WEEK 10-11 – FUEL SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes:
• Discuss the function and purpose of the Aircraft fuel system
• Understand the proper operation of the Aircraft’s fuel system

Reference:
• Moire, I. and Seabridge A. (2013) Design and development of aircraft systems 2nd edition. Wiley.
• Pilot’s handbook of Aeronautical knowledge (2016). United States Department of
Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved from faa:
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/media/pilot_han
dbook.pdf

Topic: Aircraft Fuel System

An aircraft fuel system allows the crew to pump, manage, and deliver aviation fuel to the
propulsion system and auxiliary power unit of an aircraft. The main purpose of the fuel systems is to
provide an uninterrupted flow of clean fuel from the fuel tanks under constant pressure to the engine
under all operating conditions to the engine.

Fuel Systems
Aviation fuel is a liquid containing chemical energy that, through combustion, is released as heat energy
and then converted to mechanical energy by the engine. Aircraft engine fuels are petroleum products
manufactured from crude oil by oil refineries. Two common classifications apply to fuel systems in small
aircraft: gravity-feed and fuel-pump systems
The aircraft fuel system stores fuel and delivers the proper amount of clean fuel at the right
pressure to meet the demands of the engine. The fuel system must be designed to provide positive and
reliable fuel flow through all phases of flight. This must include changes in altitude, violent maneuvers, and
sudden acceleration and deceleration. Furthermore, the system must be reasonably free from any tendency
to vapor lock. Indicators such as tank quantity gauges, fuel pressure gauges, and warning signals provide
continuous monitoring of how the system is functioning.
Requirements for fuel system design are specified in detail in the parts of the Federal Aviation
Regulations under which the aircraft was built. The vast majority of airplanes in the general aviation fleet
are built under FAR Part 23, [Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, and Acrobatic Category Airplanes).
Awareness of the basic fuel system requirements for these airplanes will help the aircraft maintenance
technician better understand the function of an aircraft fuel system.
Gravity-Feed System
The simplest aircraft fuel system is found on small, high-wing single-engine training-type airplanes.
These systems normally use two fuel tanks, one in either wing. The two tank outlets are connected to the
selector valve. Fuel can be drawn from either tank individually, or both tanks can feed the engine at the same
time. A fourth position on the selector valve turns off all fuel to the engine. Since both tanks can feed the
engine at the same time, the space above the fuel in both tanks must be interconnected and vented outside
of the airplane. The vent line normally terminates on the underside of the wing where the possibility of fuel
siphoning is minimized. After the fuel leaves the selector valve, it passes through the main strainer and on
to the carburetor inlet. Fuel for the primer is taken from the main strainer.
PUMP-FEED SYSTEMS
Low-wing airplanes cannot use gravity to feed fuel to the carburetor. An engine-driven and/or
electric pump must be used to provide adequate fuel pressure. The selector valve in these systems can
normally select either tank individually, or shut off all flow to the engine. The selector valve does NOT
have a "Both" position, because the pump would pull air from an empty tank rather than fuel from a full
tank. After leaving the fuel selector valve, the fuel flows through the main strainer and into the electric fuel
pump. The engine-driven pump is in parallel with the electric pump, so the fuel can be moved by either.
There is no need for a bypass feature to allow one pump to force fuel through the other. To assure that
both pumps are functioning, note the fuel pressure produced by the electric pump before starting the
engine, and then, with the engine running, turn the electric pump off and note the pressure that is
produced by the engine-driven pump.
AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The basic components of a fuel system include tanks, lines, valves, pumps, filtering units, gauges,
warning systems, and for piston-engine aircraft, a primer. Some systems will include central refueling
provisions, fuel dump valves, and a means for transferring fuel. In order to clarify the operating principles of
complex aircraft fuel systems, the various units are discussed in the following paragraphs.

TANKS
The location, size, shape, and construction of fuel tanks vary with the type and intended use of the
aircraft. Fuel tanks are manufactured from materials that will not react chemically with any aviation fuel
and have a number of common features. Usually a sump and drain are provided at the lowest point in the
tank, and the top of each tank is vented to the atmosphere. All except the smallest of tanks are fitted with
baffles to resist fuel surging caused by changes in the attitude of the aircraft. Many fuel tanks incorporate
flapper valves to prevent fuel from flowing away from the boost pump or tank outlet when the aircraft is
in a high "G" maneuver. In this capacity, the flapper valves serve as check valves. An expansion space
is provided in fuel tanks to allow for an increase in fuel volume due to increases in its temperature.
Some fuel tanks are equipped with dump valves that make it possible to jettison fuel during flight
in order to reduce the weight of the aircraft to its specified landing weight. In aircraft equipped with
dump valves, the operating control is located within reach of the pilot, copilot, or flight engineer.

RIGID REMOVABLE TANKS

Most older aircraft use welded or riveted gasoline tanks
to hold their fuel, but because of the limitations of weight and
space, these tanks have been replaced almost totally by either
integral or bladder-type tanks.
The smaller fuel tanks are made of thin sheet steel coated
with an alloy of lead and tin. This material is called terneplate.
Terneplate sheets are formed into the shapes needed to construct
the tank, and all of the seams are folded in the best tradition of
commercial sheet metal practice. Solder is sweated into the
seams. This provides a good leak-proof joint, and the tanks are
relatively low cost. The weight of a terneplate tank is more than
that of an aluminum alloy tank, but for the type of airplane in
which it is installed, the low-cost advantage overcomes its
weight disadvantage. Rigid removable tanks are easy to install
and repair
The larger fuel tanks of older aircraft are generally made of either 3003 or 5052 aluminum alloy.
Both of these metals are relatively lightweight and easily welded. The parts of the tank are stamped out
of sheet metal and formed to the required shape, and the tank is often riveted together with soft alu-
minum rivets to hold its parts in position. All of the seams are torch-welded to provide a fuel-tight seal.
INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS
Rigid tanks require a large open space
in the aircraft structure for their
installation, and very few aircraft have this
amount of space that is not crossed with
structural members. However, most wings
have large empty spaces, and with the
availability of new, space-age sealants, it has
become standard practice for many aircraft
manufacturers to seal off a portion of the
wing to form a fuel tank. This type of tank
has the advantage of using a maximum amount of space for the fuel and having a minimum amount
of weight. A typical light-aircraft integral fuel tank occupies the leading-edge portion of the wing
from the front spar forward, and it is sealed at both ends and all along the spar with a two-part
sealant. All of the rivets and nutplates are sealed, as well as around all of the inspection openings.
The sealant is spread along each seam individually rather than sloshing the entire tank.

BLADDER TANKS
The bladder tank is an excellent substitute for a
welded fuel tank. Bladder tanks have been successfully used
for both small and large aircraft. Prepare the fuel bay by
covering all sharp edges of the metal structure with a chafe-
resisting tape and install a bladder made of thin fabric, which
is impregnated with neoprene or some similar material that is
impervious to fuel.

SURGE TANKS
The surge tanks are not counted to the fuel capacity of the aircraft
but act as a precaution, in case the main tanks overflow.
FUEL PUMPS
The purpose of an engine-driven fuel pump is to deliver a properly pressured, continuous supply
of fuel during engine operation. Auxiliary fuel pumps may be installed in the system to aid in engine starting
and to assure a positive pressure to the inlet of the engine-driven fuel pump.
HAND-OPERATED PUMPS
Hand-operated fuel pumps are often called "wobble pumps." The name comes from the method of
operation of one of the early types of hand fuel pumps. These pumps are used for backing up an engine-
driven pump and for transferring fuel from one tank into another
CENTRIFUGAL BOOST PUMP
By far the most popular type of auxiliary fuel pump in use in modern aircraft is the centrifugal
boost pump. These pumps are installed on either the inside or the outside of the fuel tank. An electric
motor drives a centrifugal pump, and it uses a small impeller to sling fuel out into the discharge line. These
pumps are not of the constant displacement type, so restricting their outlet does not affect them. Many
are two-speed types that use an electrical resistor in series with the motor to vary its speed.
Some centrifugal boost pumps have a small agitator on the pump shaft that stirs up the fuel being drawn
into the impeller. Any of the tiny vapor bubbles that form in the fuel are forced to coalesce into larger
bubbles and rise to the top of the tank rather than enter the fuel line.

FUEL EJECTORS
To assure that there will always be an adequate supply of fuel available, boost pumps are sometimes located
in a fuel collector can. This is an area of the fuel tank that has been partitioned off and equipped with a
flapper-type valve to allow fuel to flow into the collector from the tank. A fuel ejector system uses the
venturi principle to supply additional fuel to the collector can, regardless of aircraft attitude.
The submerged motor-driven boost pumps supply fuel from each tank to their respective engines. During
operation of the boost pumps, a portion of their output is routed to the fuel ejectors. The flow of fuel
through a venturi supplies the low pressure needed to draw additional fuel from the ejector location. Fuel
is then routed to the fuel collector cans

FUEL VALVES
Selector valves are installed in the fuel system to provide a means for shutting off the fuel flow, for
tank and engine selection, for cross-feed, and for fuel transfer. The size and number of ports (openings) vary
with the installation. Valves may be hand-operated, motor-operated, or solenoid-operated. Valves must
accommodate the full flow capacity of the fuel line, must not leak, and must operate freely. A manually
operated valve must have a definite "feel" or "click" when it is in the correct position. The fuel selector
valve allows selection of fuel from various tanks. A common type of selector valve contains four positions:
LEFT, RIGHT, BOTH, and OFF. Selecting the LEFT or RIGHT position allows fuel to feed only from the
respective tank, while selecting the BOTH position feeds fuel from both tanks. The LEFT or RIGHT position
may be used to balance the amount of fuel remaining in each wing tank.
FILTERS
It is essential that the fuel supplied to an aircraft engine be free from contamination. Because of
this, every aircraft fuel system requires a series of strainers and filters. In addition to strainers, there must
be a provision for draining a sample of fuel from all of the tanks and from the main strainer. This is to
examine the fuel for the presence of any water or solid particles that could have condensed in the tank
or been introduced during fueling.
Almost all fuel tanks used in smaller aircraft have a rather coarse mesh finger strainer at the tank
outlet. This strainer increases the area of the discharge port of the tank and helps prevent contaminants
from shutting off the flow of fuel. If a boost pump is installed in the tank, the screen is around the inlet to
the pump. Here it serves the same function: to prevent the fuel flow from being stopped by anything less
than an excessive amount of contamination.
All fuel tanks should have a drain valve (sump) or drain plug at their lowest point. Most operators
take a sample of fuel before the first flight of the day, after each refueling, and in some instances, before
each flight. Care should be taken to wait an appropriate amount of time before testing for contamination
since it takes time for water to settle out of fuel, depending on how much agitation had occurred, and the
thickness of the fuel. Any water or solid contaminants in the fuel settle around this valve where they can
be drained out.
FUEL LINES AND FITTINGS
The plumbing in aircraft fuel systems
must be constructed of the highest quality
material, and all of the workmanship must
conform to approved aircraft practices. The
metal tubing is usually made of aluminum
alloy, and the flexible hose is made of
synthetic rubber or Teflon. The engine's fuel
flow requirements govern the diameter of the
tubing.
Most of the rigid fuel lines used in an
aircraft are made of 5052 aluminum alloy, but
in some aircraft, the lines that pass through
the wheel wells and some of the lines in the
engine compartments are made of stainless
steel as insurance against damage from either
abrasion or heat. The fittings used on the lines
may be of either the AN or MS flare type or a
flareless type, depending upon the system
installed by the manufacturer.
Replacement of a fuel line is normally done by installing a new line furnished by the aircraft man-
ufacturer. If it is ever necessary to fabricate a line in the shop, use only the correct material for the line, and
do not use substitute fittings without specific approval of either the manufacturer or the FAA.
Aircraft refuelling and defuelling is controlled by a separate subsystem within the overall fuel system. The
aircraft is fuelled by means of a refuelling receptacle that connects to the refuelling tanker. From the
receptacle it enters a refueling gallery which distributes the incoming fuel to the various aircraft tanks. The
control of fuel entry into each tank is undertaken by valves that are under the control of the fuel
management system. In the crudest sense fuel will enter the tanks until they are full, whereupon the
refuelling valve will be shut off preventing the entry of any more. In most cases the aircraft is not filled to
capacity, rather the maintenance crew select a fuel load and set the appropriate levels at the refuel/defuel
panel adjacent to the refueling receptacle – often located under the aircraft wing in an accessible position.
The defuelling process is almost the reverse of that for refuelling. It may be necessary to defuel the
aircraft for maintenance reasons. In general, defuelling is carried out relatively infrequently compared to
refuelling. When it is performed the fuel in the tanks must be completely emptied out and the tank volume
purged with air to make the tank space safe to operate in, i.e. to reduce fuel vapour to allow maintenance
crew to work in the tanks, and to reduce the risk of an explosive atmosphere leading to a fire or explosion.
In some simpler aircraft it is possible to carry out over-wing refuelling. This is undertaken at remote airstrips
where there may not be any dedicated refuelling machinery such as a fuel bowser and the fuel is provided
in drums.
Vent System
Commercial aircraft use what is termed an ‘open vent system’ to connect the ullage space above the fuel
in each tank to the outside air. The provision of adequate fuel tank venting throughout the aircraft
operational flight envelope is critical in that it allows the tanks to ‘breathe’ as the aircraft climbs and
descends. Without this provision large pressure differences could develop between the ullage and outside
air resulting in very large forces on the tank structure. It is impractical to accommodate these forces via
the wing structural design because of the resultant weight penalty; therefore, the design of the vent
system plays a critical role in protecting the tank structure from structural failure as the aircraft transitions
between ground and cruise altitudes. During the refuel process, the uplifted fuel displaces air in the fuel
tanks. For safety and environmental reasons, spillage of fuel to the outside must be avoided. To
accomplish this consistently and reliably, a vent box (sometimes referred to as a surge tank) is provided
to capture any fuel that may enter the vent lines which connect to the various fuel tanks. Since pressure
refuelling involves the application of a relatively high positive pressure (typically 50 psi) to speed the
refuelling process it becomes necessary to protect against a failed open refuel valve. To do this a pressure
relief valve usually installed on the upper wing surface prevents the build-up of internal tank pressure to
a level that could damage the aircraft structure. During maximum rates of descent, a pressure difference
in the opposite direction must be avoided by adequate sizing of the vent lines and/or by designing
the relief valve to be double-acting. In military aircraft where operation at extremely high altitudes is
required, a closed vent system is employed to prevent excess vaporization or boiling of the fuel. Here the
tanks are slightly pressurized typically using bleed air from the engines. A climb and dive valve must now
be employed to maintain a safe pressure differential between the ullage and the outside air. The reference
to fuel/no-air valves at the end of this paragraph is usually associated with pressure transfer of fuel from
an external tank and not relevant to the vent discussion.
FUEL GRADES
Aviation gasoline (AVGAS) is identified by an octane or performance number (grade), which
designates the antiknock value or knock resistance of the fuel mixture in the engine cylinder. The higher
the grade of gasoline, the more pressure the fuel can withstand without detonating. Lower grades of fuel
are used in lower-compression engines because these fuels ignite at a lower temperature. Higher grades
are used in higher-compression engines because they ignite at higher temperatures, but not prematurely.
If the proper grade of fuel is not available, use the next higher grade as a substitute. Never use a grade
lower than recommended. This can cause the cylinder head temperature and engine oil temperature to
exceed their normal operating ranges, which may result in detonation.
The current method identifies AVGAS for aircraft with reciprocating engines by the octane and
performance number, along with the abbreviation AVGAS. These aircraft use AVGAS 80, 100, and 100LL.
Although AVGAS 100LL performs the same as grade 100, the “LL” indicates it has a low lead content. Fuel
for aircraft with turbine engines is classified as JET A, JET A-1, and JET B. Jet fuel is basically kerosene and
has a distinctive kerosene smell. Since use of the correct fuel is critical, dyes are added to help identify the
type and grade of fuel.
FUEL CONTAMINATION
Accidents attributed to powerplant failure from fuel contamination have often been traced to:
• Inadequate preflight inspection by the pilot
• Servicing aircraft with improperly filtered fuel from small tanks or drums
• Storing aircraft with partially filled fuel tanks
• Lack of proper maintenance
The most common forms of aviation fuel contaminants are solids, water, surfactants,
microorganisms, and the intermixing of grades or types of fuel. Fuel should be drained from the fuel
strainer quick drain and from each fuel tank sump into a transparent container and then checked for dirt
and water. When the fuel strainer is being drained, water in the tank may not appear until all the fuel has
been drained from the lines leading to the tank. This indicates that water remains in the tank and is not
forcing the fuel out of the fuel lines leading to the fuel strainer. Therefore, drain enough fuel from the fuel
strainer to be certain that fuel is being drained from the tank.

Solid contaminants are those which do not dissolve in fuel. The most common contaminants are iron rust
and scale, sand, and dirt. However, other debris such as metal particles, dust, lint, particles of filter media,
rubber, valve lubricants, and even bacterial sludge can be encountered. Solid contaminants are typically
introduced inadvertently into fuel at every stage of its movement from the refinery to the aircraft.
The maximum amount of solids that an aircraft can tolerate depends on the type of aircraft and fuel system,
and the number and size of the solid contaminants. Particles as small as 1/20 the diameter of a human hair
can damage close tolerance mechanisms in modern turbine engines.
The best method of controlling solids is to limit their introduction into the fuel. Obviously, do not use rusty lines,
tanks, and containers. Furthermore, keep covers and caps tightly closed until ready to begin pumping fuel. Take
care to keep wiping rag lint, wind-blown sand, dirt, and dust from entering the system during filling or fueling
operations. Clean fueling nozzles and loading spouts before use, and replace dust caps and other protective
devices after using them. Furthermore, regularly inspect and maintain filters in accordance with operating
specifications.

"Surfactants" is a contraction of the words SURFace ACTive AgeNTS. Surfactants consist of soap or
detergent-like materials that occur naturally in fuel, or can be introduced during refining or handling.
Surfactants are usually more soluble in water than in fuel and reduce the surface tension between water
and fuel. This stabilizes suspended water droplets and contaminants in the fuel. They are attracted to the
elements of filter/separators, which can make them ineffective. Surfactants, in large concentrated
quantities, usually appear as a tan to dark brown liquid with a sudsy-like consistency.

Microorganisms have become a critical problem in some turbine fuel systems. There are over 100 different
varieties of microorganisms that can live in the free water that accumulates in sumps and on the bottom of
storage and aircraft tanks. Many microorganisms are airborne, and therefore, fuel is constantly exposed to
this type of contaminant.
The principle effects of microorganisms are formulation of a sludge or slime that can fill filters/separators
and fueling mechanisms, emulsification of the fuel, creation of corrosive compounds and offensive odors.
Severe corrosion of aircraft fuel tanks has been attributed to microorganisms, causing considerable
expense in removing these growths and repairing their damage. The actual determination of microbial
content, or number of colonies, is reserved for the laboratory. Remove any evidence of black sludge or slime,
or even a vegetative-like mat growth. Growths also appear as dark brown spots on some filter/separator
element socks. Replace the socks whenever this condition is discovered.
Because microbes thrive in water, a simple and effective method to prevent or retard their growth is to
eliminate the water. Introducing a fuel additive during the fueling process is a common way of doing this.

DETECTION OF CONTAMINANTS
Because solid contaminants generally appear in relatively small numbers and sizes relative to the fuel
volume, their detection can be difficult. Aviation gasoline is generally considered "clean" if a one-quart
sample is clear of any sediment when viewed in a clean and dry glass container. It may be helpful to swirl
the container to create a vortex. The solid contaminants, if present, will tend to collect at the bottom
beneath the vortex.

FUEL SYSTEM INDICATORS

FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING SYSTEMS
This is one of the required instruments for all powered aircraft. It may be as simple as a cork float riding on
top of the fuel in the tank, projecting a wire out through the tank filler cap. There is no requirement for
these simple systems to be calibrated in discreet amounts, and they show only the relative amount of fuel
in the tank. Somewhat more elaborate indicators have the float driving a pointer that shows whether the
fuel level in the tank is 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, or Full.

FUEL GAUGES
The fuel quantity gauges indicate the amount of fuel measured by a sensing unit
in each fuel tank and is displayed in gallons or pounds. Aircraft certification rules
require accuracy in fuel gauges only when they read “empty.” Any reading other
than “empty” should be verified. Do not depend solely on the accuracy of the fuel
quantity gauges. Always visually check the fuel level in each tank during the
preflight inspection, and then compare it with the corresponding fuel quantity
indication.
FLOWMETERS
Small reciprocating-engine aircraft using carburetors seldom have fuel flowmeters. The pilot
assumes a flow rate based on the engine RPM and manifold pressure, and checks it against the amount of
fuel used in a given period of time as determined from performance charts.
Larger reciprocating engines use a fuel flowmeter between the fuel pump and the carburetor. The fuel
flowing to the carburetor moves a spring-loaded vane. The greater the flow, the further the vane will move.
The movement of the vane is transmitted to the indicator, which may be calibrated in gallons or pounds
per hour. This is only an approximation since it assumes that the fuel is at a standard temperature and
has a standard density.
FUEL TEMPERATURE GAUGES
High flying jet aircraft are equipped with a ratiometer rtype fuel temperature measuring system. This unit
measures the temperature of the fuel in the tanks and displays it on the flight engineer's instrument panel.
The flight engineer monitors the fuel temperature and uses the fuel heaters as necessary.
FUEL PRESSURE GAUGES
It is necessary to know that a pump fed fuel system is delivering the proper amount of fuel to the fuel
metering system. To provide this information, simple aircraft generally use a bourdon tube pressure gauge
connected to the inlet of the fuel metering system to measure the pressure. The pressure read here before
starting the engine shows the output of the boost pump, and when the engine is running and the boost
pump is turned off, the gauge shows the pressure that the engine-driven pump is producing.
WEEK 9 – LANDING GEAR SYSTEM
Learning Outcomes:
• Discuss landing gears purpose and operation.
• Identify the different types of landing gears.

Reference:
• Moire, I. and Seabridge A. (2013) Design and development of aircraft systems 2nd edition. Wiley.
• Aviation maintenance technician handbook - powerplant volume 2 (2018). United States
Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration.
Retrieve from faa:
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aircraft/media/FAA-H-
8083-32-AMT-Powerplant-Vol-2.pdf

Topic: Landing Gear system

Aircraft landing gear supports the entire weight of an aircraft during landing and ground
operations. They are attached to primary structural members of the aircraft. The type of gear depends on
the aircraft design and its intended use. Most landing gear have wheels to facilitate operation to and from
hard surfaces, such as airport runways. Other gear feature skids for this purpose, such as those found on
helicopters, balloon gondolas, and in the tail area of some tail dragger aircraft. Aircraft that operate to
and from frozen lakes and snowy areas may be equipped with landing gear that have skis. Aircraft that
operate to and from the surface of water have pontoon-type landing gear. Regardless of the type of
landing gear utilized, shock absorbing equipment, brakes, retraction mechanisms, controls, warning
devices, cowling, fairings, and structural members necessary to attach the gear to the aircraft are
considered parts of the landing gear system.
Landing Gear Arrangement

Three basic arrangements of landing gear are used: tail wheel type landing gear (also known as
conventional gear), tandem landing gear, and tricycle-type landing gear.

Tail Wheel-Type Landing Gear

Tail wheel-type landing gear is also known as
conventional gear because many early aircraft use this
type of arrangement. The main gears are located
forward of the center of gravity, causing the tail to
require support from a third wheel assembly. A few
early aircraft designs use a skid rather than a tail wheel.
This helps slow the aircraft upon landing and provides
directional stability. The resulting angle of the aircraft
fuselage, when fitted with conventional gear, allows the use of a long propeller that compensates for
older, underpowered engine design. The increased clearance of the forward fuselage offered by tail
wheel-type landing gear is also advantageous when operating in and out of non-paved runways. Today,
aircraft are manufactured with conventional gear for this reason and for the weight savings accompanying
the relatively light tail wheel assembly.
Tandem Landing Gear
Few aircraft are designed with tandem landing gear.
As the name implies, this type of landing gear has the main
gear and tail gear aligned on the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft. Sailplanes commonly use tandem gear, although
many only have one actual gear forward on the fuselage with
a skid under the tail. A few military bombers, such as the B-
47 and the B-52, have tandem gear, as does the U2 spy plane.
The VTOL Harrier has tandem gear but uses small outrigger
gear under the wings for support. Generally, placing the gear
only under the fuselage facilitates the use of very flexible
wings.
Tricycle-Type Landing Gear
Nearly all currently produced aircraft use the tricycle
landing gear configuration in which the main gear are located
behind the airplane's center of gravity and the nose of the
airplane is supported by the nose gear. Steering the nose
wheel through connections to the rudder pedals provides
control on the ground for small airplanes, while large
airplanes utilize hydraulic steering cylinders to control the
direction of the nose gear.
 Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and small aircraft with the following benefits:

1. Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when braking, which
enables higher landing speeds.
2. Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing and ground
maneuvering.
3. Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft center of gravity is forward of
the main gear forces acting on the center of gravity tend to keep the aircraft moving
forward rather than looping, such as with a tail wheel-type landing gear.

The nose gear of a few aircraft with tricycle-type landing gear is not controllable. It simply casters as
steering is accomplished with differential braking during taxi. However, nearly all aircraft have steerable
nose gear. On light aircraft, the nose gear is directed through mechanical linkage to the rudder pedals.
Heavy aircraft typically utilize hydraulic power to steer the nose gear. Control is achieved through an
independent tiller in the flight deck. The main gear on a tricycle-type landing gear arrangement is attached
to reinforced wing structure or fuselage structure. The number and location of wheels on the main gear
vary. Many main gears have two or more wheels.

Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear

Further classification of aircraft landing gear can be made into two categories: fixed and retractable. Many
small, single engine light aircraft have fixed landing gear, as do a few light twins. This means the gear is
attached to the airframe and remains exposed to the slipstream as the aircraft is flown. as the speed of
an aircraft increases, so does parasite drag. Mechanisms to retract and stow the landing gear to eliminate
parasite drag add weight to the aircraft. On slow aircraft,
the penalty of this added weight is not overcome by the
reduction of drag, so fixed gear is used. As the speed of
the aircraft increases, the drag caused by the landing gear
becomes greater and a means to retract the gear to
eliminate parasite drag is required, despite the weight of
the mechanism. A great deal of the parasite drag caused
by light aircraft landing gear can be reduced by building
gear as aerodynamically as possible and by adding fairings
or wheel pants to streamline the airflow past the
protruding assemblies. A small, smooth profile to the
oncoming wind greatly reduces landing gear parasite drag.
Retractable landing gear stow in fuselage or wing
compartments while in flight. Once in these wheel wells, gears
are out of the slipstream and do not cause parasite drag. Most
retractable gear have a close-fitting panel attached to them
that fairs with the aircraft skin when the gear is fully retracted.
Other aircraft have separate doors that open, allowing the gear
to enter or leave, and then close again.

Landing Gear
In addition to supporting the aircraft for taxi, the forces of impact on an aircraft during landing must be
controlled by the landing gear. This is done in two ways:
1. the shock energy is altered and transferred throughout the airframe at a different rate and time
than the single strong pulse of impact,
2. the shock is absorbed by converting the energy into heat energy.

Leaf-Type Spring Gear

Many aircraft utilize flexible spring steel, aluminum, or
composite struts that receive the impact of landing and
return it to the airframe to dissipate at a rate that is not
harmful. The gear flexes initially and forces are
transferred as it returns to its original position. The most
common example of this type of non-shock absorbing
landing gear are the thousands of single-engine Cessna
aircraft that use it. Landing gear struts of this type made
from composite materials are lighter in weight with
greater flexibility and do not corrode.
Rigid
Before the development of curved spring steel landing
struts, many early aircraft were designed with rigid,
welded steel landing gear struts. Shock load transfer to
the airframe is direct with this design. Use of pneumatic
tires aids in softening the impact loads. Modern aircraft
that use skid-type landing gear make use of rigid landing
gear with no significant ill effects. Rotorcraft, for
example, typically experience low impact landings that
are able to be directly absorbed by the airframe through
the rigid gear (skids).
Bungee Cord
The use of bungee cords on non-shock absorbing landing
gear is common. The geometry of the gear allows the
strut assembly to flex upon landing impact. Bungee cords
are positioned between the rigid airframe structure and
the flexing gear assembly to take up the loads and return
them to the airframe at a non-damaging rate. The
bungees are made of many individual small strands of
elastic rubber that must be inspected for condition. Solid,
donut-type rubber cushions are also used on some
aircraft landing gear.

Shock Struts
Shock struts are self-contained hydraulic units that support an aircraft while on the ground and protect
the structure during landing. They must be inspected and serviced regularly to ensure proper operation.
typical pneumatic/hydraulic shock strut uses compressed air or nitrogen combined with hydraulic fluid to
absorb and dissipate shock loads. It is sometimes referred to as an air/oil or oleo strut. A shock strut is
constructed of two telescoping cylinders or tubes that are closed on the external ends. The upper cylinder
is fixed to the aircraft and does not move. The lower cylinder is called the piston and is free to slide in and
out of the upper cylinder. Two chambers are formed. The lower chamber is always filled with hydraulic
fluid and the upper chamber is filled with compressed air or nitrogen. An orifice located between the two
cylinders provides a passage for the fluid from the bottom chamber to enter the top cylinder chamber
when the strut is compressed.
Small Aircraft Retraction Systems

As the speed of a light aircraft increases, there reaches a point where the parasite drag created by the
landing gear in the wind is greater than the induced drag caused by the added weight of a retractable
landing gear system. Thus, many light aircraft have retractable landing gear. There are many unique
designs. The simplest contains a lever in the flight deck mechanically linked to the gear. Through
mechanical advantage, the pilot extends and retracts the landing gear by operating the lever. Use of a
roller chain, sprockets, and a hand crank to decrease the required force is common. Electrically operated
landing gear systems are also found on light aircraft. An all-electric system uses an electric motor and gear
reduction to move the gear. The rotary motion of the motor is converted to linear motion to actuate the
gear. This is possible only with the relatively lightweight gear found on smaller aircraft.

A more common use of electricity in gear retraction systems is that of an electric/hydraulic system found
in many Cessna and Piper aircraft. This is also known as a power pack system. A small lightweight hydraulic
power pack contains several components required in a hydraulic system. These include the reservoir, a
reversible electric motor-driven hydraulic pump, a filter, high-and-low pressure control valves, a thermal
relief valve, and a shuttle valve. Some power packs incorporate an emergency hand pump. A hydraulic
actuator for each gear is driven to extend or retract the gear by fluid from the powerpack.

When the flight deck gear selection handle is put in the gear down position, a switch is made that turns
on the electric motor in the power pack. The motor turns in the direction to rotate the hydraulic gear
pump so that it pumps fluid to the gear-down side of the actuating cylinders. Pump pressure moves the
spring-loaded shuttle valve to the left to allow fluid to reach all three actuators. Restrictors are used in
the nose wheel actuator inlet and outlet ports to slow down the motion of this lighter gear. While
hydraulic fluid is pumped to extend the gear, fluid from the upside of the actuators returns to the reservoir
through the gear-up check valve. When the gear reaches the down and locked position, pressure builds
in the gear-down line from the pump and the low-pressure control valve unseats to return the fluid to the
reservoir. Electric limit switches turn off the pump when all three gear are down and locked. To raise the
gear, the flight deck gear handle is moved to the gear-up position. This sends current to the electric motor,
which drives the hydraulic gear pump in the opposite direction causing fluid to be pumped to the gear-up
side of the actuators. In this direction, pump inlet fluid flows through the filter. Fluid from the pump flows
thought the gear-up check valve to the gear-up sides of the actuating cylinders. As the cylinders begin to
move, the pistons release the mechanical down locks that hold the gear rigid for ground operations. Fluid
from the gear-down side of the actuators returns to the reservoir through the shuttle valve. When the
three gears are fully retracted, pressure builds in the system, and a pressure switch is opened that cuts
power to the electric pump motor. The gear are held in the retracted position with hydraulic pressure. If
pressure declines, the pressure switch closes to run the pump and raise the pressure until the pressure
switch opens again.
Large Aircraft Retraction Systems

Large aircraft retraction systems are nearly

always powered by hydraulics. Typically, the
hydraulic pump is driven off of the engine
accessory drive. Auxiliary electric hydraulic
pumps are also common. Other devices used
in a hydraulically-operated retraction system
include actuating cylinders, selector valves,
up locks, down locks, sequence valves,
priority valves, tubing, and other
conventional hydraulic system components.
These units are interconnected so that they
permit properly sequenced retraction and
extension of the landing gear and the landing
gear doors. The correct operation of any
aircraft landing gear retraction system is
extremely important.

When the flight deckgear selector is moved to the gear-up position, it positions a selector valve to allow
pump pressure from the hydraulic system manifold to access eight different components. The three down
locks are pressurized and unlocked so the gear can be retracted. At the same time, the actuator cylinder
on each gear also receives pressurized fluid to the gear-up side of the piston through an unrestricted
orifice check valve. This drives the gear into the wheel well. Two sequence valves (C and D) also receive
fluid pressure. Gear door operation must be controlled so that it occurs after the gear is stowed. The
sequence valves are closed and delay flow to the door actuators. When the gear cylinders are fully
retracted, they mechanically contact the sequence valve plungers that open the valves and allow fluid to
flow into the close side of the door actuator cylinders. This closes the doors. Sequence valves A and B act
as check valves during retraction. They allow fluid to flow one way from the gear-down side of the main
gear cylinders back into the hydraulic system return manifold through the selector valve.

To lower the gear, the selector is put in the gear-down position. Pressurized hydraulic fluid flows from the
hydraulic manifold to the nose gear up lock, which unlocks the nose gear. Fluid flows to the gear-down
side of the nose gear actuator and extends it. Fluid also flows to the open side of the main gear door
actuators. As the doors open, sequence valves A and B block fluid from unlocking the main gear uplocks
and prevent fluid from reaching the down side of the main gear actuators. When the doors are fully open,
the door actuator engages the plungers of both sequence valves to open the valves. The main gear
uplocks, then receives fluid pressure and unlock. The main gear cylinder actuators receive fluid on the
down side through the open sequence valves to extend the gear. Fluid from each main gear cylinder up-
side flows to the hydraulic system return manifold through restrictors in the orifice check valves. The
restrictors slow the extension of the gear to prevent impact damage.
Nose Wheel Steering Systems
The nose wheel on most aircraft is steerable from the flight deck via a nose wheel steering system. This
allows the aircraft to be directed during ground operation. A few simple aircraft have nose wheel
assemblies that caster. Such aircraft are steered during taxi by differential braking.

Small Aircraft

Most small aircraft have steering capabilities through the use of a simple system of mechanical linkages
connected to the rudder pedals. Push-pull tubes are connected to pedal horns on the lower strut cylinder.
As the pedals are depressed, the movement is transferred to the strut piston axle and wheel assembly
which rotates to the left or right.

Large Aircraft

Due to their mass and the need for positive control, large aircraft utilize a power source for nose wheel
steering. Hydraulic power predominates. There are many different designs for large aircraft nose steering
systems. Most share similar characteristics and components. Control of the steering is from the flight deck
through the use of a small wheel, tiller, or joystick typically mounted on the left sidewall. Switching the
system on and off is possible on some aircraft.

Shimmy Dampers

Torque links attached from the stationary upper cylinder of a nose wheel strut to the bottom moveable
cylinder or piston of the strut are not sufficient to prevent most nose gear from the tendency to oscillate
rapidly, or shimmy, at certain speeds. This vibration must be controlled through the use of a shimmy
damper. A shimmy damper controls nose wheel shimmy through hydraulic damping. The damper can be
built integrally within the nose gear, but most often it is an external unit attached between the upper and
lower shock struts. It is active during all phases of ground operation while permitting the nose gear
steering system to function normally

Aircraft Wheels

Aircraft wheels are an important component of a landing gear system. With tires mounted upon them,
they support the entire weight of the aircraft during taxi, takeoff, and landing. The typical aircraft wheel
is lightweight, strong, and made from aluminum alloy. Some magnesium alloy wheels also exist. Early
aircraft wheels were of single piece construction much the same as the modern automobile wheel. As
aircraft tires were improved for the purpose they serve, they were made stiffer to better absorb the forces
of landing without blowing out or separating from the rim. Stretching such tire over a single piece wheel
rim was not possible. A two-piece wheel was developed. Early two-piece aircraft wheels were essentially
one-piece wheels with a removable rim to allow mounting access for the tire. These are still found on
older aircraft.

Inboard Wheel Half

Wheel halves are not identical. The primary reason for this is that the inboard wheel half must have a
means for accepting and driving the rotor(s) of the aircraft brakes that are mounted on both main wheels.
Tangs on the rotor are fitted into steel reinforced keyways on many wheels. Other wheels have steel keys
bolted to the inner wheel halves. These are made to fit slots in the perimeter of the brake rotor. Some
small aircraft wheels have provisions for bolting the brake rotor to the inner wheel half. Regardless, the
inner wheel half is distinguishable from the outer wheel half by its brake mounting feature.

Outboard Wheel Half

The outboard wheel half bolts to the inboard wheel half to make up the wheel assembly upon which the
tire is mounted. The center boss is constructed to receive a bearing cup and bearing assembly as it does
on the inboard wheel half. The outer bearing and end of the axle is capped to prevent contaminants from
entering this area. Aircraft with anti-skid brake systems typically mount the wheel-spin transducer here.
It is sealed and may also serve as a hub cap. The outboard wheel half provides a convenient location of
the valve stem used to inflate and deflate tubeless tires. Alternately, it may contain a hole through which
a valve stem extension may pass from the inner wheel half or the valve stem itself may fit through such a
hole if a tube-type tire is used.

TIRE CLASSIFICATION
Aircraft tires are classified according to their type, size and ply rating, and whether they are tubeless or
tubed. The United States Tire and Rim Association has established nine types of aircraft tires, but only three
of these types are of primary concern.
TIRE TYPES
The type III tire is the most popular low-pressure tire found today on piston-powered aircraft. The section
width is relatively wide in relation to the bead diameter. This allows lower inflation pressure for improved
cushioning and flotation. The section width and rim diameter are used to designate the size of the tire.
For example, a tire having a section width of 9 1/2 inches that fits a 16-inch wheel would be identified
as a 9.50-16 tire.

Type VII extra-high-pressure tires are the standard for jet aircraft. They
have exceptionally high load-carrying ability and are available in ply ratings from 4 to 38. The tire sizes are
designed by outside diameter and section width, with a designation such as 38X13.
Type VIII tires are used for high performance jet aircraft with their extremely high takeoff speeds. They use
extra high inflation pressure and have a low profile. Their size designation includes the outside diameter,
section width, and rim diameter. An example of a tire designation for a Type VIII tire would be 30X11.50-
14.5.

PLY RATING
In the past, tires were rated for strength by the number of fabric plies used in the construction of the carcass
or body of the tire. Newer materials have much greater strength than the cotton originally used. Fewer
actual layers of the new materials are needed to get the same strength. Today, tires are given a ply rating,
rather than specifying the actual number of layers of fabric material used in the carcass. The ply rating of a
tire relates to its maximum static load and its inflation pressure.

TIRE CONSTRUCTION
Automobile and truck tires are built to completely different specifications from those used for aircraft tires.
They are required to operate for long periods of time, carrying a relatively large but steady load at
reasonably high rotational speeds. Because of this, they are allowed to have only a relatively small
amount of deflection. For example, passenger car tires are designed for a continual deflection of only
about 12 to 14%.
Aircraft Brakes
Very early aircraft have no brake system to slow and stop the aircraft while it is on the ground. Instead,
they rely on slow speeds, soft airfield surfaces, and the friction developed by the tail skid to reduce speed
during ground operation. Brake systems designed for aircraft became common after World War I as the
speed and complexity of aircraft increased and the use of smooth, paved runway surfaces proliferated.
All modern aircraft are equipped with brakes. Their proper functioning is relied upon for safe operation
of the aircraft on the ground. The brakes slow the aircraft and stop it in a reasonable amount of time.
They hold the aircraft stationary during engine run-up and, in many cases, steer the aircraft during taxi.
On most aircraft, each of the main wheels is equipped with a brake unit. The nose wheel or tail wheel
does not have a brake.

In the typical brake system, mechanical and/or hydraulic linkages to the rudder pedals allow the pilot to
control the brakes. Pushing on the top of the right rudder pedal activates the brake on the right main
wheel(s) and pushing on the top of the left rudder pedal operates the brake on the left mainwheel(s). The
basic operation of brakes involves converting the kinetic energy of motion into heat energy through the
creation of friction. A great amount of heat is developed and forces on the brake system components are
demanding. Proper adjustment, inspection, and maintenance of the brakes is essential for effective
operation.

Single Disc Brakes

Small, light aircraft typically

achieve effective braking using a
single disc keyed or bolted to
each wheel. As the wheel turns,
so does the disc. Braking is
accomplished by applying
friction to both sides of the disc
from a non-rotating caliper
bolted to the landing gear axle
flange. Pistons in the caliper
housing under hydraulic
pressure force wearable brake
pads or linings against the disc
when the brakes are applied.
Hydraulic master cylinders
connected to the rudder pedals
supply the pressure when the
upper halves of the rudder pedals are pressed.
Floating Disc Brakes

The caliper straddles the disc. It has three cylinders bored through the housing, but on other brakes this
number may vary. Each cylinder accepts an actuating piston assembly comprised mainly of a piston, a
return spring, and an automatic adjusting pin. Each brake assembly has six brake linings or pucks. Three
are located on the ends of the pistons, which are in the outboard side of the caliper. They are designed to
move in and out with the pistons and apply pressure to the outboard side of the disc. Three more linings
are located opposite of these pucks on the inboard side of the caliper. These linings are stationary. The
brake disc is keyed to the wheel. It is free to move laterally in the key slots. This is known as a floating
disk. When the brakes are applied, the pistons move out from the outboard cylinders and their pucks
contact the disc. The disc slides slightly in the key slots until the inboard stationary pucks also contact the
disc. The result is a fairly even amount of friction applied to each side of the disc and thus, the rotating
motion is slowed.

Fixed-Disc Brakes

Even pressure must be applied to both sides of the brake disc to generate the required friction and obtain
consistent wear properties from the brake linings. The floating disc accomplishes this as described above.
It can also be accomplished by bolting the disc rigidly to the wheel and allowing the brake caliper and
linings to float laterally when pressure is applied. This is the design of a common fixed-disc brake used on
light aircraft.

Dual-Disc Brakes

Dual-disc brakes are used on aircraft where a single disc on each wheel does not supply sufficient braking
friction. Two discs are keyed to the wheel instead of one. A center carriers located between the two discs.
It contains linings on each side that contact each of the discs when the brakes are applied.

Multiple-Disc Brakes

Large, heavy aircraft require the use of multiple-disc brakes. Multiple-disc brakes are heavy duty brakes
designed for use with power brake control valves or power boost master cylinders, which is discussed
later in this chapter. The brake assembly consists of an extended bearing carrier similar to a torque tube
type unit that bolts to the axle flange. It supports the various brake parts, including an annular cylinder
and piston, a series of steel discs alternating with copper or bronze-plated discs, a backplate, and a
backplate retainer. The steel stators are keyed to the bearing carrier, and the copper or bronze plated
rotors are keyed to the rotating wheel. Hydraulic pressure applied to the piston causes the entire stack of
stators and rotors to be compressed. This creates enormous friction and heat and slows the rotation of
the wheel.

Segmented Rotor-Disc Brakes

The large amount of heat generated while slowing the rotation of the wheels on large and high-
performance aircraft is problematic. To better dissipate this heat, segmented rotor disc brakes have been
developed. Segmented rotor-disc brakes are multiple-disc brakes but of more modern design than the
type discussed earlier. There are many variations. Most feature numerous elements that aid in the control
and dissipation of heat. Segmented rotor-disc brakes are heavy-duty brakes especially adapted for use
with the high-pressure hydraulic systems of power brake systems. Braking is accomplished by means of
several sets of stationary, high friction type brake linings that make contact with rotating segments. The
rotors are constructed with slots or in sections with space between them, which helps dissipate heat and
give the brake its name.
WEEK 7-8 – FLIGHT CONTROL AND AUTO PILOT SYSTEM
Learning Outcomes:
• Identify the different flight controls and how they operate.
• Differentiate the primary from the secondary flight controls.

Reference:
• Moire, I. and Seabridge A. (2013) Design and development of aircraft systems 2nd edition. Wiley.
• Pilot’s handbook of Aeronautical knowledge (2016). United States Department of
Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved from faa:
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/media/pilot_han
dbook.pdf
Topic:
Aircraft flight control systems consist of flight control surfaces, the respective cockpit controls,
connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight.
They can be divided into three main groups: -Primary flight control -Secondary flight control -Auxiliary
flight control (includes high lift devices).

Primary Flight Controls

Aircraft control systems are carefully designed to provide adequate responsiveness to control
inputs while allowing a natural feel. Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces changes
the airflow and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil. These surfaces are those that are
considered required for safe and controlled flight.
The aircraft flight control system enables the pilot to exercise control over the aircraft during all
portions of flight. The system provides control surfaces that allow the aircraft to maneuver in pitch, roll
and yaw. The system has also to be designed so that it provides stable control for all parts of the aircraft
flight envelope; this requires a thorough understanding of the aerodynamics and dynamic motion of the
aircraft. As will be seen, additional control surfaces are required for the specific purposes of controlling
the high lift devices required during approach and landing phases of flight. The flight control system has
to give the pilot considerable physical assistance to overcome the enormous aerodynamic forces on the
flight control surfaces. This in turn leads to the need to provide the aircraft controls with ‘artificial feel’ so
that he does not inadvertently overstress the aircraft. These ‘feel’ systems need to provide the pilot with
progressive and well-harmonized controls that make the aircraft safe and pleasant to handle. A typical
term that is commonly used today to describe this requirement is ‘carefree handling’. At low airspeeds,
the controls usually feel soft and sluggish, and the aircraft responds slowly to control applications. At
higher airspeeds, the controls become increasingly firm and aircraft response is more rapid. Many aircraft
embody automatic flight control systems to ease the burden of flying the aircraft and to reduce pilot
workload.
The ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary control system and are
required to control an aircraft safely during flight.
Ailerons
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis.
The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edge
of each wing and move in the opposite direction from
each other. Ailerons are connected by cables, bell
cranks, pulleys, and/or push-pull tubes to a control
wheel or control stick.
Moving the control wheel, or control stick, to
the right causes the right aileron to deflect upward and
the left aileron to deflect downward. The upward deflection of the right aileron decreases the camber
resulting in decreased lift on the right wing. The corresponding downward deflection of the left aileron
increases the camber resulting in increased lift on the left wing. Thus, the increased lift on the left wing
and the decreased lift on the right wing causes the aircraft to roll to the right.
Adverse Yaw
Since the downward deflected aileron
produces more lift as evidenced by the wing raising, it
also produces more drag. This added drag causes the
wing to slow down slightly. This results in the aircraft
yawing toward the wing which had experienced an
increase in lift (and drag). From the pilot’s perspective,
the yaw is opposite the direction of the bank. The
adverse yaw is a result of differential drag and the slight
difference in the velocity of the left and right wings.

Adverse yaw becomes more pronounced at low

airspeeds. At these slower airspeeds, aerodynamic
pressure on control surfaces are low, and larger control
inputs are required to effectively maneuver the aircraft. As a result, the increase in aileron deflection
causes an increase in adverse yaw. The yaw is especially evident in aircraft with long wing spans.

In an attempt to reduce the effects of adverse yaw, manufacturers have engineered four systems:
differential ailerons, frise-type ailerons, coupled ailerons and rudder, and flaperons.

Differential Ailerons
With differential ailerons, one aileron is raised a
greater distance than the other aileron and is lowered for a
given movement of the control wheel or control stick. This
produces an increase in drag on the descending wing. The
greater drag results from deflecting the up aileron on the
descending wing to a greater angle than the down aileron on
the rising wing. While adverse yaw is reduced, it is not
eliminated completely.

Frise-Type Ailerons
With a frise-type aileron, when pressure is applied to the
control wheel, or control stick, the aileron that is being raised pivots on
an offset hinge. These projects the leading edge of the aileron into the
airflow and creates drag. It helps equalize the drag created by the
lowered aileron on the opposite wing and reduces adverse yaw.
The frise-type aileron also forms a slot so air flows smoothly
over the lowered aileron, making it more effective at high angles of
attack. Frise-type ailerons may also be designed to function
differentially. Like the differential aileron, the frise-type aileron does
not eliminate adverse yaw entirely. Coordinated rudder application is
still needed when ailerons are applied.
Coupled Ailerons and Rudder
Coupled ailerons and rudder are linked controls. This is
accomplished with rudder-aileron interconnect springs, which help
correct for aileron drag by automatically deflecting the rudder at the
same time the ailerons are deflected. For example, when the control
wheel, or control stick, is moved to produce a left roll, the
interconnect cable and spring pulls forward on the left rudder pedal
just enough to prevent the nose of the aircraft from yawing to the
right. The force applied to the rudder by the springs can be
overridden if it becomes necessary to slip the aircraft.

Elevators
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the
ailerons on small aircraft, the elevator is connected to the control
column in the flight deck by a series of mechanical linkages. Aft
movement of the control column deflects the trailing edge of the
elevator surface up. This is usually referred to as the up-elevator
position.
The up-elevator position decreases the
camber of the elevator and creates a downward
aerodynamic force, which is greater than the
normal tail-down force that exists in straight-and
level flight. The overall effect causes the tail of the
aircraft to move down and the nose to pitch up.
The pitching moment occurs about the center of
gravity (CG). The strength of the pitching moment
is determined by the distance between the CG and
the horizontal tail surface, as well as by the
aerodynamic effectiveness of the horizontal tail
surface. Moving the control column forward has
the opposite effect. In this case, elevator camber
increases, creating more lift (less tail-down force)
on the horizontal stabilizer/elevator. This moves the tail upward and pitches the nose down. Again, the
pitching moment occurs about the CG.

T-Tail
In a T-tail configuration, the elevator is above
most of the effects of downwash from the propeller, as
well as airflow around the fuselage and/or wings during
normal flight conditions. Operation of the elevators in
this undisturbed air allows control movements that are
consistent throughout most flight regimes. T-tail designs
have become popular on many light and large aircraft,
especially those with aft fuselage-mounted engines
because the T-tail configuration removes the tail from the exhaust blast of the engines. Seaplanes and
amphibians often have T-tails in order to keep the horizontal surfaces as far from the water as possible.
An additional benefit is reduced noise and vibration inside the aircraft.
Canard
The canard design utilizes the concept of two lifting
surfaces. The canard functions as a horizontal stabilizer
located in front of the main wings. In effect, the canard is an
airfoil similar to the horizontal surface on a conventional aft-
tail design. The difference is that the canard actually creates
lift and holds the nose up, as opposed to the aft-tail design
which exerts downward force on the tail to prevent the nose
from rotating downward.

Rudder
The rudder controls movement of the aircraft
about its vertical axis. This motion is called yaw. Like
the other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a
movable surface hinged to a fixed surface in this case,
to the vertical stabilizer or fin. The rudder is
controlled by the left and right rudder pedals.

When the rudder is deflected into the airflow,

a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction.
By pushing the left pedal, the rudder moves left. This
alters the airflow around the vertical stabilizer/rudder
and creates a sideward lift that moves the tail to the
right and yaws the nose of the airplane to the left.
Rudder effectiveness increases with speed; therefore,
large deflections at low speeds and small deflections
at high speeds may be required to provide the desired
reaction. In propeller-driven aircraft, any slipstream
flowing over the rudder increases its effectiveness.

Secondary Flight Controls

Secondary flight control systems may consist of wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim
systems.

Flaps
Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on aircraft. These surfaces, which are attached
to the trailing edge of the wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any given AOA. Flaps allow a
compromise between high cruising speed and low landing speed because they may be extended when
needed and retracted into the wing’s structure when not needed. There are four common types of flaps:
plain, split, slotted, and Fowler flaps.

The plain flap is the simplest of the four types.

It increases the airfoil camber, resulting in a
significant increase in the coefficient of lift (CL)
at a given AOA. At the same time, it greatly
increases drag and moves the center of pressure (CP) aft on the airfoil, resulting in a nose-down pitching
moment.

The split flap is deflected from the lower

surface of the airfoil and produces a slightly
greater increase in lift than the plain flap. More
drag is created because of the turbulent air
pattern produced behind the airfoil. When fully
extended, both plain and split flaps produce
high drag with little additional lift.

Slotted flaps increase the lift coefficient

significantly more than plain or split flaps.
When the slotted flap is lowered, high energy
air from the lower surface is ducted to the
flap’s upper surface. The high energy air from
the slot accelerates the upper surface
boundary layer and delays airflow separation, providing a higher CL. Thus, the slotted flap produces much
greater increases in maximum coefficient of lift (CL-MAX) than the plain or split flap.

Fowler flaps are a type of slotted flap. This flap

design not only changes the camber of the wing,
it also increases the wing area. Instead of
rotating down on a hinge, it slides backwards on
tracks. In the first portion of its extension, it
increases the drag very little, but increases the
lift a great deal as it increases both the area and
camber. During the last portion of its travel, the
flap increases the drag with little additional
increase in lift.
Leading Edge Devices
High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading edge of the airfoil. The slat or slot may be either full
span, or may occur on only part of the wing (usually outboard), depending on how the lift characteristics
need to be modified for good low speed control. The most common types are fixed slots, movable slats,
leading edge flaps, and cuffs.

Fixed slots direct airflow to the upper wing surface

and delay airflow separation at higher angles of
attack. The slot does not increase the wing camber,
but allows a higher maximum CL because the stall is
delayed until the wing reaches a greater AOA.

Movable slats consist of leading-edge segments

that move on tracks. At low angles of attack, each
slat is held flush against the wing’s leading edge by
the high pressure that forms at the wing’s leading
edge. As the AOA increases, the high-pressure area
moves aft below the lower surface of the wing,
allowing the slats to move forward. Some slats,
however, are pilot operated and can be deployed at
any AOA. Opening a slat allows the air below the wing to flow over the wing’s upper surface, delaying
airflow separation.

Leading edge flaps, like trailing edge flaps, are used

to increase both CL-MAX and the camber of the
wings. This type of leading-edge device is frequently
used in conjunction with trailing edge flaps and can
reduce the nose-down pitching movement produced
by the latter. As is true with trailing edge flaps, a
small increment of leading-edge flaps increases lift to
a much greater extent than drag. As flaps are
extended, drag increases at a greater rate than lift.

Leading edge cuffs, like leading edge flaps and

trailing edge flaps are used to increase both CL-MAX
and the camber of the wings. Unlike leading edge
flaps and trailing edge flaps, leading edge cuffs are
fixed aerodynamic devices. In most cases, leading
edge cuffs extend the leading edge down and forward. This causes the airflow to attach better to the
upper surface of the wing at higher angles of attack, thus lowering an aircraft’s stall speed. The fixed
nature of leading-edge cuffs extracts a penalty in maximum cruise airspeed, but recent advances in design
and technology have reduced this penalty.
Spoilers
Found on some fixed-wing aircraft, high drag
devices called spoilers are deployed from the wings
to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and
increasing drag. On gliders, spoilers are most often
used to control rate of descent for accurate landings.
On other aircraft, spoilers are often used for roll
control, an advantage of which is the elimination of
adverse yaw. Deploying spoilers on both wings at the
same time allows the aircraft to descend without
gaining speed. Spoilers are also deployed to help
reduce ground roll after landing. By destroying lift,
they transfer weight to the wheels, improving braking
effectiveness.

Types of Control Systems

Mechanical - are the most basic flight control system

designs are mechanical and date back to early aircraft.
They operate with a collection of mechanical parts,
such as rods, cables, pulleys, and sometimes chains to
transmit the forces of the flight deck controls to the
control surfaces. Mechanical flight control systems are
still used today in small general and sport category
aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not
excessive.

The hydromechanical designs, consisting of a

mechanical circuit and a hydraulic circuit, were used
to reduce the complexity, weight, and limitations of
mechanical flight controls systems.

As aircraft became more sophisticated, the control

surfaces were actuated by electric motors, digital
computers, or fiber optic cables. Called “fly-by-wire,”
this flight control system replaces the physical
connection between pilot controls and the flight
control surfaces with an electrical interface. In
addition, in some large and fast aircraft, controls are boosted by hydraulically or electrically actuated
systems. In both the fly-by-wire and boosted controls, the feel of the control reaction is fed back to the
pilot by simulated means.
Trim Systems
Although an aircraft can be operated throughout a wide range of attitudes, airspeeds, and power settings,
it can be designed to fly hands-off within only a very limited combination of these variables. Trim systems
are used to relieve the pilot of the need to maintain constant pressure on the flight controls, and usually
consist of flight deck controls and small hinged devices attached to the trailing edge of one or more of the
primary flight control surfaces. Designed to help minimize a pilot’s workload, trim systems
aerodynamically assist movement and position of the flight control
surface to which they are attached. Common types of trim systems
include trim tabs, balance tabs, antiservo tabs, ground adjustable
tabs, and an adjustable stabilizer.

Trim Tabs
The most common installation on small aircraft is a single trim tab
attached to the trailing edge of the elevator. Most trim tabs are
manually operated by a small, vertically mounted control wheel.
However, a trim crank may be found in some aircraft. The flight
deck control includes a trim tab position indicator. Placing the trim
control in the full nose-down position moves the trim tab to its full
up position. With the trim tab up and into the airstream, the
airflow over the horizontal tail surface tends to force the trailing
edge of the elevator down. This causes the tail of the aircraft to
move up and the nose to move down.

Balance Tabs
The control forces may be excessively high in some
aircraft, and, in order to decrease them, the
manufacturer may use balance tabs. They look like
trim tabs and are hinged in approximately the
same places as trim tabs. The essential difference
between the two is that the balancing tab is
coupled to the control surface rod so that when the primary control surface is moved in any direction, the
tab automatically moves in the opposite direction. The airflow striking the tab counterbalances some of
the air pressure against the primary control surface and enables the pilot to move the control more easily
and hold the control surface in position. If the linkage between the balance tab and the fixed surface is
adjustable from the flight deck, the tab acts as a combination trim and balance tab that can be adjusted
to a desired deflection.

Servo Tabs
Servo tabs are very similar in operation and appearance
to the trim tabs previously discussed. A servo tab is a
small portion of a flight control surface that deploys in
such a way that it helps to move the entire flight control
surface in the direction that the pilot wishes it to go. A
servo tab is a dynamic device that deploys to decrease
the pilots work load and de-stabilize the aircraft. Servo
tabs are sometimes referred to as flight tabs and are
used primarily on large aircraft. This aide the pilot in
moving the control surface and in holding it in the desired position. Only the servo tab moves in response
to movement of the pilot’s flight control, and the force of the airflow on the servo tab then moves the
primary control surface.

Antiservo Tabs
Antiservo tabs work in the same manner as balance
tabs except, instead of moving in the opposite
direction, they move in the same direction as the
trailing edge of the stabilator. In addition to decreasing
the sensitivity of the stabilator, an antiservo tab also
functions as a trim device to relieve control pressure
and maintain the stabilator in the desired position. The
fixed end of the linkage is on the opposite side of the
surface from the horn on the tab; when the trailing edge of the stabilator moves up, the linkage forces
the trailing edge of the tab up. When the stabilator moves down, the tab also moves down. Conversely,
trim tabs on elevators move opposite of the control surface.

Ground Adjustable Tabs

Many small aircraft have a non-movable metal trim
tab on the rudder. This tab is bent in one direction
or the other while on the ground to apply a trim
force to the rudder. The correct displacement is
determined by trial and error. Usually, small
adjustments are necessary until the aircraft no
longer skids left or right during normal cruising
flight.
Dual Purpose Flight Control Surfaces
The ailerons, elevators, and rudder are considered conventional primary control surfaces.
However, some aircraft are designed with a control surface that may serve a dual purpose.

Elevons
Elevons or tailerons are aircraft control surfaces that combine the functions of the elevator and the
aileron, hence the name. They are frequently used on tailless aircraft such as flying wings.

V-Tail
The V-tail design utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to
perform the same functions as the surfaces of a
conventional elevator and rudder configuration.
The fixed surfaces act as both horizontal and
vertical stabilizers.
The movable surfaces, which are usually
called ruddervators, are connected through a
special linkage that allows the control wheel to
move both surfaces simultaneously. On the other
hand, displacement of the rudder pedals moves the
surfaces differentially, thereby providing
directional control.
Stabilator
A stabilator is essentially a one-piece
horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central
hinge point. When the control column is pulled
back, it raises the stabilator’s trailing edge,
pulling the nose of the aircraft. Pushing the
control column forward lowers the trailing
edge of the stabilator and pitches the nose of
the aircraft down.

Because stabilators pivot around a

central hinge point, they are extremely
sensitive to control inputs and aerodynamic
loads. Antiservo tabs are incorporated on the
trailing edge to decrease sensitivity. They
deflect in the same direction as the stabilator. This results in an increase in the force required to move
the stabilator, thus making it less prone to pilot-induced overcontrolling. In addition, a balance weight is
usually incorporated in front of the main spar. The balance weight may project into the empennage or
may be incorporated on the forward portion of the stabilator tips.

Flaperons
Flaperons combine both aspects
of flaps and ailerons. In addition to
controlling the bank angle of an aircraft
like conventional ailerons, flaperons can
be lowered together to function much
the same as a dedicated set of flaps. The
pilot retains separate controls for
ailerons and flaps. A mixer is used to
combine the separate pilot inputs into
this single set of control surfaces called
flaperons. Many designs that incorporate
flaperons mount the control surfaces
away from the wing to provide undisturbed airflow at high angles of attack and/or low airspeeds.
Autopilot Concepts
An autopilot can be capable of many very time
intensivetasks, helping the pilot focus on the overall status of
theaircraft and flight. Good use of an autopilot helps automatethe
process of guiding and controlling the aircraft. Autopilots can
automate tasks, such as maintaining an altitude, climbing or
descending to an assigned altitude, turning to and maintaining an
assigned heading, intercepting a course, guiding the aircraft
between waypoints that make up a route programmed into an FMS,
and flying a precision or non-precision approach. You must
accurately determine the installed options, type of installation, and
basic and optional functions available in your specific aircraft.
Many advanced avionics installations really include two
different, but integrated, systems. One is the autopilot system, which is the set of servo actuators that
actually do the control movement and the control circuits to make the servo actuators move the correct
amount for the selected task. The second is the flight director (FD) component. The FD is the brain of the
autopilot system. Most autopilots can fly straight and level. When there are additional tasks of finding a
selected course (intercepting), changing altitudes, and tracking navigation sources with cross winds,
higher level calculations are required.
The FD is designed with the computational power to accomplish these tasks and usually displays
the indications to the pilot for guidance as well. Most flight directors accept data input from the air data
computer (ADC), Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS), navigation sources, the pilot’s control panel,
and the autopilot servo feedback, to name some examples. The downside is that you must program the
FD to display what you are to do. If you do not preprogram the FD in time, or correctly, FD guidance may
be inaccurate. The programming of the FD increases the workload for the pilot. If that increased workload
is offset by allowing the autopilot to control the aircraft, then the overall workload is decreased. However,
if you elect to use the FD display, but manually fly the aircraft, then your workload is greatly increased.
The following steps are required to use an autopilot function:
1. Specify desired track as defined by heading, course, series of waypoints, altitude, airspeed, and/or
vertical speed.
2. Engage the desired autopilot function(s) and verify that, in fact, the selected modes are engaged
by monitoring the annunciator panel.
3. Verify that desired track is being followed by the aircraft.
4. Verify that the correct navigation source is selected to guide the autopilot’s track.
5. Be ready to fly the aircraft manually to ensure proper course/clearance tracking in case of
autopilot failure or mis programming.
6. Allow the FD/autopilot to accomplish the modes selected and programmed without interference,
or disengage the unit. Do not attempt to “help” the autopilot perform a task. In some instances,
this has caused the autopilot to falsely sense adverse conditions and trim to the limit to
accomplish its tasking. In more than a few events, this has resulted in a total loss of control and a
crash.
Primary flight displays (PFDs) often integrate all controls that allow modes to be entered for the autopilot.
The PFD offers knobs that allow you to enter modes without turning attention away from the primary
flight instruments. Modes entered using the controls on a PFD are transferred to the autopilot.
Engagement of Autopilot Function
Every autopilot offers a collection of buttons that allow you to choose and engage autopilot modes and
functions. Buttons used to engage autopilot modes appear along the bottom of the autopilot. The system
does not use a separate device for autopilot controls; it integrates the autopilot function buttons into
another cockpit display.
Verification of Autopilot Function Engagement
It is very important to verify that an autopilot mode has engaged, and the aircraft is tracking the intended
flight
Flight Director Functions
An FD is an extremely useful aid that
displays cues to guide pilot or autopilot
control inputs along a selected and
computed flightpath. The flight director
usually receives input from an ADC and a
flight data computer. The ADC supplies
altitude, airspeed and temperature data,
heading data from magnetic sources such
as flux valves, heading selected on the HSI
(or PFD/multi-function display
(MFD)/electronic horizontal situation
indicator (EHSI)), navigation data from
FMS, very high frequency omnidirectional
range(VOR)/distance measuring
equipment (DME), and RNAV sources. The
flight data computer integrates all of the
data such as speed, position, closure, drift, track, desired course, and altitude into a command signal.

Using the Flight Director Without Autopilot

The FD and autopilot systems are designed to work together, but it is possible to use the flight director
without engaging the autopilot, or the autopilot without the FD, dependingon the installation. Without
autopilot engagement, the FD presents all processed information to the pilot in the form of command bar
cues, but you must manually fly the airplane to follow these cues to fly the selected flightpath. In effect,
you “tell” the FD what needs to happen and the FD command bars “tell” you what to do. This adds to your
workload, since you must program the FD for each procedure or maneuver tube accomplished, while
actually flying the aircraft. In many cases, you will have a decreased workload if you simply disable the FD
and fly using only the flight instruments.

Using the Flight Director with Autopilot

When the aircraft includes both a flight director and an autopilot, you may elect to use flight director cues
without engaging the autopilot. It may or may not be possible to use the autopilot without also engaging
the flight director. You need to be familiar with the system installed. When you engage the autopilot, it
simply follows the cues generated by the flight director to control the airplane along the selected lateral
and vertical paths.
Common Error: Blindly Following Flight Director Cues
The convenience of flight director cues can invite fixation or overreliance on the part of the pilot. As with
all automated systems, you must remain aware of the overall situation. Never assume that flight director
cues are following a route or course that is free from error. Rather, be sure to include navigation
instruments and sources in your scan. Remember, the equipment will usually perform exactly as
programmed. Always compare the displays to ensure that all indications agree. If in doubt, fly the aircraft
to remain on cleared track and altitude, and reduce automation to as minimal as possible during the
problem processing period. The first priority fora pilot always is to fly the aircraft.

Common Error: Confusion About Autopilot Engagement

Pilots sometimes become confused about whether or not flight director cues are being automatically
carried out by the autopilot, or left to be followed manually by the pilot. Verification of the autopilot mode
and engagement status of the autopilot is a necessary technique for maintaining awareness of who is
flying the aircraft.

Follow Route
The FD/autopilot’s navigation function can be used to guide the aircraft along the course selected on the
navigation indicator. Since the navigation display in most advanced avionics cockpits can present
indications from a variety of navigation systems, you can use the autopilot’s navigation function to follow
a route programmed into the FMS using VOR, global positioning system (GPS), inertial navigation system
(INS), or other navigation data sources.

Following a Route Programmed in the FMS

Figure 4-6 demonstrates how to use the navigation
function to follow a route programmed into the
FMS. With the navigation function engaged, the
FD/auto-pilot steers the aircraft along the desired
course to the active waypoint. Deviations from the
desired course to the new active waypoint are
displayed on the navigation indicator. When the
aircraft reaches the active waypoint, the FMS
computer automatically sequences to the next
waypoint in the route, unless waypoint sequencing
is suspended. It is important to note that the normal
navigation function provides only lateral guidance.
It does not attempt to control the vertical path of
the aircraft at any time. You must always ensure the
correct altitude or vertical speed is maintained.

GPS Steering (GPSS) Function

Many autopilots offer a global positioning system steering (GPSS) function. GPSS does all of the same
actions as the navigation function, but achieves a higher degree of precision by accepting inputs directly
from the GPS receiver. Consequently, the GPSS function follows the desired track to the active waypoint
more aggressively, permitting only small excursions from the desired course. On some installations,
pressing the autopilot NAV button twice engages the GPSS function.

Following a VOR Radial

The FD/autopilot’s navigation function can also
be used to directly track VOR radials. The
navigation display must be configured to show
indications from one of the aircraft’s VOR
receivers. Once you have tuned and identified a
VOR station and selected the desired radial, you
can select the navigation mode to track the
selected radial. Figure 4-7 demonstrates how to
use the navigation mode to follow a VOR radial.
When the navigation mode is used to follow a
route defined by VOR radials, you must still
tune and identify each new VOR facility
manually and select the appropriate radials
along the way. The autopilot’s navigation
function cannot automatically manipulate the
VOR receiver. However, some highly automated
FMS units tune and identify VORs along a
defined route, such as Victor or Jet routes. You
should check the FMS documentation and
installed options.

Fly Heading
The heading mode is used to steer the aircraft
automatically along a pilot selected heading. Using
the FD/autopilot to fly a heading is a simple matter
of selecting the assigned heading and then engaging
the heading function or, more commonly,
accomplished by first engaging the heading mode
and gently turning the heading selection knob to
the new heading. Gently turning the knob with the
mode already engaged allows you to make a
smooth change from level to turning flight.
Maintain Altitude
The autopilot’s altitude mode maintains an
assigned barometric altitude. When the
altitude mode is engaged, the autopilot seeks
to maintain the same barometric
pressure(altitude) that the aircraft was flying
at the time that the altitude mode was
engaged. This figure shows how to engage the
altitude mode for one manufacturer’s
autopilot. In addition to determining and
carrying out the pitch commands necessary to
maintain the flight’s assigned altitude, most
autopilots are also able to trim the aircraft.

Climbs and Descents

Vertical Speed
The autopilot’s vertical speed mode allows you to perform constant-rate climbs and descents. Figure 4-
10 illustrates the use of the vertical speed mode for one autopilot that is integrated with a PFD. When you
engage the vertical speed mode, the FD/autopilot will attempt to maintain the specified vertical speed
until you choose a different setting in autopilot, the aircraft reaches an assigned altitude set into the
assigned altitude selector/alerter, or the autopilot is disconnected. If an altitude selector is not installed
or functioning, the pilot has the task of leveling off at the assigned altitude, which requires monitoring
progress and manually engaging the autopilot’s altitude hold function once the aircraft reaches the
desired altitude.
Vertical Speed With Altitude Capture

Some FD/autopilots have an altitude

select/capture feature. The altitude
select/capture feature is illustrated in Figure
4-11. The altitude select/capture feature
combines use of the activated vertical speed
mode and an armed altitude hold mode. To
use this feature, the vertical speed function
is initially engaged. The altitude hold mode
usually arms automatically when a different
altitude is selected for capture and vertical
speed is activated. With an altitude
select/capture option or feature, the altitude hold mode disengages the vertical speed mode upon
capture of the selected altitude once the vertical speed function completes the necessary climb or
descent. Once the aircraft reaches the assigned altitude, the vertical speed function automatically
disengages, and the altitude mode changes from armed to engaged. The change from vertical speed mode
to altitude hold mode is the capture mode, or transition mode. Any changes made by the pilot during this
short phase usually result in a cancellation of the capture action, allowing the aircraft to continue the
climb or descent past the selected altitude. Again, be familiar with the aircraft’s equipment. Let the system
complete programmed tasks, and understand what it will do if interrupted.

Coupled Approaches

The approach function is similar to the navigation mode, but flies the selected course with the higher
degree of precision necessary for instrument approaches and allows glideslope tracking in the vertical
dimension.

ILS Approaches

Coupled ILS approaches make use of the autopilot’s glideslope function. Figure 4-15 shows the procedure
for one type of autopilot. Note that you cannot directly arm or engage the glideslope function. The
autopilot must usually be engaged first in the approach and altitude modes. When the FD/autopilot begins
to sense the glideslope, the glideslope function will automatically arm. When the aircraft intercepts the
glideslope, the glideslope function engages automatically, and uses the aircraft’s pitch control to remain
on the glideslope. It is important to note that, generally, the glideslope function can capture the glideslope
only from below or on glideslope.
RNAV Approaches With Vertical Guidance

Coupled RNAV approaches with vertical guidance work in the same way as coupled ILS approaches. Lateral
and vertical guidance commands are generated by the FMS/NAV and sent to the FD/autopilot. The same
approach and glideslope functions of the autopilot are used in the same way to carry-out the lateral and
vertical guidance and control of the aircraft. This process is transparent to the pilot. Most “VNAV”
functions do not qualify as approach vertical functions and many FMS/GPS units inhibit that function
during approaches.

Deciding When To Use the FD/Autopilot

In addition to learning how to use the FD/autopilot, you must also learn when to use it. Since there are
no definitive rules about when an FD/autopilot should or should not be used, you must learn to consider
the benefits and disadvantages of using the FD/autopilot in any given situation.

One of the most valuable benefits of using the FD/autopilot is delegating the constant task of manipulating
the aircraft’s controls to the equipment, which do nothing other than comply with the pilot’s
programming. This allows you more time to manage and observe the entire flight situation. Managing the
flight versus actually moving the controls allows more time for:

1. Programming. Especially when flying under IFR, changes to a route are inevitable. Even when the
pilot is proficient in using FMS/RNAV, this task requires focusing some attention on the
programming task. The FD/autopilot keeps the aircraft on the programmed heading or course and
altitude while the pilot makes the necessary changes to the flight plan. If programmed correctly,
the aircraft maintains the correct track and altitude.
2. Distracting tasks/workload. Similarly, the FD/autopilot is used to control basic aircraft movement
while the pilot focuses attention on tasks such as reviewing charts, briefing and configuring for an
instrument approach, updating weather information, etc. The FD/autopilot can also be a great
help in other high workload situations, such as flying in a busy terminal area or executing a missed
approach in adverse weather conditions.
3. Maintaining autopilot skills. The FD/autopilot’s ability to help manage pilot workload depends
heavily on the pilot’s proficiency in using it. Regular practice with the various autopilot functions
(especially the approach functions) is essential to develop and maintain the knowledge and skills
necessary to maximize its utilization.
4. Emergencies. The FD/autopilot can be extremely useful during an emergency. It can reduce pilot
workload and facilitate efforts to troubleshoot the emergency.

Disadvantages of using the FD/autopilot include the following:

1. Forgetting to maintain manual flying skills. It is important to practice flying without the
FD/autopilot often enough to maintain proficiency in basic flying skills and the instrument cross-
check and scan. One common pitfall of advanced avionics is the pilot’s tendency to forget to
maintain hard-earned skills for instrument flight. All equipment will fail at some time. The
competent pilot is ready and prepared to make a transition to aircraft piloting at any time.
2. Turbulence. The pilot’s operating handbook (POH)and FD/autopilot flight manual supplements
for many aircraft discourage or prohibit use of the autopilot’s altitude hold function during
moderate or severe turbulence. Some FD/autopilot systems may default or disengage if certain
trim or control limits are encountered during turbulent conditions. You should consult the flight
 manual to ensure the aircraft is not operated outside specified limits. The aircraft’s flightpath and
mode indications should always be monitored to ensure what modes are active
3. Minimum altitude. Autopilots are certified for use above a specified minimum altitude above
ground level (AGL). Some higher performance and higher service ceiling aircraft require autopilot
control above certain airspeeds and altitudes. The flight manual and operations manual (if any)
should be consulted to ensure that the pilot does not operate the aircraft outside specified limits.
For higher safety standards, commercial operators must observe restrictions in Title 14 of the
Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) sections 121.579, 125.328, and 135.93 according to their
regulatory classification. Adoption of these limits by private operators would add a safety margin
to flights conducted under 14 CFR part 91 regulations in many cases.
4. Possible malfunction. If at any time the pilot observes unexpected or uncommand behavior from
the autopilot, he or she should disengage the autopilot until determination of the cause and its
resolution. Most autopilot systems have multiple methods of disengagement; you should be
immediately aware of all of them. Also be aware of the methods to cancel the FD display to avoid
confusing information.