CHAPTER 11 FUEL MANAGMENT

11.1 STORAGE OVERVIEW

Rigid tanks are usually found in smaller general aviation aircraft. They are installed within the
fuselage and/or wings, and are designed to be removable for inspection, replacement, or repair.
They do not form an integral part of the aircraft structure.
Bladder tanks are reinforced rubberized bags installed within specific areas of aircraft structure.
Integral fuel tanks are located within the structure on larger aircraft; these are sealed to
accommodate fuel storage. These tanks form part of the aircraft structure; they cannot be
removed for service or inspection.
11.2 FUEL QUANTITY MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION
Various technologies and methods are used to measure and display fuel quantity: this depends
mainly on the type and size of aircraft. The fuel quantity methods described here could equally
apply to other fluids, e.g. oil, hydraulic fluid or water.
The methods used for measur-ing fuel quantity can be summarized as:

Sight glass

Float gauge

Resistance gauge

Under-wing measurement

Capacitance units.

11.2.1 SIGHT GLASS.

It is based on a simple glass or plastic tube located on the outside of the tank, and visible to the
pilot. Fluid level in the tube is the same as the level in the tank; graduations on the tube provide
an indication of tank contents.
11.2.2 FLOAT GAUGE.
The float gauge uses a rod projecting through a hole in the tank cap. A float is attached to the
base of the rod and this rises and falls with the fuel level. The pilot checks the amount of rod
protruding through the cap and this provides a direct reading of fuel quantity. One disadvantage
of this method is that it is not very stable during aircraft manoeuvres.
The variable resistor is connected into a DC ratiometer circuit where two opposing magnetic
fields are created in each of the coils. The pointer is formed with a permanent magnet and is
aligned with the resulting magnetic field created by the coils; the pointer moves in accordance
with the ratio of currents in the coil

11.2.3

UNDER-WING MEASUREMENT.

A floatstick that comprises a rod, float and magnets located inside the tank The floatstick is
stowed when not in use and released via a quarter-turn cam mechanism; it slides out of the tank
until the two magnets align and is then retained in this position. The floatstick is moved in and
out of the tank until the attraction of the magnets can be sensed. The fuel quantity reading is

then taken from a reference point on the surface of the wing. When the reading has been taken,
the rod is pushed back and locked into the stowed position.
11.2.4 CAPACITIVE FUEL QUANTITY SYSTEM.
11.2.4.1 Principle of operation
Fuel tank units are formed by concentric aluminum tubes; the inner and outer tubes are the
capacitor plates The primary advantages of this technology are no moving parts and fuel
quantity is measured in mass rather than volume. (The mass of fuel determines the amount of
energy available.)
From basic fundamentals, we know that capacitance is proportional to:

Plate area

Air gap

Dielectric strength.

In the capacitive tank unit, the first two parameters are fixed; the capacitance varies in
accordance with the dielectric, i.e. the amount of fuel in the tank
With a high quantity of fuel in the tank, the capacitance is high; capacitance varies in direct
proportion to the amount of fuel in the tank.
The tanks capacitance unit is connected into an impedance bridge circuit. Variation in
capacitance ( C ) of the fuel tank unit causes a change in reactance ( XC )
11.2.4.2 Density compensation
The volume of fuel in a tank varies with temperature; as the temperature changes, the mass of
fuel remains the same, but the volume changes. The dielectric is therefore affected by fuel
density; this density will change with temperature. Increased density is a result of reduced
temperature that will cause increased capacitance. Changes in fuel density are measured by a
compensation unit
This is an additional tank unit located in the bottom of the fuel tank, therefore it is always
immersed in fuel. The compensating unit is connected into the impedance bridge such that
changes in fuel density cause the bridge to become unbalanced and this compensates for the
change in fuel level.
11.3 Fuel Feed and Distribution.
General Aviation aircraft are normally fitted with an engine-driven pump (EDP), with electrical
boost pumps fitted to prime the system during starting.
A simple fuel pump system comprises an electrically driven boost pump motor controlled by an
on/of switch.
The system is enchanced by a two-stage throttle control system.

When the boost pump selector switch is set at the low setting, electrical power is
switched through the resistor and the motor runs at a low speed.

With the engine running, then the selector is moved to the high setting which provides
power through the NC contacts of the throttle micro-switch.

When the throttle is set below one-third open, the resistor remains in series, and the motor
continues to run at the low speed.

When the throttle is advanced, the throttle micro switch changes over via the NO contacts
to bypass the resistor and apply full power to motor

The typical fuel feed arrangement comprises two booster pumps for each main tank; the motor is
located on the tank bulkhead, with the pump located inside the tank.
The fuel distribution system requires electrical power and is controlled by a panel in the flight
compartment.
Fuel shut-off valves are connected to the battery bus, and controlled by the engine start lever
and fire handle.
Important: The fuel system normally has the means of transferring fuel between tanks; this is
controlled by a selector switch that operates a crossfeed valve.
The delivery output from each pump feeds into the system via a non return valve. Under normal
operating conditions, each pump feeds own engine via a motor driven low-pressure cock.
If a centre tank is fitted as part of a three-tank instalation, this can feed either engine by a fuel
transfer system.
Control switches for all pumps, cocks and valves together with warning indications are located on
the overhead panel or the flight engineers station. LP cocks are automatically closed if the fire
handle is activated
11.4 Fuel Transfer
This system is used to selectively transfer fuel between tanks; electrically driven fuel pumps and
motorized valves are controlled either manually by the crew or by an automatic control system.
On larger aircraft, the complex system comprises a number of motorized valves.

Engine valves are activated by the start lever or fire handles.

The left, centre and right refuel/defuel valves are operated from an under-wing panel.

Bypass valves are operated if an electrical pumps fuel filter is blocked.

Controls and indications are located on an overhead panel or flight engineers station.

An electrically operated cross-feed valve normally closed unless fuel is being transferred.

It is essential that fuel temperature is monitored, either manually or automatically.

Fuel temperature is measured by an RTD.
If the fuel temperature is approaching the lower limits, some fuel could be transferred between
tanks; alternatively the aircraft would have to descend into warmer air or accelerate to increase
the kinetic heating.
Note: 50 C to -50 C
11.5 Refuelling and Defuelling.

A Refuelling control panel and pressure connections are located in the wing area allowing
the fuel to be supplied directly into the main fuel system.

A bonding lead is always connected between the fuel bowser and aircraft to minimize the
risk of static discharge. Selective control of the systems motorized valves allow specific
tanks to be filled as required.

Defuelling is often required before maintenance, or if the aircraft is to be weighed. The

fuel is transferred from the aircraft into a suitable container, typically a fuel bowser

11.6 Fuel Jettison/Fuel Dumping (Vaciado de combustible)

When an aircraft takes off fully loaded with passengers and fuel, and then needs to make
an emergency landing, it will almost certainly be over its mximum landing weight.

Fuel has to be disposed of to reduce the aircraft weight to prepare for the emergency
landing.

Bowing 747 can be carrying over 100 tonnes of fuel, almost 50% of the aircrafts gross
Weight.

Two Jettison pumps are installed in each main tank, fuel is pumpued via a jettison manifold
to nozzle valves located at each wing tip trailing edge

Fuel can normally be jettisoned with landing gear and/or flaps extended.

11.7 Fuel Tank Venting (Ventilacin del tanque de combustible)

Its aims to improve aircraft safety by reducing the air displacement of empty space or the
volume of air above the fuel in a fuel tank of aviation.

The fuel level in the tank is reduced during the flight and the oxygen remaining in the
empty space ( ullage ) is replaced by non-flammable inert gas. The reduction of oxygen in
the fuel tank prevents combustion in the tank

Ram air: Aire forzado a entrar a una abertura dinmica (aire dinmico)

The venting system takes ram air from intakes on the underside of the wing for two
specific purposes:

Float-operated vent valves are located at key points in the tank to allow fuel to escpae into
the vent system, they also prevent inadvertent transfer of fuel between tanks.

Venting tanks in the wing tips collect this overspill from the main tanks; the fuel is then
pumped back into one of the main tanks.

11.8 Fuel Tank Inerting

Many aircraft have been destroyed due to explosions in empty centre Wing Fuel Tanks.

Common elements:

Small amount of fuel in the wing tank.

Air-conditioning packs located in non-vented bays directly under the CWT, had been
running before explossions.

Quite warm outside air temperatures.

Why does it happen?

Small amount of fuel: It had a large amount of evaporated fuel .

Air conditioning packs generate heat so it contributes to evaporation in uninsulated tanks

Evaporation increased with high ambient temperatures .

Empty fuel tanks retain some fuel is not used , which evaporates in these conditions and
creates an explosive mixture when combined with oxygen from the ullage .

INERTING

Ground-Base inerting: The fuel tanks would receibe an amount of nitrogen-enriched air
before pushback. Interting would last fir the taxi, takeoff and climb phases.

On-Board ground inerting: Achieves the same objective; however, the inerting equipment
is an aircraft system.

On-Board inert gas generation system (OBIGGS): It offers tremendous benefitsm although
it is the most expensive.

Systems NGS (Nitrogen generating systems): Is an onboard inert gas system; external air
is directed into an air separation module (ASM) this separates out the oxygen and nitrogen
via a molecular sieve. After separation, the NEWA is supplied into the center wing tank and
the OEA is vented onboard. NEA decreases the oxygen content in the ullage to prevent
combustion.

CHAPTER 12 LIGHTS.
INTRODUCTION.
Lighting is installed on aircraft for a number of reasons including: safety, operational needs,
servicing and for the convenience of passengers.
There are many types of lighting technologies used on aircraft. Lights are controlled by on/off
switches, variable resistors or by automatic control circuits.
12.1 LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES
Aircraft lighting is based on a number of technologies:

Incandescence

electro-luminescent

fluorescence

strobe

Incandescence.
Is the radiation of light from an electrical fi lament due to an increase in its temperature. The fi
lament is a small length of wire, like tungsten, which resists the flow of electrons when a voltage
is applied, thereby heating the filament.
Electro-luminescence.
Is a combined optical and electrical phenomenon that causes visible light to be emitted. This can
be achieved with electron flow through a semi-conductor material, or by a strong electric field
applied across a phosphor material.
Fluorescent lamps.
Are gas-discharge devices formed from a sealed tube of glass that is coated on the inside with
phosphor; the glass tube contains mercury vapor mixed with an inert gas, like argon or neon.
Strobe lights.

Are formed from small diameter (typically 5 mm) sealed quartz or glass envelope/tube filled with
xenon gas, see Fig. 12.1. Power from the aircraft bus is converted into a 400V DC supply for the
strobe. The tube is formed into the desired shape to suit the installation, it is a wing-tip anticollision light.

Key maintenance point: 400 V DC used in strobe circuits is dangerous: take all necessary
health and safety precautions when working near the system.

Key maintenance point: Do not handle strobe tubes with bare hands; moisture causes local
hot-spots that can lead to premature failure.

12.2 FLIGHT COMPARTMENT LIGHTS.

Dome lights: They are located on the ceiling provide non-directional distribution of light in the
compartment; it typically contains an incandescent lamp and is powered from the battery or
ground services bus.
Flood lighting: Located in the flight compartment from incandescent lamps and/or fluorescent
tubes provides a general illumination of instruments, panels, pedestals etc.
Emergency lights: They are installed in the flight compartment for escape purposes. The color
of flight compartment lights is normally white; this reduces the power and heat, improves
contrast on the instruments, and reduces eye fatigue.
12.2.1 Instruments
Internal instrument lighting is normally from incandescent lamps integrated within individual
instruments; lighting must be shielded from causing any.
A transistor circuit provides electronic control direct glare to the pilot and must be dimmable.
A typical transistor controlled lighting system The relatively low base currents in the respective
transistors can now control a variety of lighting circuits: radio navigation systems, compass, fuel
panels. engine indications.
12.2.2 Master warning.
An increasing number of systems are being designed into aircraft; this leads to more warning
lights and larger panels with an increased possibility of a warning light being missed by the crew.
Typical panels could have up to 50 individual warning lights, any one of which also illuminates
the master warning light. The individual lights could be located on an overhead or side panel.
When the master warning or caution light is illuminated, the pilot cross-refers to a centralized
group of warning lights on the relevant panel, each connected to the warning devices of specific
systems.
Warning lights can be tested by a separate test switch, or by a centralized master dim and test
switch.
The night/day switch is used to reduce the intensity of warning lights during low ambient lighting
condition.
12.2.3 Emerging technology
A digital processor on each warning and caution module replaces lighted switches with the
associated wire bundles. LEDs can now provide sufficient brightness to replace incandescent
lighting with 30% power reduction compared with fluorescent lighting. The objectives are to
accomplish weight, cost and reliability goals.
12.3 PASSENGER CABIN LIGHTS

Interior lighting installations for the passenger cabin vary depending on the size of aircraft.

These lights are controlled from the flight attendants station. LED illumination is being
specified on business and passenger aircraft that have pre-programmed settings for
specific flight phases and time zones.

Additional entry floodlights are provided in the door areas. Exit lights are located adjacent
to the emergency exits and are clearly visible, irrespective of whether the door is open or
closed. Floor path lighting is used to in emergency situations to provide visual
identification of escape routes along cabin aisle floor.

Interior lighting installations for the passenger cabin vary depending on the size of aircraft.
These lights are controlled from the flight attendants station.
Systems are automatically controlled to customize the fixing colors and avoid passengers to be
fatigued while traveling long distances.

Cabin signs like return to seat or no-smoking are normally activated by the flight crew.

Floor path lighting: Its used for emergency situations to provide visual identification of
escape routes along cabin aisle floor.

12.4.1 Logo lights

These are used to illuminate the tail fin, and is primarily for promotional purposes.

They also are used for additional awareness in busy airspace

Taxi Lights.

These are known also as run way turn off lights.

They are sealed beam devices with 250W filament lamps and are located at the nose,
landing gear or wing roots.

12.4.2 Landing lights

These are located on the wing tips, or on the front of the fuselage, usually at fixed angles
to illuminate the runway

12.4.3 Wing Illumination

Ice inspection lights: These are installed to check ice formation on wing leading edge
and engines.

12.4.4 Service Lights

These lights are powered from the aircraft ground servicing bus.

12.4.5 Navigation Lights.

The primarily external lights required for navigation purposes are the beacons and anticollisions lights.

12.4.5.1 Navigation Lights

Its mandatory that these lights are on the plane for flying at night.

These are located at the extremes of the aircraft and provide an indication of the aircrafts
direction and manoeuvers.
These are based on color regulations

GREEN: starboard wing divergence of 110

RED: port wing divergence of 110

CLEAR (WHITE): tail, divergence of

70 on either side of the aircraft center line. 140

total.
12.4.5.2 Anti-collision lights.

Lights often supplement navigation lights, these can be provided either by a strobe light,
rotating beacon or a combination of both.

Navigation lights used in conjunction with the navigation lights enhance situational
awareness for pilots in nearby air-craft