Endocrinology

Endocrinology (from endocrine + -
ology) is a branch
of biology and medicine dealing with
the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific
secretions known as hormones. It is also
concerned with the integration of developmental
events proliferation, growth, and differentiation,
and the psychological or behavioral activities
of metabolism, growth and
development, tissue function, sleep, digestion, respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, mov
ement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones. Specializations include
behavioral endocrinology and comparative endocrinology.
The endocrine system consists of several glands, all in different parts of the body, that
secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Therefore, endocrine
glands are regarded as ductless glands. Hormones have many different functions and modes of
action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one
target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.
Terminology

Acromegaly—Acromegaly is a hormonal disorder where the pituitary gland produces excess

amounts of growth hormone.
Adrenal Cortex—The adrenal cortex is the outer portion of the adrenal gland and it produces
steroid hormones, which regulate carbohydrate and fat metabolism, and mineralocorticoid
hormones, which regulate salt and water balance in the body.
Adrenal Glands—Adrenal glands are triangle-shaped glands that sit on top of the kidneys.
They regulate stress response through the synthesis of hormones, including cortisol and
adrenaline.
Adrenaline—Adrenaline is a hormone that triggers the body’s fight-or-flight response. It is
produced in the medulla in the adrenal glands as well as some of the central nervous system’s
neurons.
Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)—Adrenocorticotropin is a hormone produced by the
anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the adrenal cortex.
Amenorrhea—Amenorrhea is the term used when a woman or adolescent girl is not having
menstrual periods.
Androgens—Androgens are hormones that help to develop sex organs in men. They also
contribute to sexual function in men and women.
Andropause—Andropause is a biological change characterized by a gradual decline in
androgens experienced by men during and after their mid-life. Andropause is
sometimes inaccurately described as male menopause.
Angiotensin—Angiotensin is the common name of four hormones: angiotensin I-IV, which play
an important role in the body’s overall health and blood pressure regulation.
Antiandrogens—Antiandrogens are substances that inhibit the biological effects of androgenic
hormones. 
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (Enlarged Prostate)—Benign prostatic hyperplasia is non-
cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland, a common occurrence in older men.
Bioavailable Testosterone—Bioavailable testosterone represents the fraction of circulating
testosterone that readily enters cells and better reflects the bioactivity of testosterone than does
the simple measurement of serum total testosterone.
Bioidentical Hormones—Bioidentical hormones are compounds that have exactly the same
chemical and molecular structure as hormones that are produced in the human body. Though any
hormone can be made to be "bioidentical," the term is often used to describe allegedly custom-
compounded formulations containing estrogens, progesterone, and androgens. There is no
evidence that they are any safer or more effective than FDA-approved hormone preparations.
Bone Mineral Density—A bone mineral density (BMD) test measures the density of minerals
(such as calcium) in bones using a special X-ray, computed tomography (CT) scan, or
ultrasound. This information is used to estimate the strength of bones.
Calcitonin—Calcitonin is a protein hormone secreted by cells in the thyroid gland. It inhibits
cells that break down bone and helps to regulate the blood’s calcium and phosphate levels.
Cholescystokinin—Cholecystokinin, otherwise known as CCK or CCK-PZ, is able to improve
digestion and affects appetite.
Cholesterol—Cholesterol is a white crystalline substance found in animal tissues and various
foods that is normally synthesized by the liver. Cholesterol levels can be a risk factor for heart
disease.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia—Congenital adrenal hyperplasia refers to a group of
inherited adrenal gland disorders. People with this condition do not produce enough of the
hormones cortisol and aldosterone, and produce too much of androgen.
Cortisol—Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal gland. It is involved in the stress
response and increases blood pressure and blood sugar levels.
Cushing Syndrome—Cushing syndrome is a hormonal disorder caused by prolonged exposure
of the body's tissues to high levels of the hormone cortisol. Sometimes called "hypercortisolism,"
it is relatively rare and most commonly affects adults aged 20 to 50.
Diabetes—Diabetes is a disease in which blood glucose levels are above normal. The body of a
person with diabetes either doesn't make enough insulin or can't use its own insulin as well as it
should.
Dehydroepiandrosterone—Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is the highest circulating
steroid present in the human body. It is a precursor hormone that can be converted into hormones
such as testosterone and estradiol.
Dihydrotestosteronemdash;Dihydrotestosterone is a male hormone more potent than
testosterone that is converted from testosterone within the prostate.
Endocrine-disrupting Chemicals—Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are natural and
man-made chemicals that can either mimic, block, or disrupt the action of hormones. EDCs are
associated with numerous adverse human health issues, including reproductive health problems,
obesity, diabetes, hormone-related cancers, neurological issues, and other disorders.
Endocrinologist—Endocrinologists are specially trained physicians who diagnose diseases
related to the glands. Because these doctors specialize in these conditions, which can be complex
and have
hard-to-spot symptoms, an endocrinologist is your best advocate when dealing with hormonal
issues.
Erectile Dysfunction (ED)—Erectile dysfunction is the inability to achieve penile erection or
to maintain an erection until ejaculation.
Erythropoietin—Erythropoietin is a hormone directly connected to red blood cell production
and maintenance. Low levels of this hormone occur when someone has chronic kidney
diseases.
Estradiol—Estradiol, a type of estrogen, is a female sex hormone produced mainly by the
ovaries. It is responsible for growth of breast tissue, maturation of long bones, and development
of the secondary sexual characteristics.
Estrogen—Estrogens are a group of steroid compounds that are the primary female sex
hormones. They promote the development of female secondary sex characteristics and control
aspects of regulating the menstrual cycle.
Estrogen Therapy (ET)—Estrogen therapy is a hormone therapy treatment program in which
women take estrogen orally, transdermally, or vaginally to treat certain menopausal
symptoms. 
Estrone—Produced by the ovaries, the estrone hormone is one of three types of estrogen. It is a
weaker estrogen, commonly found in higher quantities in postmenopausal women.
Free Testosterone—Free testosterone is testosterone in the body that is biologically active and
unbound to other molecules in the body, such as sex hormone binding globulin.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)—In women, FSH helps control the menstrual cycle and
the production of eggs by the ovaries. The amount of FSH varies throughout a woman's
menstrual cycle and is highest just before she ovulates. Problems with FSH release can
contribute to female infertility. In men, FSH helps control the production of sperm.
Gastrin—Gastrin is a hormone the stomach produces. When you eat, gastrin stimulates the
release of gastric acid, an important part of the digestive process.
Ghrelin —Ghrelin is central to appetite and the release of growth hormone. Produced in
the stomach and small intestine, ghrelin has been called the "hunger hormone" because of
its role in controlling appetite.
Glands—Glands produce and secrete hormones that the body uses for a wide range of
functions. These control many different bodily functions, including respiration, metabolism,
reproduction, sensory perception, movement, sexual development, and growth.
Glucagon—Glucagon is a hormone that works with other hormones and bodily functions to
control glucose levels in the blood. It comes from alpha cells found in the pancreas and is closely
related to insulin-secreting beta cells, making it a crucial component that keeps the body’s blood
glucose levels stable.
Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 – Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) helps regulate your appetite,
especially after eating. It also helps enhance the production of insulin.
Gonads—A gonad is an organ that produces sperm and egg cells known as gametes. The gonads
in males are the testes, and the gonads in females are the ovaries.
Graves Disease—Graves disease is the most common form of hyperthyroidism. It occurs when
your immune system mistakenly attacks your thyroid gland and causes it to overproduce the
hormone thyroxine.
Growth Hormone—Growth hormone is a substance that controls your body’s growth. Growth
hormone is made by the pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain. Growth hormone helps
children grow taller, increases muscle mass, and decreases body fat.
Gynecomastia—Gynecomastia is breast enlargement in boys or men due to a benign increase
in breast tissue. This condition results from an imbalance between the hormones testosterone and
estrogen.
Hirsutism—Hirsutism is excessive "male" pattern hair growth that appears on the face, back,
chest, abdomen, and thighs in women.
Hormones—Made by endocrine glands, hormones are chemical messengers that travel in the
bloodstream to tissues or organs. They affect many processes, including growth, metabolism,
sexual function, reproduction, and mood.
Hormone Therapy—Hormone therapy is the use of hormones in medical treatment. For
example, doctors may use hormone therapy to boost estrogen levels in menopausal women.
Other examples include thyroid hormone replacement for thyroid deficiency, insulin therapy for
diabetes, and transgender hormone therapy.
Hot Flashes—Hot flashes refer to the sudden wave of mild or intense body heat caused by
dilation of capillaries in the skin resulting from decreased levels of estrogen. Hot flashes affect
about 75 percent of women as they go through menopause.
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Hormone—The human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
hormone is important in the early stages of pregnancy. It is produced by cells that are
surrounding a growing embryo, which eventually forms the placenta.
Hypoglycemia—Hypoglycemia, also called low blood sugar, occurs when your blood glucose
level drops too low to provide enough energy for your body's activities. Patients with severe
hypoglycemia may experience unconsciousness or seizures due to low blood sugar.
Hypogonadism—Hypogonadism, or low testosterone, occurs when a man’s testes fail to
produce sufficient quantities of testosterone and/or sperm quality is impaired.
Hypothalamus—The hypothalamus is an area of the brain that regulates vital autonomic
centers and produces hormones that control thirst, hunger, body temperature, sleep, moods, sex
drive, and the release of hormones from various glands, primarily the pituitary gland.
Insulin—Insulin is a protein pancreatic hormone involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates
and the regulation of glucose levels in the blood. Diabetes occurs when the body doesn’t produce
enough insulin or use the hormone effectively.  
IGF-1—IGF-1, or insulin-like growth factor 1, is a polypeptide protein hormone similar in
molecular structure to insulin. It plays an important role in childhood growth and continues to
have anabolic effects in adults. IGF-1 has been identified as a performance-enhancing drug.
Kallmann Syndrome—Kallmann syndrome is form of hypogonadism that is caused by
congenital gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) deficiency. It is more common in males and
is a known cause of delayed puberty. 
Kisspeptin – Kisspeptin, made in the hypothalamus, starts the reaction that signals the release
of hormones involved in testosterone and estradiol production. Also called metastin, this
hormone is connected to puberty and fertility, and it may also help stop the spread of cancer.
Klinefelter Syndrome—Klinefelter syndrome is the most common congenital abnormality in
males causing primary hypogonadism, occurring in approximately 1 in 1000 live male births.
This syndrome is the clinical manifestation of a male who has an extra X chromosome.
Leptin—Leptin, a hormone released from the fat cells located in adipose tissues, sends signals
to the hypothalamus in the brain. This hormone helps regulate and alter long-term food intake
and energy expenditure to help the body maintain its weight.
Luteinizing Hormone—Luteinizing hormone—also known as lutropin—is necessary for
proper reproductive function. In women, it triggers ovulation.
Melatonin—Melatonin is essential to signaling the relaxation and lower body temperature that
help with restful sleep. Melatonin is created by the pineal gland in the brain.
Menopause—Menopause is the process a woman goes through that causes her monthly periods
to end. During menopause, a woman's ovaries stop producing eggs and produce fewer female
hormones.
Metabolic Syndrome—Metabolic syndrome describes a cluster of metabolic risk factors that
increase the chances of developing heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. Genetic factors, too much
body fat, and lack of exercise contribute to the development of the condition.
Norepinephrine—Norepinephrine is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. It also acts as
a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger which transmits signals across nerve endings in the
body. Together with other hormones, it helps the body respond to stress and exercise.
Obesity—Obesity is a chronic medical disease of having too much body fat. Health care
providers diagnose obesity using a number called the body mass index.
Osteoporosis—Osteoporosis is a disease in which bones become weak and are more likely to
fracture or break.
Ovaries—Ovaries are the egg producing organs found in females. They produce the hormones
estrogen and progesterone.
Oxytocin—Oxytocin is a hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. It facilitates birth
and breastfeeding.
Pancreas—The pancreas gland secretes insulin, a hormone that helps glucose move from the
blood into the cells to be used for energy. The pancreas also secretes glucagon when blood sugar
is low.
Parathyroid—The parathyroid gland helps control both calcium and phosphorous levels and
are necessary for proper bone development. The parathyroid gland is actually a group of four
small glands located behind the thyroid gland.
Parathyroid Hormone – Parathyroid hormone plays a role in regulating blood calcium levels,
helping the body maintain adequate calcium stores in the bloodstream to protect bone health. It
comes from four parathyroid glands in the neck, just behind the thyroid.
Peptide YY—After eating, the hormone peptide YY (PYY) is produced by the small intestine
and released into the bloodstream. PYY communicates to your brain that you are full and
decreases your appetite.
Perimenopause—Part of the menopause transition, the perimenopause stage takes place when
a woman’s ovaries gradually begin to produce less estrogen.
Pineal Gland—The pineal is a small endocrine gland located in the center of the brain between
the two hemispheres. It secretes melatonin, which helps regulate wake/sleep patterns.
Pituitary Gland—The pituitary is a small endocrine gland located at the base of the skull. It
helps control growth, blood pressure, breast milk production, and metabolism.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)—Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is common
hormone disorder that affects 7 to 10 percent of women. Signs include excess male hormones
called androgens, problems with ovulation, and small follicles appearing on the ovaries.
Prader-Willi Syndrome—Prader-Willi syndrome is a genetic disorder that can cause a growth
hormone deficiency. It is marked by a preoccupation with food, small stature, and learning
difficulties.
Premenstrual Syndrome—Premenstrual syndrome describes the appearance of physical and
emotional symptoms during the second half of the menstrual cycle.
Progesterone—Progesterone is a female hormone that signals the uterus to prepare for
receiving an egg following fertilization. When progesterone levels go down each month, this
causes the bleeding associated with menstrual periods.
Progestin—This is a synthetic form of progesterone. This class of drugs was originally
developed to allow absorption by mouth for use in birth control pills.
Prolactin—Prolactin is a peptide hormone that promotes breast milk production.
Prostaglandins—Prostaglandins are a group of lipids involved in the process of inflammation
and blood clotting following an injury. These hormones are created during a chemical reaction at
the injury site.
Relaxin—Relaxin is a reproductive hormone secreted in the ovary by the corpus luteum. It is
involved in preparing a pregnant woman’s body for labor and birth.
Serotonin&mdashSerotonin is the key hormone that stabilizes our mood, feelings of well-being,
and happiness. It also helps reduce depression, regulate anxiety, and maintain bone health.
Somatostatin—Somatostatin—also called SS, SST or SOM—is a growth hormone inhibitory
hormone. Somatostatin prevents the production of other hormones and stops the unnatural rapid
reproduction of cells—such as those that may occur in tumors.
Steroids—Steroids are any of various molecules—including hormones—that contain a particular
arrangement of carbon rings. Some common steroids include sex steroids,
corticosteroids, anabolic steroids, and cholesterol.
Testes—Testes are the male reproductive organs. They produce sperm and the
hormone testosterone.
Testosterone—Testosterone is a steroid, androgen hormone, and the primary male sex
hormone. It is produced by the testes in men and ovaries in women, and it plays key roles in
libido, energy, and immune function in both men and women.
Thymus—The thymus gland is located in the chest just behind the sternum. The thymus
secretes hormones that are commonly referred to as humoral factors and are important during
puberty. The role of these hormones is to make sure a person develops a healthy immune system.
Thyroid—The thyroid gland is located inside the neck. It regulates metabolism, which is the
body's ability to break down food and convert it to energy. Thyroid disorders typically result
when the gland releases too little or too much thyroid hormone.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone—Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the thyroid to
secrete the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. It is manufactured by the hypothalamus
and transported by the anterior pituitary gland.
Thyroxine—Thyroxine, also known as T4, plays a crucial role in heart and digestive function,
metabolism, brain development, bone health, and muscle control. The thyroid gland secretes
thyroxine into the bloodstream.
Total testosterone—Total testosterone is a measurement of the total amount of testosterone in
the blood, combining free testosterone and testosterone bound to certain molecules and already at
use in the body.
Turner Syndrome—Turner syndrome occurs in females when one of the X chromosomes is
missing or damaged. The most common features of Turner syndrome are short stature and
reduced or absent development of the ovaries. As adults, women with this disorder are typically
infertile.
Vitamin D—Vitamin D is a prohormone—a substance the body converts to a hormone. The
body produces vitamin D in a chemical reaction that occurs when sunlight hits the skin, and
some vitamin D also comes from food sources. Active vitamin D functions as a hormone because
it sends messages to the intestines to increase the absorption of calcium and phosphorus.

Sample Chart Notes

Disorders/Diseases and Treatment
Diabetes
Diabetes is a condition that causes high blood glucose levelsTrusted Source due to the body
being unable to either produce or use insulin sufficiently to regulate glucose. Two of the most
common types of diabetes are type 1 and type 2.
Diabetes causes symptoms that include:
 increased thirst and urination
 increased hunger
 unexpected weight changes
 persistent sores
 numbness or tingling in the hands or feet
 tiredness
 blurry vision
Most treatments for diabetes include a combination of lifestyle factors and medications. People
with diabetes may require regular insulin medications to help regulate their glucose levels.

Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces too many hormonesTrusted Source.
The condition has several possible causes, including inflammation of the thyroid gland or
Graves’ disease.
Thyroid hormones help regulate energy use throughout the body. This means that the condition
can cause a wide range of symptoms, including:
 a rapid or irregular heartbeat
 difficulty sleeping
 irritability and nervousness
 tiredness
 poor temperature regulation
 frequent bowel movements
 weight loss with an increased appetite
 a goiter, which is a growth in the neck
Treatments for hyperthyroidism depend on its cause, the symptoms, and the person’s overall
health. They could include medications, radioiodine therapy, or thyroid surgery.

Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid does notTrusted Source produce enough hormones. It
is the most common thyroid disorder, and it can cause bodily processes to slow down.
Symptoms may include:
 tiredness
 sensitivity to cold
 slow speech
 droopy eyelids and facial swelling
 dry skin
 a slow heartbeat
 muscle cramps
 confusion
 constipation
 weight gain
  tingling in the hands
A doctor may suggest treating the condition with additional doses of thyroid hormones to help
manage the symptoms.

Cushing’s syndrome
Cushing’s syndrome occurs when there is an excess of the hormone cortisol. Cortisol helps the
body respond to stress, regulate metabolic processes, and maintain blood pressure.
Too much cortisol in people with Cushing’s syndrome can cause symptoms that include:
 weight gain
 thin arms and legs
 a rounded face
 a fatty lump between the shoulders
 excessive hair growth
 muscle weakness
 blurry vision
 decreased fertility and sex drive
 tiredness
 easy bruising and purple stretch marks
The most common Trusted Source treatment for Cushing’s syndrome is surgery to remove a
tumor that is causing the problem.

Acromegaly
Acromegaly occurs when the body makes too much growth hormone. It can result in the unusual
growth of bones, organs, and other tissues around the body. For example, it can cause:
 swollen hands and feet
 the growth of facial features
 bone changes, such as a protruding jaw
 thick, dry skin
 sweating and body odor
 a deeper voice
Treatments could include surgery, medications, and radiation therapy to reduce the tumor
causing the condition.

PCOS
PCOS occurs when an imbalanceTrusted Source of reproductive hormones may cause problems
in the ovaries.
It can cause symptoms that include:
 irregular menstrual cycles
 excessive hair
 acne
 thinning hair
 weight gain or difficulty losing weight
 darkening skin
 skin tags
To treat PCOS, a doctor might suggest hormonal birth control pills, anti-androgen medications,
or metformin.
Diagnosis
Endocrine disorders cause a wide range of symptoms. Many of these symptoms overlap with
those of other conditions. This can make endocrine disorders difficult to diagnose, and diagnosis
may require a number of tools and tests.
For example, a doctor might diagnose an endocrine disorder using:
 urine tests
 imaging scans, such as MRI scans
 genetic tests
 hormone tests
 blood tests

Medications/Procedures

Drugs and Injections

A number of drugs can help treat hormonal disorders.
o Glucocorticoid pills can replace hormones such as cortisol that may be low due to
malfunctioning adrenal glands or pituitary gland.
o Several types of oral medicine or injectable insulin can be used to treat diabetes.
o Testosterone replacement in the form of topical gels or injections may work for men who
have low testosterone.
An endocrinologist may also suggest thyroid surgery to remove a gland with a growth, or one so
highly overactive or swollen it affects your breathing.

What procedures and treatments does an endocrinologist do?

Endocrinologists order or perform various procedures and treatments to manage hormonal
conditions. If you need surgery, your endocrinologist will refer you to either a general surgeon or
a specialized surgeon depending on your condition. Common endocrinology procedures and
treatments include: 
 Counseling including behavior modification for obese and overweight patients
 Diet including medical weight loss treatments and nutrition education
 Exercise and fitness counseling including weight-bearing exercises and
cardiovascular conditioning
 Medications including hormonal therapy, hormone replacement, hormone
blockers, vitamins, diabetes medications, insulin, targeted biologic therapies and
cancer chemotherapies
 Radiation including radioactive isotopes for hyperthyroidism, radiation
therapy, and other applications
 Recommendations and referrals for surgery including partial or full removal
of an endocrine gland, weight loss surgery, and surgery to remove cancerous
and noncancerous tumors
What does an endocrinologist test?
An endocrinologist can order or perform a wide variety of diagnostic and screening tests for
endocrine or hormonal health problems. These tests include:
 Biopsies including fine-needle aspirations
 Blood tests including hormone blood levels, blood chemistries, and blood
glucose tests
 Hormone tests including dexamethasone suppression tests, adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) stimulation tests, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
stimulation tests, and oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTT)
 Imaging exams including radioisotope scans, bone density tests,
ultrasounds, CT (computed tomography) scan, MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging), and EKGs (electrocardiograms)
 Urine tests including urinalysis and 24-hour urine collections