Gas Exchange: Diffusion & Partial Pressure Gradients

What Is Gas Exchange?

Gas exchange is exceptionally important for the survival of almost all living organisms, but what is gas exchange, exactly?
When we inhale, we take in oxygen, and when we exhale we expel carbon dioxide. How does this happen? The process
of gas exchange allows for the transfer of oxygen into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide into the lungs through a
membrane. This process is accomplished through simple diffusion which is a form of diffusion where a higher concentration
will move to an area of lower concentration without the aid of a protein. In the case of respiration, the higher concentration of
oxygen in the lungs will move into the bloodstream which has a low concentration of oxygen. In contrast, carbon dioxide will
move from the bloodstream to the lungs which have a lower concentration of carbon dioxide. The area in the lungs where
gas exchange occurs is the alveoli which appear as small grape-shaped sacs with optimal surface area. The alveoli are
covered in small blood vessels, or capillaries, which carry the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and the oxygen-rich blood
away.

Human respiratory system showing gas exchange

What Is Partial Pressure of Oxygen?

Simply, the partial pressure of oxygen is the pressure of oxygen in the blood of the arteries and is important in relation to
the health of the body. It is an important measurement as it shows how efficiently oxygen is moving between the lungs and
the blood. The partial pressure of oxygen should be higher outside of the capillaries to enhance diffusion into the capillaries.
The partial pressure of the oxygen in alveoli will be, naturally, at a slightly lower level due to the carbon dioxide moving into
the chamber. Partial pressure has a large influence on gas exchange. The lower the partial pressure, the less gas will be
exchanged between the barrier. If the partial pressure of the gas is high, then the level of gas exchange will also be high or
faster. In the body, high partial pressure of oxygen will result in increased blood flow.
The total pressure is the sum of all partial pressures of gases in a mixture. In a mixture of only oxygen and carbon dioxide,
the total pressure would be the combination of oxygen's partial pressure and carbon dioxide's partial pressure.

Laws That Govern the Partial Pressure Gradient

There are three important laws that affect gas exchange and govern the partial pressure gradient. The partial pressure
gradient is if in a mixture of gases, there is an area with a high concentration of a particular gas, it will diffuse to an area of
less concentration. This continues down the gradient. An example of the importance of pressure is when a person spends
time at a high elevation. When hiking high in the mountains it may feel as if breathing is exceptionally harder than at lower
elevations. A common saying is that this is due to the air being thinner. In reality, it is due to the lower atmospheric pressure.
Low pressure impacts the diffusion of gases. The three important laws that govern the partial pressure gradient are as
follows:

 Dalton's law of partial pressures: Adding all partial pressures of gases in a mixture will result in the total
pressure. The partial pressure of the gas is the pressure that would be exerted in the same volume as the mixture
and at the same temperature.
 Fick's law of diffusion: There are three factors to be taken into account in relation to diffusion. Fick's law
describes how each factor affects diffusion. The three factors are:
o Surface area
o Concentration difference
o Membrane thickness
 Henry's Law: The solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.

Calculating Partial Pressure of Oxygen

When we calculate the partial pressure of oxygen it is typically in relation to the arterial blood. There is a specific formula that
is used to find the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood in relation to carbon dioxide. This is where Dalton's law comes into
play:

Pgas = Tp x (gas)

Pgas - Partial pressure of the gas

Tp - Total pressure
(gas) - Concentration of specific gas
Let's look at an example. Say we have a mixture of 40% carbon dioxide, 40% nitrogen, and 20% oxygen. The total pressure
of the gases is 1000mmHg. To figure out the partial pressure of oxygen we can apply the above equation.
1000 x .2 = 200mmHg
Referring back to Henry's law, we can deduce that each partial pressure of the gases will reach equilibrium through the
process of diffusion across a surface. Let's look at an example. The normal partial pressure in the alveolar section of the
lungs is 100mmHg, because of this, the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the lungs for the rest of the body
equilibrates and is also 100mmHg.

Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

The alveoli, the small sacs in the lungs, are where gas exchange takes place. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
occurs in the alveoli which allow for oxygen-rich blood to leave the lungs and carbon dioxide to diffuse through the capillary
barrier and leave the lungs. The normal partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs is 100mmHg. So, why is the partial pressure
of oxygen different in the alveoli than externally when a person first inhales (160mmHg)? It is because of the addition of
water vapor and carbon dioxide. These additions drop the percentage of oxygen from 21% to about 13%.
Let's look at an example of how to determine the partial pressure of oxygen. The total pressure of the gases is 760mmHg
and the mixture is 8% carbon dioxide, 71% nitrogen, and 21% oxygen. Let's apply the above equation to find the partial
pressure of oxygen.
760mmHg x .21 = 160mmHg
The partial pressure of oxygen before reaching the alveoli is 160mmHg.

Alveoli and gas exchange

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we looked at how gas exchange works and the laws that affect it. Gas exchange in the lungs allows for the
transfer of oxygen into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide into the lungs through a membrane. This process is
accomplished through simple diffusion which is a form of diffusion where a higher concentration will move to an area of
lower concentration without the aid of a protein. In the lungs, the oxygen that is inhaled diffuses into the oxygen-poor blood
and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the carbon dioxide-poor lungs. The gas exhaled is then carbon dioxide-rich
and the blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich. An important aspect of gas exchange is the partial pressure of
oxygen which is the pressure of oxygen in the blood of the arteries. It shows the efficiency of the movement of oxygen
between the lungs and the blood.
There are three important laws that govern the partial pressure of gases and their gradient. The partial pressure gradient is
if in a mixture of gases, there is an area with a high concentration of a particular gas, it will diffuse to an area of less
concentration. This continues down the gradient. The three important laws that govern the partial pressure gradient are as
follows: Dalton's law of partial pressures, Fick's law of diffusion, and Henry's Law. Dalton's law can be used to
determine the partial pressure of oxygen or any other gas in a mixture. The amount of oxygen in the air that is inhaled is 21%
and the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 760mmHg. So using Dalton's formula we can find the partial pressure of
oxygen: .21 x 760mmHg = 160mmHg. Although this is true for the air that is inhaled, the air that reaches the alveoli has
dropped from 21% oxygen to 13% oxygen due to the addition of carbon dioxide and water vapor. This leaves a partial
pressure of oxygen of 100mmHg. Henry's law tells us that the gases will reach an equilibrium on each side of the barrier, so
if the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli is 100mmHg, then the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the lungs
will also have a partial pressure of 100mmHg.

The body's ventilation, or breathing, is controlled by the central nervous system. Learn about autonomic breathing and
understand how it is regulated. Explore homeostasis, hypercapnia, hypoxia, central and peripheral chemoreceptors, and
review what happens when ventilation goes bad.

Regulation of Ventilation
The process of ventilation
How long can you hold your breath? I remember competing with my buddies to see who could stay under the water the
longest. I think the longest I managed to pull off was about one minute before I had to come up for air. Thank goodness we
don't have to think about breathing. Our nervous system ultimately overrides any effort we make to hold our breath.
Furthermore, the nervous system regulates our breathing even if we're not trying to hold our breath.
Breathing is formally referred to as ventilation, the process of moving air into and out of our lungs. As you know, we breathe
for the purpose of taking in oxygen and getting rid of carbon dioxide. Our cells use oxygen to make ATP, while carbon
dioxide is produced by the same process. In other words, oxygen is needed for cellular respiration and carbon dioxide is
produced as a result. As our metabolic needs change from moment to moment, so must ventilation. In this lesson, we will
discuss how the nervous system regulates ventilation to meet our metabolic needs.

Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment. Much like the temperature in our homes is
regulated by a furnace, ventilation is regulated by our nervous system. That is, ventilation is increased or decreased to
maintain a constant balance between oxygen supply and metabolic demand. Every homeostatic system has the same basic
elements. Let's consider these elements before we discuss how they apply specifically to ventilation.
The basic elements of homeostasis are a stimulus, a receptor, an integration center, and an effector (or more than one
effector). All of these elements are needed for homeostasis to work. There are different types of receptors that sense
different stimuli - that is, changes in the environment. An integration center determines what to do about the change - about
the stimulus. Finally, the integration center sends signals to effectors, which then act to restore homeostatic balance. So,
that's how a basic homeostatic system works.

Homeostasis and Ventilation

Now, let's identify the basic components of the homeostatic system responsible for maintaining balance between oxygen
supply and metabolic demand. First, we must identify the stimulus - in other words, what changes. The most important
stimulus for regulation of ventilation in healthy persons is increased levels of carbon dioxide, which is known
as hypercapnia. Hypoxia, or decreased oxygen levels, can become a powerful stimulus for ventilation in sick persons.
Let's make sense out of this. Carbon dioxide levels increase when metabolism increases; therefore, hypercapnia is a good
measure of metabolic activity. Oxygen levels, on the other hand, don't change very much with everyday changes in
metabolism for healthy persons. This is due to the large store of oxygen that's bound to the hemoglobin in our red blood
cells. Therefore, carbon dioxide levels more accurately reflect our metabolism on a regular basis. However, increased
metabolism due to illness can decrease oxygen levels - that is, cause hypoxia. In these cases, hypoxia can become a
powerful stimulant for ventilation.

The central chemoreceptors are located within the brain stem.

Have you ever heard the expression 'if a tree falls in the forest and nobody is there to hear it fall, did it make a noise?' Let's
apply this expression to homeostatic regulation of ventilation. If nothing senses a change in carbon dioxide or oxygen levels,
will the stimulus go undetected? The answer is yes! Therefore, we have what we call chemoreceptors, which serve to
sense changes in carbon dioxide and oxygen levels in our body. These chemoreceptors are located in our brains and some
large arteries that deliver blood to the brain. The central chemoreceptors are located in the medulla oblongata, and they're
sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide levels. The peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the aorta and carotid arteries,
and they deliver blood to the brain. These receptors are sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide and oxygen.

The peripheral chemoreceptors are found in the carotid arteries and

aorta.
The medulla oblongata is located in the brain stem. This area of the brain is referred to as the ventilation integration center
or, more simply, the respiratory center. In response to hypercapnia or hypoxia, the medulla sends neural signals to
the ventilation muscles, specifically the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles, stimulating contraction. As they contract
and relax more quickly, we inspire more oxygen and expire more carbon dioxide, thus restoring homeostatic balance of
oxygen supply and metabolic demand.

Ventilation Gone Bad

Sometimes the respiratory center goes temporarily awry, resulting is abnormal ventilation. For example, hiccups result from
abnormal activation of the respiratory center. Interestingly, unborn babies can get the hiccups even though they don't
breathe. This is because their respiratory center is working just like as it is in an adult, even though they don't need to
breathe. More serious complications can result in ventilation problems. For example, compression of the brain stem caused
by swelling results in apnea, or abnormal pauses in ventilation. Trauma to the brainstem can result in respiratory arrest, in
which ventilation stops for a prolonged period of time.

Lesson Summary
In summary, the nervous system is responsible for homeostatic balance of oxygen supply and metabolic
demand. Hypercapnia, or high carbon dioxide levels, is the primary stimulant for ventilation in healthy persons,
while hypoxia, or low oxygen levels, can become a powerful stimulant in sick people. Central chemoreceptors located in
the brain sense changes in carbon dioxide, while peripheral chemoreceptors located in the arteries delivering blood to the
brain sense changes in both carbon dioxide and oxygen. The medulla oblongata serves as the integration center for
ventilation and sends neural signals to the respiratory muscles, thus increasing ventilation. Increased ventilation decreases
carbon dioxide and increases oxygen in the body, thus restoring homeostasis.

Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood

Carbon Dioxide
When a person exhales, some of the air that leaves the body is in the form of carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide, or CO2,
is produced in the body during the process of cellular respiration. This is a process in which cells convert oxygen and glucose
into the ATP (adenosine triphosphate) cells, the primary carrier of energy in cells. Carbon dioxide is a waste product of this
reaction. The carbon dioxide produced by the cells needs to be carried back to the lungs so it can be exhaled.

People exhale carbon dioxide when they breathe.

What Is the Most Common Method of Carbon Dioxide

Transport?
 The majority of the carbon dioxide in our body, around 85%, is transported as part of the blood's bicarbonate
buffer system. The bicarbonate buffer system is the body's way of regulating the pH of its blood and maintaining
a pH between 7.35 and 7.45.
 About 10% of the carbon dioxide in the blood enters red blood cells and binds to hemoglobin, a protein found in
red blood cells. The molecule formed when carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin is carbaminohemoglobin.
 The final 5% of the carbon dioxide in the body is dissolved in blood plasma.

Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood

How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood? The body makes use of the carbon dioxide as it is transported back to the
lungs to be exhaled. The bicarbonate buffer system is how CO 2 is carried in the blood. As carbon dioxide is produced as a
waste product during the process of cellular respiration, it diffuses into the blood plasma. Some of it will remain in the blood
plasma, and be carried back to the lungs. The majority of the carbon dioxide either diffuses into red blood cells and forms
carbaminohemoglobin, or becomes part of the bicarbonate buffer system.
Carbaminohemoglobin is the molecule created when carbon dioxide binds to the hemoglobin in red blood cells. As the
hemoglobin releases oxygen to the cells of the body, it binds with carbon dioxide molecules. The carbon dioxide is then
carried back to the lungs to be exhaled.

The carbon dioxide transported in the blood is composed of

one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.

The bicarbonate buffer system is responsible for carrying the majority of the carbon dioxide produced by cells back to the
lungs to be exhaled. The carbon dioxide is being carried by the blood, but it is also being used to maintain the blood's pH.
Blood is composed primarily of water, which breaks apart into H + and OH-. The H+ controls the pH of the blood. If the pH of
the blood becomes either too basic or too acidic, the body cannot work as it should.
With the help of the carbonic anhydrase enzyme, the carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood combines with the water, H 2 O,
that makes up much of the blood and forms carbonic acid, H 2 CO3. Carbonic acid is a weak acid that will easily donate a
H+ ion if more is needed in the blood to maintain the proper pH. The carbonic acid will give up a H + ion and become the
bicarbonate ion, HCO3-. The released H+ ion can bind to the hemoglobin in red blood cells., causing the hemoglobin to release the oxygen it was carrying to be used by the cells of the body.
If there is too much H+ in the blood, which controls the pH, the bicarbonate ion, HCO 3-, will bind with a H+ ion to form carbonic acid, H2 CO3. This
carbonic acid will, in turn, split into carbon dioxide and water. In this way, the blood is using the carbon dioxide to its own benefit as it transports it back to the lungs to be exhaled.
The two-way chemical equation that shows the bicarbonate buffer system is shown here.

Most carbon dioxide in the blood becomes part of the

bicarbonate buffer system, whose equation is shown here.

Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Lungs

Once the blood reaches the lungs, the chemical equation shifts to the left. The bicarbonate ion pulls the H + ion out of the
hemoglobin in the red blood cells, allowing it to bind with oxygen from the inhaled air in the lungs. The oxygen will then be
carried by the hemoglobin back to the body's cells to be used in cellular respiration. The carbonic acid breaks apart into
carbon dioxide and water with the help of the carbonic anhydrase enzyme. The carbon dioxide can then finally be exhaled
from the body.

Lesson Summary
Carbon dioxide, or CO2, is produced as a waste product in the body during the process of cellular respiration. It is then
carried back to the lungs to be exhaled from the body. The blood carries the carbon dioxide back to the lungs using three
methods. Some carbon dioxide is transported in blood plasma and some binds with the hemoglobin in red blood cells to
form carbaminohemoglobin.
Most of the carbon dioxide transported in the body, however, is used in the bicarbonate buffer system. The bicarbonate
buffer system is a way for the blood to use the carbon dioxide to maintain the proper blood pH. The body is able to use the
carbon dioxide, a waste product, for its own benefit as it transports the carbon dioxide back to the lungs to be exhaled.

Pulmonary Surfactant Function and Ventilation

What is Pulmonary Surfactant?
The lungs are responsible for the transfer of oxygen into the blood as a person breathes inwards and for the transfer of
carbon dioxide and any other gases out of the blood as a person exhales. The alveoli are air-filled sacs in the lungs that
allow for this exchange to occur. They are lined with tiny capillaries that carry the gases to and away from the rest of the
body. When a person exhales, the loss of pressure in the thoracic cavity can cause the alveoli to collapse. The
pulmonary surfactant is a special fluid released by cells in the lungs that prevents this collapse from occurring on
exhalation. Respiratory Distress Syndrome is a disorder in which the lack of enough surfactant in immature lungs causes
babies to breathe poorly and they may even stop breathing.

Alveoli of lungs

What Produces Surfactant in the Lungs?

There are specialized cells in the lungs that produce the pulmonary surfactant. These are the alveolar type-II (AT-II) cells of
the lungs. As the alveoli are the places where gas exchange takes place, this is an ideal location for the surfactant to be
produced.

What is Surfactant For?

Lung surfactant is made up of a unique blend of phospholipids and proteins. It is composed of 40%
dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, 40% phospholipids, 10% surfactant proteins, and 10% neutral lipids. The AT-II cells in the
alveoli produce and release the surfactant onto the surface of the air-filled sacs of the alveoli. Surfactant is vital for gas
exchange as it lowers surface tension on the surface of alveoli and allows for proper gas exchange during inspiration and
expiration. This gas exchange must occur on a wet surface which is why lungs are internalized or on the inside the body in
terrestrial animals. This gas exchange process is described next.

Gas Exchange Basics

The gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the alveoli of the lungs. Alveoli are lined on their outer surface
with tiny capillaries that carry blood to and away from the alveoli. Carbon dioxide moves from these capillaries bringing blood
to the alveoli from the rest of the body to move out of the capillaries into the alveoli and out of the lungs and mouth during
exhalation. During inhalation, oxygen moves from the nose and mouth into the lungs and into alveoli, where it then diffuses
into the capillaries which carry the blood to the rest of the body to oxygenate the tissues of the body. During exhalation, the
thoracic cavity undergoes a significant decrease in pressure. This can cause the tiny air-filled sacs called alveoli to collapse
and the walls of the sacs to stick to each other. The surfactant is what prevents this from happening and keeps alveoli intact
and inflated ready to accept oxygenated air with the next inhale.

Surface Tension in Lungs

In addition to surfactants, water lines the alveolar walls as well. Water has surface tension, which creates a problem for the
gas exchange needed for respiration because it prevents gases from passing through the fluid to the tissues of the lungs.
Furthermore, surface tension causes an inward pressure in the lungs which prevents alveoli from inflating and lungs from
expanding. The surfactant produced by AT-II cells in the alveoli replaces the water molecules. This physically breaks up the
surface tension between water molecules. Thus, water molecules are unable to stick to each other and cause the alveolar
wall to collapse when a person exhales. The surfactant keeps the alveolar wall inflated and intact throughout the respiratory
process.
The effectiveness of surfactants is directly related to the size of the alveoli. With smaller alveoli, the amount of surfactant
coating the surface is larger or more concentrated than in larger alveoli. This allows for a faster decrease in surface tension
of the alveoli thus allowing more air to enter the lungs during inhalation.
Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Respiratory Distress Syndrome occurs when the body lacks enough surfactant in the lungs. This is typically seen in
immature infants. The alveoli, due to an insufficient amount of surfactant in the lungs, collapse and this decreases the
amount of air present in the lungs. This makes it very difficult for infants to breathe. The lack of oxygen can cause fatigue
which further decreases respiration and can even lead to a complete cessation of breathing.
The symptoms of RDS are:

 Fast breathing
 Lack of breathing
 Nose flaring
 Strain or pull on neck and chest muscles as infant struggles to inhale
 Pale or blue face due to lack of oxygen

The more prematurely an infant is born, the higher the risk of developing RDS. An infant may still breathe on their own after
30 weeks in gestation. This is an important reason why premature childbirth is avoided as much as possible. If it cannot be
avoided for a medical reason, then there are two treatments typically performed. First, a steroid is given to a mother which
decreases the severity of RDS in the premature infant. Secondly, a surfactant medication is delivered via a breathing tube
directly into the lungs of the infant. This helps them breathe normally or decreases the risk of developing RDS. Two systems
of air delivery can also be used such as using a ventilator or a CPAP machine. The choice of air delivery system depends on
the severity of RDS. The forced pressure of air from the CPAP machine keeps the alveoli open and prevents them from
sticking to each other. Oxygen can also be delivered via an oxygen cannula without forced air.

Pulmonary surfactant medication

In adult patients, a similar disorder can occur known as surfactant dysfunction disorder. It is caused by mutations in genes
that are responsible for the production of surfactants. In any patient with a lack of surfactant, it is very important to monitor
their oxygen and carbon dioxide, even with treatment, to ensure the treatment is working.

Lesson Summary
The pulmonary system relies on surfactants in the lungs to allow for respiration and the exchange of gases to occur. The
surfactant is produced by specialized AT-II cells in the alveoli and works by decreasing the surface tension in the alveoli.
This prevents the alveoli from collapsing during exhalation with the loss of thoracic pressure and for respiration to continue
seamlessly. Many medical disorders such as RDS affect the function of surfactants due to the lack of sufficient surfactant
being produced by the alveolar cells. This causes many unsettling respiratory symptoms in patients and can even lead to
death due to lack of respiration without treatment.