Ministry of Higher Education

& Scientific Research

University of Kirkuk
College of Engineering

Engineering Statistics
Third year class
2022-2023

Lecture 1-page-1
Syllabus for Engineering Statistics:
Chapter one: Introduction
Chapter two: Describing Data
Chapter three: The probability
Chapter four: Discrete probability distributions
Chapter five: Continuous probability distributions
Chapter six: Sampling distributions
Chapter seven: Estimation theory
Chapter eight: Tests of hypothesis
Chapter nine: Regression and correlation analysis

Text book: Basic Statistics for Business and Economics

by D. A. Lind, W. G. Marchal, and R. D. Mason 7th Ed., 2014.
Statistical Techniques in Business and Economics
References:
1- Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists
By/ Anthony Hayter, 3rd Ed., 2007.
2- Mathematical Statistics
By J. N. Kapur, and H. C. Saxena, 2007.

Lecture 1-page-2
 Chapter 1 Chapter One: Introduction

Statistics: The science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting

data to assist in making more effective decisions.

Types of Statistics:

A- Descriptive Statistics: Methods of organizing, summarizing, and presenting data in

an informative way.
B- Inferential or Inductive Statistics: Methods used to estimate a property of a
population based on a sample.

Population: The entire set of individuals, objects, or measurements of interest.

Sample: A portion or part of the population of interest.

Types of Variables:

A- Qualitative Variable or an Attribute: When the characteristic or variable being

studied is nonnumeric. Examples are gender, type of automobile owned, state of
birth, eye color, etc. here we usually interested in how many or what portion fall in
each category. For example, what percent of the population has blue eyes? What
percent of the total number of cars sold last month were Buicks?
Qualitative data are often summarized in charts and bar graphs.

B- Quantitative Variables: When the variable studied can be reported numerically.

Examples, age, life of battery, speed of automobiles, number of children in a family.

Types of Quantitative Variables:

A- Discrete Variables: Can assume only certain values and there are usually gaps between
the values. Examples: number of rooms in a house, number of cars arriving at the exit
of the road over an hour, number of students in each section, etc.

Lecture 1-page-3
B- Continuous Variable: Can assume any value within a specific range resulting from
measuring something. Examples: the time it took the examination is 3 hours: 30
minutes and 25 seconds depending on the accuracy of the timing device.

Levels of Measurements:

The level of measurements of the data dictates the calculations that can be done to
summarize and present the data. It will also determine the statistical tests that should be
performed.

A- Nominal- Level Data: The observations of a qualitative variable can only be

classified and counted. Sometimes, for better reader understanding, we convert
these counts to percentages. Examples: number of candies with red color in a
box, number of males in a student class. To summarize, the nominal level has
the following properties:
1- The variable of interest is divided into categories or outcomes.
2- There is no natural order to the outcomes.
B- Ordinal-Level Data: data classifications are ranked or ordered according to the
particular trait they possess. The data classifications are mutually exclusive and
exhaustive.

Mutually exclusive: A property of a set of categories such that an individual, object,

or measurement is included in only one category.

Exhaustive: A property of a set of categories such that an individual, object, or

measurement must appear in a category.

Examples: classification as superior, good, average, poor, inferior.

C- Interval-Level Data: It includes all the characteristics of the ordinal level, but
in addition, the difference between values is a constant size.
Example: temperature (28, 31, 20) can easily be ranked and determine the
difference between temperatures. [0] degree does not represent the absence of
heat, just that it is cold. The properties of interval level are:
1- Data classifications are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
2- Data classifications are scaled according to the amount of the characteristic
they possess.
3- Equal differences in the characteristic are represented by equal difference in
the measurement.

Lecture 1-page-4
 D- Ratio-Level Data: Practically all quantitative data are ratio level of
measurement. It is the highest level of measurement. Here the [0] point is
meaningful and the ratio between two numbers is meaningful. Examples: wages,
weight, changes in stock prices, height, etc.
Money is a good example; if I earn $30000 per year and you earn $60000 per
year then you earn twice as much as I.
The properties of the ratio level are:
1- Data classifications are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
2- Data classifications are scaled according to the amount of the characteristic
they possess.
3- Equal differences in the characteristic are represented by equal difference in
the numbers assigned to the classifications.
4- The [0] point is the absence of the characteristic.

Lecture 1-page-5
 Chapter two: Describing Data

2-1 Constructing a Frequency Table:

Descriptive statistics organize data to show the general pattern of the data and
where values tend to concentrate and to expose extreme or unusual data values. The first
procedure to organize and summarize a set of data is a frequency table.

Frequency Table: A grouping of qualitative data into mutually exclusive classes

showing the number of observations in each class.

The number of observations in each class is called the class frequency.

2-2 Constructing a Frequency Distribution: Quantitative Data

Frequency Distribution: A grouping of data into mutually exclusive classes showing the
number of observations in each class.

How do we develop a frequency distribution? The first step is to tally the data into
a table showing the classes and the number of observations in each class. The steps in
constructing a frequency distribution are:

1- Decide on the number of classes:

k 2k
Number of classes (categories): 2k > n 2 4
Where: 3 8
4 16
k: number of classes 5 32
6 64
n: sample size (number of observations) 7 128
8 256
Find the value in 2k column that is closest to the sample size and the
approximate number of classes will be k from the other column.

2- Determine the class interval or width:

𝐻−𝐿
𝑖 ≥
𝐾

Lecture 1-page-6
Where:

i: class interval

H: highest observed value

L: lowest observed value.

K: number of classes

(H-L): range.

3- Set the individual class limits:

Class interval of the type {x: a ≤ x ˂ b} called exclusive that exclude the upper
limit of the class. Class interval of the type {x: a ≤ x ≤b} called inclusive that include the
upper limit of the class. In order to ensure continuity of class-limits, we convert inclusive
class intervals into exclusive class intervals after an adjustment to the upper limits by
using:

Adjustment = 0.5 (Lower-limit of the current class – Upper-limit of the preceding class)

Therefore, the common points between classes are called true limits.

4- Tally the data into the classes.

5- Count the number of items in each class.

Consider an example where the marks obtained by (45) students in a Statistics paper, the
maximum marks allotted is 30:

22 9 17 13 15 18 13 2 21 27 27 29
15 0 10 29 26 16 25 10 24 22 28 26
26 19 14 18 25 21 25 18 28 25 27 29
17 10 3 24 3 12 16 18 26

Here the variate is “number of marks”. The data in the original form as above are called
“raw or ungrouped data”. When arranged in ascending or descending order of
magnitude, the data are said to be arranged in an array. Counting the number of times
each variate value occurs, we get the following frequency table.

Lecture 1-page-7
Table 2.1: Frequency table of marks in Statistics of (45) students
Marks in Number of students Cumulative
Statistics (tally marks) frequency
0 I 1 1
2 I 1 2
3 II 2 4
9 I 1 5
10 III 3 8
12 I 1 9
13 II 2 11
14 I 1 12
15 II 2 14
16 II 2 16
17 II 2 18
18 IIII (IV) 4 22
19 I 1 23
21 II 2 25
22 II 2 27
24 II 2 29
25 IIII (IV) 4 33
26 IIII (IV) 4 37
27 III 3 40
28 II 2 42
29 III 3 45

To get a still better picture about the structure of the frequency distribution, we re-classify
the data into groups as follows:

Table 2.2: Frequency distribution of marks in Statistics of (45) students

Marks in Number of students Cumulative Class- length Class mid-point
Statistics (frequency) frequency
(class)
0-5 4 4 5 2.5
5-10 1 5 5 7.5
10-15 7 12 5 12.5
15-20 11 23 5 17.5
20-25 6 29 5 22.5
25-30 16 45 5 27.5

Lecture 1-page-8
This type of representation of frequencies is called a grouped frequency distribution or
simply a grouped distribution.

Class limits: boundaries of the class. They are called lower limit and upper limit.
Class interval or class width ( i ): difference between the upper and lower limits of a
class.
Class frequency (fi): number of individuals or observations in each class.
Cumulative frequency ( Fx): total number of observations less than or equal to the
upper limit of the class.
Class length: difference between the upper- and lower-class limits.
Class mark or class mid-point (xi): 0.5 [(upper limit + lower limit) of the class].
𝐾

∑ 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑛
𝑖=1

Where: K : total number of classes

n : : total number of observations

fi : class frequency

Probability of a class (pi ): is the relative frequency of the class which represent the
ration of the class to the total number of observations.
𝐾

∑ 𝑝𝑖 = 1.00
𝑖=1

The following points should be kept in mind while tabulating or classifying an observed
frequency distribution:

1- The class interval should, wherever possible, be of equal width.

2- It should be made clear whether the class a-b means all values of the variate x for
which (a ≤ x ˂ b) or (a ˂ x ≤ b).
3- The class interval should be an integer as far as possible.

Lecture 1-page-9
Graphic Presentation of Qualitative Data:
1- Bar Chart: A graph in which the classes are reported on the horizontal axis and the
class frequencies on the vertical axis. The class frequencies are proportional to the
heights of the bars.

2- Pie Chart: A chart that shows the proportion or percent that each class represent of
the total number of frequencies

Example: SkiLodges.com is test-marketing its new website and is interested in how easy
its Web page design is to navigate. It randomly selected 200 regular Internet users and
asked them to perform a search task on the Web page. Each person was asked to rate the
relative ease of navigation as poor, good, excellent, or awesome. The results are shown
in the following table:

1) What type of measurement scale is used for ease of navigation?

2) Draw a bar chart of the survey results.

3) Draw a pie chart of the survey results.

Solution

Lecture 1-page-10
 Graphic Presentation of a Frequency Distribution
1- Histogram: A graph in which the classes are marked on the horizontal axis and the
class frequencies on the vertical axis. The class frequencies are represented by the
heights of the bars and the bars are drawn adjacent to each other.

For a given grouped frequency distribution, we first mark off along the x-axis all
the class intervals on a suitable scale. Draw rectangles with the class intervals as bases,
areas proportional to the frequencies of the class intervals. For equal class intervals, the
heights of the rectangles will be proportional to the frequencies, unequal class intervals
the height will be proportional to the ratios of the frequencies to the widths of the classes.

Example 1: Refer to table 2.1 which shows the frequency distribution of selling prices at
a car company last month. Construct a histogram

Table 2.1

Selling Prices
Frequency
($ thousands)

15 up to 18 8
18 up to 21 23
21 up to 24 17
24 up to 27 18
27 up to 30 8
30 up to 33 4
33 up to 36 2
Total 80

Lecture 1-page-11
Example 2: Draw the histogram for the frequency distribution given in the table which
shows the number of boys on the registers at primary schools in a certain state.

Age Number of boys

(in years) (in thousands)
2 -5 150
5 -11 3066
11 -12 497
12 -13 477
13 -14 496
14-15 143
15-17 162

Solution:

Rectangles
Age
Number of boys
(in years) base height
(in thousands)

2 -5 150 5-2=3 50
5 -11 3066 11-5=6 511
11-12 497 12-11=1 497
12 -13 477 13-12=1 477
13 -14 496 14-13=1 496
14-15 143 15-14=1 143
15-17 162 17-15=2 81

Lecture 1-page-12
Notes

1- If the grouped frequency distribution is not continuous, it should first be converted

into a continuous by using adjustment then the histogram be drawn for the
adjusted grouped frequency distribution.
2- Histogram for ungrouped frequency distribution of a variate assume that the
frequency corresponding to the variate value x is spread over the interval x-0.5h to
x+0.5h, where h is the jump from one value to the next.
3- Histogram makes it appear as if the frequency in each class is uniformly
distributed over that class which in general need not be true. Histogram
particularly appropriate to cases in which the frequency changes rapidly or the
class intervals are not of the same width.

Probability of measurement between the values of variate a, b is:

2- Frequency Polygon: For an ungrouped frequency distribution, the frequency

polygon is obtained by plotting points with abscissae as the variate values and the
ordinates as the corresponding frequencies and joining the plotted points by straight
lines. For a grouped frequency distribution, the abscissae of the points are the mid-points
of the class intervals.

For equal class intervals, the frequency polygon can be obtained by joining the middle
points of the upper sides of the adjacent rectangles of the histogram by straight lines.

Lecture 1-page-13
Example: For the frequency distribution shown: Selling Prices
Frequency
($ thousands)
15-18 8
18-21 23
Construct a frequency polygon 21-24 17
24-27 18
27-30 8
30-33 4
33-36 2
Solution

Selling Prices Frequency class mid-point

($ thousands) (fi) (xi)
0 13.5
15-18 8 16.5
18-21 23 19.5
21-24 17 22.5
24-27 18 25.5
27-30 8 28.5
30-33 4 31.5
33-36 2 34.5
0 37.5

Lecture 1-page-14
3-Cumulative Frequency Polygon: To plot a cumulative frequency distribution, scale
the upper limit of each class along the X-axis and the corresponding cumulative
frequencies along the Y-axis.

Example: To find the variate value below which half the cars sold, we draw a horizontal
line from the (50%) mark on the right-hand vertical axis over to the polygon, then drop
down to the X-axis and read the selling price which is about 22.5, so we estimate that 50
percent of the vehicles sold for less than $22500

Lecture 1-page-15