sports and Physical Education, which would be
much helpful to many Sociologists and Researchers in the field of Physical
Education & Sociology.
15. The study will help to identify the Remedial actions in Sports Programmes
and Policies.
16. The study will help to update the insights for understanding the reality of
Sports in Society.

1.19. DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OF RELATED TERMS

Society
The term "society" came from the Latin word scouts, which in turn was
derived from the noun social “comrade, friend, and ally”; adjectival form socialist,
used to describe a bond or interaction among parties that are friendly, or at least civil.

Social Status
A social person is one who conforms to the three criteria of special
development. He should behave in approved manner, play the role which society
prescribes for him and possess favorable towards people and social activities
(Hurlock, 1964). „Social status', therefore, is an indication of one‟s position of respect,
prestige and influence in the social structure. Apart from his personal attributes which

31
may either inhibit or enhance an individual‟s access to sources of information and his
willingness to deviate from group norms and may even vary with the groups.

Economic Status

The word ‘Economic’ is used generally for the motives involving earning a
livelihood, the accumulation of wealth and the like (Drever, 1964). The economic
endeavor entails „cherishing of things because of their material value (Spranger, 1928)
and the pursuer, by virtue of this activity, carves for himself a place in society
recognized as 'Economic Status‟. Economic status, thus, stratifies modern population
according to the amount and source of income which is usually derived from a set of
occupational activities, the ownership of property or both.

Socio-Economic Status

The „Socio-economic Status‟ is obviously a blending of the two statuses as

enumerated earlier. Though none of two can exist without each other yet they are
distinctively different. „Socio-economic Status‟ appears to be the resultant of the
position of an individual in a society by virtue of a complex fusion of both of them,
which often do not run parallel to each other in their own areas. This intermingling
takes place in an undefined and curious manner eventually to present an indicator to
„Socio-Economic Status‟.
„Socio-Economic Status‟ would, therefore, be a ranking of an individual by
the society he lives in, in terms of his material belongings and cultural possessions
along with the degree of respect, power and influence he wields.

Social Stratification

Social Stratification is a result of man‟s more-or-less purposeful striving to

gain social power, privilege, and prestige. Stratification can also be defined as
structured inequality between different groupings of people. Social Stratification
refers to the hierarchical arrangement of people in a society.

32
 Class System

Class system differs in many respects from slavery and caste. An individual‟s
class is at least in some part achieved, not simply „given‟ at birth as in common in
other types of stratification system. Classes depend on economic differences between
grouping of individuals-inequalities in possession and control of material resources.

Estates

Estates consisted of strata with differing obligations and rights, some of these
differences being established by law. In Europe, the highest estate was composed of
aristocracy and gentry. The clergy formed another estate, having lower status but
possessing various distinctive privileges.

Scheduled Castes (SC)

Scheduled castes generally consist of former "untouchables" (the term "Dalit"

is now preferred by the activists). Present population is 16% of total population of
India i.e. around 160 million. For example, the Delhi state has 49 castes listed as SC

Scheduled Tribes (ST)

Scheduled tribes generally consist of tribal groups. Present population is 7% of

total population of India i.e. around 70 million.

Other Backward Caste (OBC)

The Mandal Commission, 2008 covered more than 3000 castes under Other
Backward Caste Category and stated that OBCs form around 52% of the Indian
population. However, the National Sample Survey puts the figure at 32%. There is
substantial debate over the exact number of OBCs in India. It is generally estimated to
be sizable, but many believe that it is lower than the figures quoted by either the
National Mandal Commission or the National Sample Survey.

Aspiration

“Aspiration may be defined as the ultimate goal of an individual which is

aspiring to attain in future”, Aspirations are important to career development and
occupational attainment in that they prompt planning, guide learning, help organize life

33
options and choices, and contribute to individuals‟ preparation for adult life. (Heok
Lee & Jay W.Rojewski )

Career Aspiration

According to Silvia (2001), career aspirations refer to an individual‟s career

related goals or intentions and also include motivational components which are not
present on mere interests.

34