Principles of statistics 2022-2023

Chapter two
Tabular Presentation and Graphical Presentation:

The source of our statistical knowledge lies in the data. Once we obtain the
sample data values, one way to become acquainted with them is to display
them in tables or graphically. Charts and graphs are very important tools in
statistics because they communicate information visually.

1.1 Data

Data is basically a collection of information, measurements or observations,

and it must be organized for it to be useful .

There are two types of data Grouped data and ungrouped data:

1.2 Grouped Data

At certain times to ensure that we are making correct and relevant

observations from the data set, we may need to group the data into class
intervals.

1.3 Raw data: is an initial collection of information. This information has

not yet been organized. After the very first step of data collection, you will
get raw data.

2.2 Tabular Presentation

A table consists of an ordered arrangement of rows and columns. The
elements of a table may be grouped, segmented, or arranged in many
different ways, and even nested recursively. Additionally, a table may
include metadata, annotations, a header, or other ancillary features.

Statistical tables can be classified under two type:

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2.2.1 Simple table:

The simple table consists of an ordered arrangement of rows and
columns, the first row is not counted, because it is only used to
display the column names. This is called a "header row."

For example:
The following table shows the distribution of a number of students
according by weight (kg).
Classes Frequency
60-62 5
63-65 15
66-68 45
69-71 27
72-74 8
Total 100

2.2.2 Multi-dimensional table:

Any "simple" table can be represented as a "multi-dimensional" table by

normalizing the data values into ordered hierarchies.For example:

The following table shows the distribution of a number of students according

weight (kg) with Height (cm).

Weight
51-60 61-70 71-80 total
Height

121-140 20 6 4 30

141-160 2 40 10 52

161-180 2 6 10 18

total 24 52 24 100

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 Principles of statistics 2022-2023

2.2.3Frequency Distribution or Frequency Table:

In statistics provides the information of the number of occurrences

(frequency) of distinct values distributed within a given period of time or
interval, in a list, table.Whereit is a table that divides a data set in to a
suitable number of categories (classes).

Rather than retaining the entire set of data in a display, a frequency table
essentially provides only a count of those observations that are associated
with each class.

A frequency table is created by choosing a specific number of classes in

which the data will be placed .Generally the classes will be intervals of equal
length. The center of each class is called a class mark .The end points of
each class interval are called class boundaries .

Once the data are summarized in the form of a frequency table, a graphical
representation can be given through bar graphs, pie charts, and histograms

2.2.4 Some Definitions:

1. Range: The Range is the difference between the lowest and highest
values.

R  Maximum Value  Minimum Value

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 Principles of statistics 2022-2023

R  XL  XS

2. Classes:it is intervals of equal length. There are some method to find

theNumber of Classes (k):
1. Sturges method

K  1  3.322 log(n) where n  Number of the observation

2. Yule method:

K  2.5  4 n where n  Number of the observation

3. ClassesLimit: every class has two limits

Lower Class Limit (L) and Upper ClassLimit (U)

4. Classes Width (w): the classes will be intervals of equal length, and we
can find the width of classes by:
Range R
W  =
Number of classes K

Steps forConstructing FrequencyDistribution Table:

1. Find the minimum and the maximum values in the data set, after
arrangement the data ascending or descending.

2. determine the range , R  Maximum Value  Minimum Value

3. Find the number of classes by this rules;
K  1  3.322 log(n) where n  Number of the observation

R
4. determine the Classes Width W 
K
5. Find the Classes Limit or

Find the Upper Classes Limit.& Lower Classes Limit.

For Integers data we can use this rule:

L  Lower Limit for first class  min imum values

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 Principles of statistics 2022-2023

U  Upper Limit for first class  L  W  1

6. Find the Classes Frequency ( f i ).

Example:)1( The following are weights in pounds of 57 children at a

daycare center:

68,63,42,27,30,23,36,28,32,79,46,27,22,23,24,25,44,19,65,43,25,74,30
,51,36,42,28,31,28,43,25,45,12,57,12,51,12,32,49,38,42,49,27,31,50,38
,28,21,16,24,69,47,23,49,22,43,27.

Prepare a Frequency Distribution Table for this data.

Example (2)

: ‫ طالبا" في مادة االحصاء وهي‬25 ‫تمثل البيانات التالية تقديرات‬

The following data represents the marks of 25 students "in Statistics,
namely:
‫جيد‬، "‫ جيد جدا‬، ‫جيد‬، ‫ضعيف‬، ‫ جيد‬،‫مقبول‬، ‫ممتاز‬، ‫مقبول‬، "‫جيد جدا‬، ‫مقبول‬، ‫جيد‬
"‫ضعيف جدا‬، "‫ جيد جدا‬، ‫ جيد‬، ‫مقبول‬، ‫جيد‬، ‫مقبول‬، ‫جيد‬، ‫ ممتاز‬،‫مقبول‬، ‫ضعيف‬،
. ‫مقبول‬، ‫ ضعيف‬، "‫ضعيف جدا‬، ‫مقبول‬،

.)Frequency Distribution Table( ‫ تكوين جدول التوزيع التكراري‬: ‫المطلوب‬

Homework:

Example (3) There is a quantity of wheat crop (ton / ha) in forty farms:

2.6, 2.2, 4.1, 3.5, 2.0, 3.2, 3.7, 3.0, 3.7, 3.4, 1.6, 3.1, 3.3, 3.8, 3.1, 2.4,
3.1, 2.5, 4.3, 3.4, 3.6, 2.9, 3.3, 3.9, 3.4, 3.3, 3.1, 3.7, 4.4, 3.2, 4.1, 1.9,
3.5, 2.3, 3.8, 3.2, 2.6, 3.9, 3.0, 4.2
Prepare a Frequency Distribution Table for this data .

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2.2.5 Relative Frequency Distribution :

A frequency distribution table shows how often something happens. To do

The frequency distribution table must be we find the:
Frequency in this class fi
Re lative Frequency of the class  
Total number of observation  fi

fi
Percentage Frequency of the class   100
f i

Example: apply the frequency distribution table in last example?

Class’s mid-point ( C Mid ): we can find the Classes mid-pointby:

Lower Limit  Upper Limit

Class midpo int 
2

Or;

Lower boundary Limit  Upper boundary Limit

Class midpo int 
2

Limit: Class boundaries

For every class we have two boundary limits:

Lower Class boundary Limit L  L

Upper Class boundary Limit U  L

Lower Class boundary for any class ( L  L ) = Class midpo int   Class width
1
2

Upper Class boundary for any class ( U  L ) = Class mid po int   Class width
1
2

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NOTE: we can find the class’s mid-point,class boundaries limit and

frequency in the frequency distribution table?

1. we can find the class’s )lower and upper limit) by using mid-point :
If we have the Integersdata:

lower class = Lower boundary limit +0.5

Upper class = upper boundary limit -0.5

2. We can find the class width :

I. First Formula: if the class limit Integers number :

Class Width(W )  UpperLimit  LowerLimit  1

II. Second Formula:

Class Width(W )  Upper boundary Limit for this class  Lower boundary Limit for this class
III. If we have the midpoint, we can find the classes width:

Class width = difference between two class mid-point

3. if we have the Relative Frequency, we can find the number of

Frequency

Frequency in this class fi

Re lative Frequency of the class  
Total number of observation f i

f i  Re lative Frequency of the class   f i

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Example: Complete the following table.

class midpoint Limit Frequency Relative Percent

boundary Frequency Frequency

4 2

9 5

14 10

19 25

24 8

Total 50

Homework : 2

1.3 Frequency Distribution table: Cumulative

1.3.1Less than CumulativeFrequency Distribution table:

It is obtained by adding successively the frequencies of all the previous

classes including the class against which it is written. The cumulate is started
from the lowest to the highest size.

F0 = 0
F1 = f0 +f1
F2 = f0 +f1 +f2 = F1 +F2
F3 = f0 +f1 +f2 +f3 = F2 +F3
.

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Fn= ∑ fi = Fn-1 +Fn

1.3.2 More than Cumulative Frequency Distribution table:

It is obtained by finding the cumulate total of frequencies starting from the

highest to the lowest class.

F1 = ∑ fi
F2= ∑ fi-F1
F3 = ∑ fi-F1-F2
.

Fn= 0
Example (1): Let we have this Frequency Distribution table:
class fi

31-40 1

41-50 2

51-60 5

61-70 15

71-80 25

81-90 20

91-100 12

Total 80

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Find: 1. Less than Cumulative Frequency Distribution.

2. More than
Classes Frequency
Cumulative Frequency Distribution.
60-62 5
63-65 15 Example (2) Homework let us have this
66-68 45
69-71 27 Frequency Distribution table:
72-74 8
total 100

Find: 1. Less than Cumulative Frequency Distribution.

2. More than Cumulative Frequency Distribution.

2.3Graphical Presentation:

Graphic presentation is another way of the presentation of data and

information. Usually, graphs are used to present time series and
frequency distributions.The graphic presentation of data and information
offers a quick and simple way of understanding the features and drawing
comparisons.

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 Principles of statistics 2022-2023

Further, it is an effective analytical tool. In this part, we will look at the

graphic presentation of data and information along with its merits,
limitations, and types.

Types of Frequency Distribution graphs:

2.3.1 Histogram
A histogram is a graph of a grouped frequency distribution. In a
histogram, we plot the class intervals on the X-axis and their
respective frequencies on the Y-axis. Further, we create a rectangle on
each class interval with its height proportional to the frequency
density of the class.

Example: Let we have this Frequency Distribution table:

Draw a frequency Histogram?

class fi

2-6 2

7-11 5

12-16 10

17-21 25

22-26 8

Total 50

Bars chart: A graph of bars whose heights represent the frequencies (or
relative frequencies) of respective categories is called a bar graph.
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 Principles of statistics 2022-2023

2.3.2 Cumulative Frequency Curve :

A cumulative frequency curve is the graphical representation of a

cumulative frequency distribution.

Example: Let we have this Frequency Distribution table:

class Mid-point fi

2-6 4 2

7-11 9 5

12-16 14 10

17-21 19 25

22-26 24 8

Total 50

Draw a frequency Curve?

2.3.3 Scatter Diagram

A scatter diagram or a dot chart enables us to find the nature of the

relationship between the variables. If the plotted points are scattered a lot,
then the relationship between the two variables is lesser.

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Homework:

Let the blood types of 40 persons are as follows:

O ,O ,A ,B ,A ,O ,A, A ,A ,O ,B, O ,B ,O ,O, A, O, O ,A, A, A, A, AB, A, B,

A ,A, O, O ,A,O ,O ,A, A, A ,O ,A ,O, O, AB.

1. Prepare a Frequency Distribution Table for this data.

2. Are you can do: 1. Less than Cumulative Frequency Distribution.

2. More than Cumulative Frequency Distribution.

3. Draw a frequency Histogram.

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