4 – Structural Design Formulae Beams in Torsion

When a plastic part is subjected to a twisting moment, it

is considered to have failed when the shear strength of the
Short Term Loads part is exceeded.
Mr
The basic formula for torsional stress is:  = T
K
If a plastic part is subjected to a load for only a short time
(10-20 minutes) and the part is not stressed beyond its where:
elastic limit, then classical design formulae found in engi-  = Shear stress (MPa)
neering texts as reprinted here can be used with sufficient
accuracy. These formulae are based on Hooke’s Law MT = Twisting Moment (N · mm)
which states that in the elastic region the part will recover r = Distance to centre of rotation (mm)
to its original shape after stressing, and that stress is pro- K = Torsional Constant (mm4)
portional to strain.
Formulae for sections in torsion are given in Table 4.03.
Tensile Stress – Short Term To determine , angle of twist of the part whose length
Hooke’s law is expressed as: is l, the equation shown below is used:
  = T
M l
 = KG
E
where: where:
l
 = strain (%/100) =  = angle of twist (radians)
l
F
 = stress (MPa), defined as  = K = Torsional Constant (mm4)
A
 = modulus of elasticity (MPa) l = length of member (mm)
G = modulus in shear (MPa)
F = total force (N)
A = total area (mm2) To approximate G, the shear modulus, use the equation,
l = length of member (mm) E
G = (for isotropic materials)
l = elongation (mm) 2 (1+)
where:
Bending Stress E = Modulus (MPa)
In bending, the maximum stress is calculated from:  = Poisson’s Ratio; generally for plastics:
My M E < 500 :  = 0,45
b = =
I Z 500 < E < 2500 :  = 0,40
where: E > 2500 :  = 0,35
b = bending stress (MPa) Tubing and Pressure Vessels
M = bending moment (Nmm) Internal pressure in a tube, pipe or pressure vessel creates
I = moment of inertia (mm4) three (3) types of stresses in the part: Hoop, meridional
and radial. See Table 4.04.
y = distance from neutral axis to extreme outer
fibre (mm) Buckling of Columns, Rings and Arches
Z = yI = section modulus (mm3) The stress level of a short column in compression is
calculated from the equation,
The I and y values for some typical cross-sections are
shown in Table 4.01. c = F
A
Beams The mode of failure in short columns is compressive
Various beam loading conditions are shown in Table 4.02. failure by crushing. As the length of the column
increases, however, this simple equation becomes
invalid as the column approaches a buckling mode
of failure. To determine if buckling will be a factor,
consider a thin column of length l, having frictionless
rounded ends and loaded by force F. As F increases, the
column will shorten in accordance with Hooke’s Law.
F can be increased until a critical value of FC is reached.

21
Any load above FC will cause the column to buckle. according:
In equation form:
σy
2 E t I
FC =
l 2
In this formula, which is called the Euler Formula for σx
τxy
round ended columns:
Et = Tangent modulus at stress C τxy
I = moment of inertia of cross section. σx ϕ

A safety factor of 3 to 4 should be applied.

Thus, if the value for FC is less than the allowable σy
load under pure compression, the buckling formula
should be used.
If the end conditions are altered from the round ends, as Another well known criterium is that of “Tresca”:
is the case with most plastic parts, then the critical load eq, Tresca = 1 – 2
is also altered. See Table 4.05 for additional end effect with: 1 = maximum principal stress
conditions for columns. 2 = minimum principal stress (≤ 0)

Flat Plates Principal stresses are normal stresses at a given location,

Flat plates are another standard shape found in plastic part whereby the cross-sectional plane is rotated in such a way
design. Their analysis can be useful in the design of such that the shear stress xy = 0, see Figure above.
products as pump housings and valves.
The equivalent stress should be less than the yield strength
A few of the most commonly used geometrics are shown
at design conditions, as measured on test specimen; whereby
in Table 4.06.
application dependant safety factors must be considered.
Arbitrary Structures eq ≤ all = yield /S
A lot of injection moulded parts have a shape which
with: S = Safety factor (≥ 1).
cannot be compared with one of the structures from
Suggested for static loads: S = 1,5–2,0.
Tables 4.01 to 4.06.
Deformations of, and stresses in these parts, can be Brittle Materials
analysed by using the Finite Element method. For brittle materials (B < 5%) also the following condi-
tions should be satisfied:
For recommended material properties, mesh to be used,
simulation of loads and boundary conditions, and assess- B E
eq ≤
ment of results, DuPont’s Engineering Polymers Techni- S × SCF
cal Service can provide assistance.
with: B = elongation at break (%/100)
Equivalent Stress / Allowable Stress E = modulus of elasticity
S = safety factor (≥ 1)
Tensile and bending stresses are always pependicular
SCF = stress concentration factor (≥ 1):
(normal) to a considered cross section, while shear stresses
normal design = SCF = 3,0
act in the cross-sectional plane. At a given location there
nicely filleted = SCF = 2,0
are often multiple stress components acting at the same
sharp corners = SCF = 4,0 – 6,0
time. To express the “danger” of such a multiaxial stress
state by only one number, “equivalent stresses” are used.
A widely known formula to calculate the equivalent Modulus for Isotropic Materials
stress in isotropic materials is the “Von Mises” criterium
(two-dimensional): For the analyses of deformations, stresses and allowable
loads, the modulus of elasticity is required input. Values
for most DuPont engineering polymers can be found in
eq, VonMises =
 2 +  2 – 
x y x y + 3xy CAMPUS, which database can be down-loaded for free
via Internet. One should however not forget that the values
given in CAMPUS are measured according ISO standards,
with: x, y: normal stress which standards may not be comparable with the practical
situation, for instance with respect to applied load, load
xy: shear stress
duration and orientation of glass fibres in case of glass-
fibre reinforced materials.
22
The following guidelines should lead to more precise
results when analyses are carried out with isotropic
material properties:
– Static analysis,
use stress-strain curve at design temperature,
– non reinforced materials:
use appearant modulus at 1% strain.
– reinforced materials:
define appearant modulus at 0,5% strain,
use 90% of appearant modulus for highly oriented
fibres;
use 80% of appearant modulus for good oriented
fibres;
use 50% of appearant modulus for poorly oriented
fibres.
The appearant modulus is defined by the slope of the
line, connecting the origin off the stress-strain curve
with a point at a given strain:
Eapp = σ0 /ε0, see also Fig 4.01.
For polyamides the stress-strain curves at 50 RH
(conditioned) should be selected.
Corrections for creep are applicable for load durations
longer than 0,5 hour, see also paragraph “Long Term
Loads”. Then, instead of the standard stress-strain curve,
an isochronous stress strain-curve at the design tem-
perature and for the applicable time should be used.
– Dynamic analysis,
use Dynamic Mechanical Analyser measurements,
– non reinforced materials:
use value at design temperature.
– reinforced materials:
use 85 % of value at design temperature.
Orthotropic Materials
Glass fibre reinforced plastics have properties (modulus of
elasticity, coefficient of linear thermal expansion, tensile
strength), which are significantly different for in-flow and
transverse to flow directions. Analyses with orthotropic
(anisotropic) materials is in general only possible with the
finite element method. In this approach, a flow analysis is
included to calculate the material orientations of the ele-
ments. Formulae to calculate the equivalent stresses in
othotropic materials exist, but are complicated. A more
simple (but still good enough) approach is to adjust the
allowable stress (tensile / S), to a value applicable for the
given orientation.
Other Loads
Fatigue Resistance
When materials are stressed cyclically they tend to fail
at levels of stress below their ultimate tensile strength.
The phenomenon is termed ‘‘fatigue failure’’.
Fatigue resistance data (in air) for injection moulded
material samples are shown in the product modules.
These data were obtained by stressing the samples at a
constant level at 1800 cpm and observing the number of
cycles to failure at each testing load on a Sonntag-Univer-
sal testing machine.
Experiment has shown that the frequency of loading
has no effect on the number of cycles to failure at a given
level of stress, below frequencies of 1800 cpm.
However, it is probable that at higher frequencies internal
generation of heat within the specimen may cause more
rapid failure.
Impact Resistance
End-use applications of materials can be divided into two
categories.
– Applications where the part must withstand impact
loadings on only a few occasions during its life.
– Applications where the part must withstand repeated
impact loadings throughout its life.
Materials considered to have good impact strength vary
widely in their ability to withstand repeated impact.
Where an application subject to repeated impact is
involved, the designer should seek specific data before
making a material selection. Such data can be found in the
product modules for DELRIN® resin and ZYTEL® resin,
both of which demonstrate excellent resistance to repeated
impact.
The energy of an impact must either be absorbed or trans-
mitted by a part, otherwise mechanical failure will occur.
Two approaches can be used to increase the impact resis-
tance of a part by design:
– Increase the area of load application to reduce stress
level.
– Dissipate shock energy by designing the part to deflect
under load.
Designing flexibility into the part significantly increases
the volume over which impact energy is absorbed.
Thus the internal forces required to resist the impact are
greatly reduced.
23
It should be emphasized that structural design for impact Creep, defined as strain (%) over a period of time under
loading is usually a very complex and often empirical constant stress, can occur in tension, compression, flexure
exercice. Since there are specific formulations of or shear. It is shown on a typical stress-strain curve in
engineering materials available for impact applications, Fig. 4.01.
the designer should work around the properties of
these materials during the initial drawing stage, and
make a final selection via parts from a prototype tool initial apparant creep
which have been rigorously tested under actual end-use o o o  o t
conditions.

Thermal Expansion and Stress

Stress (), MPa

The effects of thermal expansion should not be overlooked
in designing with thermoplastics.
For unreinforced plastic materials, the thermal expansion
coefficient may be six to eight times higher than the coef-
ficient of most metals. This differential must be taken into
o t
account when the plastic part is to function in conjunction
Strain (), %
with a metal part. It need not be a problem if proper
allowances are made for clearances, fits, etc. Creep between time t and to = t – o%. The creep modulus E c for design
in creep applications at stress o and time t is the slope of the secant
from the origin to the point (o t ).
For example, if a uniform straight bar is subjected to a
temperature change T, and the ends are not constrained,
the change in length can be calculated from: Fig. 4.01 Creep
L = T ×  × L

where:
The stress required to deform a plastic material a fixed
L = change in length (mm) amount will decay with time due to the same creep
T = change in temperature (° C) phenomenon. This decay in stress with time is called
 = thermal expansion coefficient (mm/mm° C) stress relaxation.
L = original length (mm) Stress relaxation is defined as the decrease, over a given
time period, of the stress (MPa) required to maintain
If the ends are constrained, the stress developed is: constant strain. Like creep, it can occur in tension,
 = T ×  × E compression, flexure or shear. On a typical stress-strain
curve it is shown in Fig. 4.02.
where:
 = compressive stress (MPa)
E = modulus (MPa) o oo

The thermal stresses in a plate, constrained in two direc-

tions are:
 = T ×  × E / (1 – )
Stress (σ), MPa

where:  = Poissons ratio

When a plastic part is constrained by metal, the effect of t to

stress relaxation as the temperature varies must be consid-
ered, since the stiffer metal part will prevent the plastic
part from expanding or contracting, as the case may be.

o
Long Term Loads Strain (), %
Plastic materials under load will undergo an initial Relaxation between time t and to = o – t. The relaxation modulus E R for
deformation the instant the load is applied and will design in relaxation applications (e.g., press fits) at time T is the slope of
the secant from the origin to the point (t o ).
continue to deform at a slower rate with continued
application of the load. This additional deformation
with time is called ‘‘creep’’. Fig. 4.02 Relaxation

24
Laboratory experiments with injection moulded specimens Actually, ZYTEL® 101 would be a good candidate for this
have shown that for stresses below about 1⁄3 of the ultimate application as it has high impact strength in the 50% RH
tensile strength of the material at any temperature, the stabilized condition and the highest yield strength of
secant moduli in creep and relaxation at any time of load- unreinforced nylons.
ing may be considered similar for engineering purposes.
Referring to the curve, we find a hoop stress level of
Furthermore, under these conditions, the secant moduli in
19 MPa at 10 years, and this can be used as the design
creep and relaxation in tension, compression and flexure
stress. The hoop stress formula for a pressure vessel is:
are approximately equal.
Pr
A typical problem using creep data found in the properties t = × F.S.

sections is shown below:
where:
Cylinder under Pressure
t = wall thickness, mm
Example 1: A Pressure Vessel Under Long Term Loading
P = internal pressure, MPa
As previously noted, it is essential for the designer r = inside diameter, mm
to itemise the end-use requirements and environment
 = design hoop stress, MPa
of a part before attempting to determine its geometry.
This is particularly true of a pressure vessel, where F.S. = factor of safety = 3 (example)
safety is such a critical factor. In this example, we will (0,7) (9) (3)
t = = 1,0 mm
determine the side wall thickness of a gas container 19
which must meet these requirements:
The best shape to use for the ends of the cylinder is a
a) retain pressure of 0,7 MPa; hemisphere. Hemispherical ends present a design problem
b) for 10 years; if the cylinder is to stand upright. A flat end is unsatisfac-
c) at 65° C. tory, as it would buckle or rupture over a period of time.
The best solution, therefore, is to mould a hemispherical
The inside radius of the cylinder is 9 mm and the length end with an extension of the cylinder or skirt to provide
is 50 mm. Because the part will be under pressure for stability (Fig. 4.04).
a long period of time, one cannot safely use short-term
stress-strain data but should refer to creep data or, For plastic parts under long term loads, stresses, deflec-
preferably, longterm burst data from actual pressure tions, etc. are calculated using classical engineering
cylinder tests. Data typical of this sort for 66 nylons formula with data from the creep curves. The Elastic
is shown in Fig. 4.03 which plots hoop stress versus or Flexural Modulus is not used but rather the Creep
time to failure for various moisture contents at 65° C. Modulus, in equation form:

35
1 year

30

25
50% RH
Hoop Stress (MPa)

20

Saturated

15

10

0
1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000
Time (hours)

Fig. 4.03 Hoop stress vs. time to failure, ZYTEL® 101 at 50% RH and at saturation 65°C

25
  Tensile Loads
Ec =
o + c Long Term – Examples
 = stress under consideration (MPa) Determine the stress and elongation of the tubular part
o = initial strain (%/100) shown in Fig. 4.05 after 1000 hours.
c = creep strain (%/100) Material = ZYTEL® 101, 23° C, 50% RH
For the strains  in the above equation, there often can be Tensile Loading = 1350 N
written: Outside Diameter = 25 mm
  B 
o + c = + At = (1 + AtB) Wall Thickness = 1,3 mm
Eo Eo Eo
Length = 152 mm
where:
Stress = F =
Eo = apparant modulus at design conditions (MPa) A
t = time (h) 4F (4) (1350)
A, B = material constants = = 14 MPa
(Do2 – Di2) (252 – 22,42)
From Fig. 4.06 at 14 MPa and 1000 hours, the strain is 3%.
Therefore, the elongation equals:
L × L = 152 × 0,03 = 4,57 mm.
20 mm (In this example there was assumed, that the creep in
tension is equal to creep in flexure, which is not always
correct.)

F=1350 N

1,0 mm

152 mm
1,3 mm

Fig. 4.04 Design for a pressure vessel under long terme loading 25 mm

Fig. 4.05 Example of creep in tubular part

14 MPa
3
Strain (%)

2
7 MPa

3,5 MPa
0
0,001 0,01 0,1 1,0 10 100 1000 10 000
Time (hours)

Fig. 4.06 Creep in flexure of ZYTEL® 101, 23°C, 50% RH; t =  (1+ 0,65 t 0.2) / Eo ; (Eo = 1550 MPa)

26
Ribs and Strengthening Members
Ribs can be used to augment greatly the section stiffness of
simple beams. Often, thick sections can be replaced by sec-
tions of smaller cross-sectional area (such as ‘‘T’’ beams)
with significant savings in material. However, checks
should be made to ensure that acceptable design stress
levels for the material are observed.
The designer must take great care in using ribs in a moulded
part. Where they may provide the desired stiffness, it is
also possible that the ribbing will distort the part after
moulding. Therefore, they should be specified with
By drawing a circle at the intersection of the rib and wall,
a means is obtained to compare section thickness. A rib
thickness (T) equal to the wall thickness, combined with a
radius of 0,5 T, produces a circle with a diameter of 1,5 T
or 50 per cent greater thant the wall thickness. Increasing
the radius beyond 0,5 T would not significantly strength-
en the corners, but would enlarge the inscribed circle,
making the possibility of having voids in this area greater
T
T
1

caution as it is easier and cheaper to add ribs to a mould

than it is to remove them.

Ribs and strengthening members should be 1⁄2 – 2⁄3

Ø = 1,5 T rr =
= 0,5
1,5 TT
as thick as the walls they reinforce and deep ribs may
require 1⁄4 – 1⁄2° of taper for easy ejection from the mould
(see Table 3.01). The reasons for using a thinner wall for
the ribs are two: to minimize sink marks in the exterior T

surface caused by increased shrinkage at the intersection

of rib and wall; and to prevent part distortion which
again could be caused by the heavier section of the
intersection. Figure 4.07 illustrates this effect. Fig. 4.07 Rib dimensions

1,0 1,00

0,9 0,99 = VB 1,40

VA 0,98
0,97
0,8
0,96 1,45
0,95
0,90 1,50
0,7
tB 1,55 T
tA 0,80 tA
1,60
0,6
1,65
0,70 1,70
0,5 1,75
1,80
0,60
1,85
1,90
0,4 1,95
0,50 2,00
2,05
2,10
2,15
0,3 2,20
0 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20
tA x N
W

Fig. 4.08 Ribbed plate calculator (bidirectional)

27
than if the radius remained 0,5 T. However if the rib is
made thinner than the wall (dotted lines in Fig. 4.07) the
radius in the corners can be in proper proportion to the
new rib thickness, T1, to prevent high stress concentration
and voids at the juncture, without enlarging the diameter
of the enclosed circle.
Since ribbing is in such widespread use as a method to
improve structure and to reduce cost and weight, simplified
methods have been developed to determine the rib size and
spacing necessary to provide a specified degree of rigidity.
Most housings – tape cassettes, pressure containers,
meter shrouds, and just plain boxes – have one functional
requirement in common: the need for rigidity when
a load is applied. Since rigidity is directly proportional
to the moment of inertia of the housing cross section, it is
physically simple (though sometimes mathematically
complex) to replace a constant wall section part with a
ribbed structure with the same rigidity but less weight.
To simplify such analysis, the curve in Fig. 4.08 has
been developed to help determine the feasibility
of using a ribbed structure in a product (background,
see Table 4.01).
Bidirectional ribbing
The curve in Fig. 4.08 describes the dimensional relationship
between simple flat plates and cross-ribbed plates
(Fig. 4.09) having identical values of moment of inertia.
The base of the graph shows values from 0 to 0,2 for
the product of the non-ribbed wall thickness (tA)
and the number of ribs per mm (N) divided by the width
of the plate (W). The W value was taken as unity in
the deveopment of the curve, thus it is always one (1).
It should be noted that the rib thickness was equated to
that of the adjoining wall (tB). However, if thinner ribs
are desired to minimize sinks, their number and dimen-
sions can easily be obtained. For example, if the ribs were
2,5 mm thick and spaced 25 mm apart, ribs which are
1,25 mm thick and spaced 12,5 mm apart would provide
equivalent performance.
The left hand ordinate shows values from 0,3 to 1,0 for
the ratio of the ribbed wall thickness (tB) to the non-ribbed
wall thickness (tA). The right hand ordinate shows the
values from 1,0 to 2,2 for the ratio of the overall thickness
of the ribbed part (T) to the non-ribbed wall thickness (tA).
Ratios of the volume of the ribbed plate (VB) to the volume
of the corresponding flat plate (VA) are shown along the
curve at spacings suitable for interpolation. For any one
combination of the variables T, tB, and N, these volume
ratios will specify the minimum volume of material
necessary to provide a structure equivalent to the original
unribbed design, as shown in the following examples.
Example 1 – If there are no restrictions on the geometry
of the new cross-ribbed wall design, the curve can
be used to determine the dimension that will satisfy
a required cost reduction in part weight.
Flat Plate Ribbed Structure
Known: Present wall thickness (tA) = 4,5 mm
Required: Material reduction equals 40%
VB
or = 0,60
VA
From Fig. 4.08
(tA) (N) 0,135 ×1
= 0,135, or N = = 0,03 ribs per mm
W 4,5
or about 3 ribs per
100 mm
tB
= 0,44, or tB = (0,44) (4,5) = 2,0 mm
tA
T
= 1,875, or T = (1,875) (4,5) = about 8,5 mm
tA
Example 2 – If moulding flow of the resin limits the
redesigned wall thickness, part geometry can be calcu-
lated as follows:

tA
Known: Present wall thickness (tA) = 2,5 mm
T Required: Minimum wall thickness (tB) = 1,0 mm
tB
tB 1,0
or = = 0,4
tA 2,5

From Fig. 4.08

T
= 1,95, or T = (1,95) (2,5) = 5,0 mm
tA
W=1 W=1
(tA) (N) 0,125×1
= 0,125, or N = = 0,05 ribs per mm
W 2,5
or 1 rib per 20 mm
VB
= 0,55
Fig. 4.09 Equivalent flat plate and ribbed structure VA

28
Thus, the 1,0 mm wall design has an overall height of The resulting design has an overall height of 7,0 mm,
5,0 mm, a rib spacing of 0,05 per mm (or 1 rib every a wall thickness of about 2,0 mm and a material saving of
20 mm) and provides a 45 per cent material saving. 32 per cent. (An alternate solution obtained with a VB / VA
value of 0,90 provides a material saving of only 10 per
Example 3 – If the overall wall thickness is the limitation cent. The choice depends on the suitability of wall thick-
because of internal or exterior size of the part, other nesses and overall height.)
dimensions can be found on the curve:
Unidirectional Ribbing
Curves have been developed which compare by means of
dimensionless ratios, the geometry of flat plates and uni-
Known: Present wall thickness (tA) = 6,5 mm directional ribbed structures of equal rigidity. The thick-
ness of the unribbed wall, typically, would be based on
Required: Maximum height of ribbed wall (T) = 10,8 mm the calculations an engineer might make in substituting
T 10,8 plastic for metal in a structure that must withstand a spec-
or = = 1,66 ified loading. When the wide, rectangular cross section
tA 6,5
of that wall is analyzed, its width is divided into smaller
From Fig. 4.08 equal sections and the moment of inertia for a single
(tA) (N) 0,175 1 section is calculated and compared with that of its
= 0,175, or N = = 0,027 ribs per mm ribbed equivalent. The sum of the small section moments
W 6,5
or 1 rib per 37 mm of inertia is equal to that of the original section.
tB
= 0,56, or tB = (0,56) (6,5) = 3,65 mm
tA The nomenclature for the cross-section are shown below:
VB t
= 0,76
VA
t = T–2H tan  °
The ribbed design provides a material reduction of 24 per H
H (T + t)
cent, will use 0,027 ribs per mm (1 rib every 37 mm) and A (area) = BW +
2
will have a wall thickness of 3,65 mm. If thinner ribs are
desired for functional or appearance reasons, the same T
B
structure can be obtained by holding the product of the W
Wd = Thickness for deflection
number of ribs and the rib thickness constant. In this
example, if the rib wall thickness were cut in half to WS = Thickness for stress
Wd - Ws
1,8 mm, the number of ribs should be increased from
1 every 37 mm to 2 every 37 mm. B

Example 4 – If the number of ribs per cm is limited because To define one of the smaller sections of the whole struc-
of possible interference with internal components of the ture, the equivalent width BEQ is used.
product, or by the need to match rib spacing with an
total width of section B
adjoining structure or decorative elements, the designer BEQ = =
number of ribs N
can specify the number of ribs and then determine the other
dimensions which will provide a minimum volume. Based on the moment of inertia equations for these
sections, the thickness ratios were determined and plot-
ted. These calculations were based on a rib thickness
equal to 60 per cent of the wall thickness. The curves
Known: Present wall thickness (tA) = 4,0 mm in Figures 4.10 and 4.11 are given in terms of the wall
Required: Ribs per mm (N) = 0,04 ribs per mm or 4 ribs thickness ratio for deflection (Wd / W) or thickness ratio
per 100 mm for stress (WS / W).
Therefore, for a base (W) of unity: The abscissae are expressed in terms of the ratio of rib
(tA) (N) (4,0) (0,04) height to wall thickness (H/W). The following problems
= = 0,16
W 1 and their step by step solutions illustrate how use of the
From Fig. 4.08 curves can simplify deflection and stress calculations.
tB
= 0,5, or tB = 0,5 × 4,0 = 2,0 mm Problem 1
tA
T A 4 mm thick copper plate, fixed at one end and subject
= 1,75, or T = 1,75 × 4,0 = about 7,0 mm to a uniform loading of 320 N, is to be replaced by a plate
tA
moulded in DELRIN® acetal resin. Determine the equivalent
VB ribbed section for the new plate; dimensions, see sketch
= 0,68
VA next page.
29
Flex modulus for copper: Maximum stress at the fixed end:
EC = 105 000 MPa
FL 320 × 250
 max = = = 35,4 MPa
Flex modulus for DELRIN® acetal resin 2Z 2 × 1130
ED = 3000 MPa
Since DELRIN® acetal resin has a tensile strength value
of 69 MPa a safety factor of 2 is obtained.

Problem 2
320 N Determine deflection and stress for a structure as shown
4 mm
made of RYNITE® 530 thermoplastic polyester resin;
supported at both ends.

250 mm
100 mm 667,2 N 60
3 mm
1,8 mm

The wall thickness for a plate in DELRIN® acetal resin 18 mm

with equivalent stiffness is calculated by equating
the product of the modulus and moment of inertia of 1°
the two materials. 508 mm

EC × WC3 = ED × Wd3; or: 105000 × 43 = 3000 × Wd3

Thus: Wd = 13 mm.
Since a wall thickness of 13 mm is not ordinarily consid- Substitute the known data:
ered practical for plastic structures, primarily because of B 60 BEQ 15
processing difficulties, a ribbed section is recommended. BEQ = = = 15 = =5
N 4 W 3
Therefore, assume a more reasonable wall of 3 mm,
and compute for a plate with nine equally spaced ribs, rib H = 18 – 3 = 15 H = 15 = 5
height, deflection and stress. W 3
W 13
D
From the graphs
= = 4,33
W 3
W
W = 3,6 × 3 = 10,8
d

B 100 BEQ 11,1 = 3,6 d

BEQ = = = 11,1 = = 3,7 W

N 9 W 3
W
W = 2,25 × 3 = 6,75 mm
S

From the deflection graph (Fig. 4.10) we obtain: = 2,25 S

W
H
H = 5,7 × 3 = 17,1 mm
I = BWd = 60 ×10,8 = 6300 mm4
= 5,7 3 3
W
12 12
From the stress graph (Fig. 4.11) for H = 5,7 and
Z = BWs = 60 × 6,75 = 455 mm3
2 2
W
6 6
BEQ
= 3,7 we obtain:
 max = 5 × FL = 5 × 667,2 × 508 = 20 mm
W 3 3

W 384 EI 384 × 9000 × 6300

W = 2,75 × 3 mm = 8,25 mm
S
= 2,75
 max = FL = 667,2 × 508 = 93 MPa
S

W
Determine the moment of inertia and section modulus for 8Z 8 × 455
the ribbed area, equal to that of the solid plastic plate: Since RYNITE® 530 has a tensile strength value of 158 MPa,
W 3 100 × 133
D
there will be a safety factor of approximately 1,7, assuming
I=B = = 18 300 mm4 the gate position is such, that can be counted on “in-flow”
12 12
properties.
BW 2S 100 × 8,25 2
Z= = = 1130 mm 3
6 6
Maximum deflection at the free end: Remark: Ribs having a height exceeding 5 times their
FL3 320 × 250 3 thickness and subject to higher compression stresses,
 max = = = 11,4 mm
8 EI 8 × 3000 × 18 300 should be checked on danger for buckling (instability).

30
 10
0,62

9
1,0

8 1,25

1,87
7 2,5

3,75
Wall thickness ratio

6 5,0
6,25
7,5

BEQ
5

W
10,0
12,5
15,0
20,0
Wd

4
W

25
37,5
50
3
75

150
2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
H
Height of rib ratio
W
1° R

0,03R H

0,6 W
B

Wd

Fig. 4.10 Deflection curves

The computer programmed curves in this graph above, plotted for rib thicknesses equal to 60 per cent of wall thickness,
are presented as an aid in calculating maximum deflection of a ribbed structure.
(For other rib thicknesses, use formulae of Tables 4.01 and 4.02).

31
 10

0,62
8

7 1,0

1,25
Wall thickness ratio

1,87

BEQ
5

W
2,5
Ws

4
W

3,75
5,0
6,25
3 7,5
10,0
12,5
2 15,0
20,0
25
37
50
1 75
150

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
H
Height of rib ratio
W
1° R

0,03R H

0,6 W
B

Ws

Fig. 4.11 Stress curves

The computer programmed curves in this graph above, plotted for rib thickness equal to 60 per cent of wall thickness,
are presented as an aid in calculating the maximum stress tolerance of a ribbed structure.

32
Structural Design Formulae
Table 4.01 Properties of Sections

Form of section Area A Distance from Moments of inertia I1 and I2 Radii of gyration r1 and r2
centroid to extremities about principal about principal
of section y1, y2 central axis 1 and 2 central axes

b
 y1 A = bh y1 = y2 = h cos  + b sin  I1 = bh (h2 cos2  + b2 sin2 ) r1 = (h2 cos2  + b2 sin2 )
2 12 12
y2
h

2 3
b B b A = BH + bh y1 = y2 = H I1 = BH + bh r1 = BH3 + bh3
2 2 2 12 12 (BH + bh)
H
h

B B
B 2 2
b b y1
H

H
h

y2
h

3 3
B A = BH – bh y1 = y2 = H I1 = BH – bh r1 = BH3 – bh3
2 12 12 (BH – bh)
h

y1
b
h

h
H

b 2 b
2 y2

B B

b
A = bd1 + Bd y1 = H – y2 I1 = 1
(By23 – B1h3 + by31 – b1h31) r1 =

I
h h 1 d1

y1 3
B1
b + a(H – d – d1) y2 = (Bd + bd1) + a(h + h1)
2
H

2
y2 1 aH2 + B1d2 + b1d1 (2H – d1)
2 aH + B1d + b1d1
d

B B1
2

a
A=
Bh – b(H – d)
y1 = H – y2
2
y2 = aH + bd
2
I1 = 1
3 (By23 – bh3 + ay31 ) r1 =

I
Bd + a(H – d)
y1 b b 2(aH + bd)
h

2 2
y2
d

B
a a
a 2 2
y
b b
H

H
h

y
d

B B

a A = a2 y1 = y2 = 21 a 1
I1 = I2 = I3 = 12 a4 r1 = r2 = r3 = 0.289a
y1
a 1 1
y2

y1
A = bd y1 = y2 = 21 d I1 = 1 bd3 r1 0.289d
d 1 1 12
y2

33
 Form of section Area A Distance from Moments of inertia I1 and I2 Radii of gyration r1 and r2
centroid to extremities about principal about principal
of section y1, y2 central axis 1 and 2 central axes

y1 = 2 d I1 = 1 bd 3 r1 = 0.2358d
y1 A = 1 bd
d 2 3 36
1 1
y2
y2 = 1 d
b 3

b 3 2 2
A = 1 (B + b)d y1 = d 2B + b I1 = d (B + 4Bb + b ) r1 =
3(B + b) 36(B + b)

y1 2 d
d 2(B 2 + 4Bb + b 2)
y2 = d B + 2b 6(B + b)
1 1
y2
3(B + b)
B

A = R2 y1 = y2 = R I = 1 R4 r= 1 R
R 4 2
R

R R0
2
A = (R 2 – R 0 ) y1 = y2 – R I = 14 (R 4 – R 40 ) r=
1
4
(R 2 + R 20)
1 1
R R0

y1 = 0.5756R I1 = 0.1098R 4 r1 = 0.2643R

2 A = 1 R2
2
I2 = 1 R 4
y1 1R
R 1 y2 1 y2 = 0.4244R r2 =
8 2
2

2
A =  R2

y1 = R 1 – 2 sin 
3  
I1 = 1 R4  + sin  cos 
4
r1 =

R 1

1
y1
y2 y2 = 2R sin 
3
– 16 sin2 
9 
1R
2
1 + sin  cos 

16 sin2 
92

1 – sin  cos 
2
I2 = 1 R 4  – sin  cos  r2 = 1 R
4 2 

(1)
 4 sin3 
  1 + 2 sin  cos 
4 3
2 A = 1 R 2 (2 y1 = R 1 – I1 = R  + sin  cos  r2 = 1 R
y1
2 6 – 3 sin 2 4 2  – sin  cos 
1 1
– sin 2)
R   y2 + 2 sin3  cos  64 sin6 
–
2
y2 = R  4 sin3  – cos 
6 – 3 sin 2  – 16 sin6 
9( – sin  cos  
9(2 – sin 2)2

4
I2 = R 3 – 3 sin  cos 
r2 = 1 R
2
1– 2 sin3  cos 
3( – sin  cos )
12
– 2 sin3  cos 

(2)
A = 2 Rt y1 = y2 = R I = R3 t r = 0.707R
R

R
t

Thin wall (3)

t 2 y1
A =  (2 R-t) t

y1 = R 1 – sin  + t
 2  
I1 =R 3 t  + sin  cos  r1 =
1 1

R  
– 2 sin2 
 +  Rt6  + sin  cos  – 2 sin2 /
y2 3
R
2
 
y2 = 2R sin  – cos   + t cos 
2
 2

(for thick wall:

see “Roark & Young
I2 =R 3 t ( – sin  cos )
r2 = R
 – sin  cos 
2

(1) Circular sector

(2) Very thin annulus
(3) Sector of thin annulus

34
Table 4.02 Shear, Moment, and Deflection Formulae for Beams; Reaction Formulae for Rigid Frames
Notation: W = load (N); w = unit load (N/linear mm); M is positive when clockwise; V is positive when upward; y is positive when upward.
Constraining moments, applied couples, loads, and reactions are positive when acting as shown. All forces are in N, all moments in N · mm;
all deflections and dimensions in mm.  is in radians, I = moment of inertia of beam cross section (mm4).

Loading, support Reactions R1 and R2, Bending moment M Deflection y, maximum deflection,
and reference vertical shear V and maximum bending and end slope 
number moment

Cantilever end load R2 = + W M = –Wx y = 1 W (x3 – 3l 2

x + 2l 3)
Max M = –Wl at B 6 El
V=–W
Y
W x
3
O y  B
X Max y = – 1 Wl at A
A 3 El
l
2
 = + 1 Wl at A
2 El

(A to B) M = 0
Cantilever, R2 = + W (A to B) y = – 1 W (–a 3 + 3a 2l – 3a 2x)
intermediate load (B to C) M = –W(x – b) 6 El
(A to B) V=0
(B to C) V=–W Max M = –Wa at C
(B to C) y=– 1 W (x – b) 3 – 3a 2 (x – b) + 2a 3
b a 6 El
Y W
O
B
C
X
Max y = – 1 W (3a 2l – a3)
A 6 El
l

2
 = + 1 Wa (A to B)
2 El

Cantilever, y = – 1 W (x 4 – 4l
R2 = + W M = – 1 W x2 3
x + 3l 4)
uniform load 2 l 24 Ell
V=–W x
l
Max M = – 1 Wl at B 3
Y W = wl
2 Max y = – 1 Wl
8 El
O
X
B 2
A
l  = + 1 Wl at A
6 El

Cantilever, R2 = 0 M = M0 y = 1 M0 (l 2
– 2l x + x 2)
end couple V=0 Max M = M0 (A to B) 2 El

2
Y M0 Max y = + 1 M0 l at A
A 2 El
B
O X
=– M 0l
at A
l El

Cantilever, R2 = 0 (A to B) M=0 (A to B)
intermediate couple
l – 21 a – x
V=0 (B to C) M = M0
y = M0a
a
Max M = M0 (B to C) El
Y
A M0
B C
O X (B to C)
l
y = 1 M0 (x – l + a)2 – 2a (x – l + a) + a 2
2 El

El 
Max y = M0a l – 1 a
2  at A

 = – M0a (A to B)
El

R1 = + 1 W (A to B) M = + 1 Wx
End supports, 2 2 (A to B) y = – 1 W (3l 2
x – 4x3)
center load 48 El
R2 = + 1 W (B to C) M = + 1 W (l – x) 3
2
Y l 2 Max y = – 1 Wl at B
A W 2 C 48 El
O
(A to B) V=+1 W Max M = + 1 Wl at B
X 2 4 2
l B
 = – 1 Wl at A,
(B to C) V=– 1 W 16 El
2
2
 = + 1 Wl at C
16 El

35
 Loading, support Reactions R1 and R2, Bending moment M Deflection y, maximum deflection,
and reference vertical shear V and maximum bending and end slope 
number moment

 
2
End supports, R1 = + 1 W M=1 W x– x y = – 1 Wx (l 3
– 2l x 2 + x 3)
uniform load 2 2 l 24 Ell

3
Y
w
W=wl R2 = + 1 W Max M = + 1 Wl Max y = – 5 Wl at x = 1 l
A B 2 8 384 El 2
at x = 1 l
X
O
2
 
l 2 2
V = 1 W 1 – 2x  = – 1 Wl at A;  = + 1 Wl at B
2 l 24 El 24 El

End supports,
R1 = + W b (A to B) M = + W b x (A to B) y = – Wbx 2l (l – x) – b2 – (l – x)2
intermediate load l l 6Ell
R2 = + W a
l (B to C) M = + W a (l – x) (B to C) y = – Wa (l – x) 2l b – b2 – (l – x)2
Y a b l 6Ell
W (A to B) V = + W b
A C l
O B
X
(B to C) V = – W a
Max M = + W ab at B Max y = – Wab (a + 2b)
27Ell

3a (a + 2b)
l l
l

at x =
1 a (a + 2b) when a > b
3

 
3
 = – 1 W bl – b at A;
6 El l

 
3
 = + 1 W 2bl + b – 3b2 at C;
6 El l

3x 
3
End supports, R1 = – M0 M = M0 + R1x y = – 1 M0 2
– x – 2l x
end couple l Max M = M0 at A 6 El l
R1 = + M0
Y l
2
Max y = 0.0642 M0 l
M0
A B V = R1 at x = 0.422l
X El
O
l

 = – 1 M0 l at A;  = + 1 M0 l at B
3 El 6 El

One end fixed, R1 = 5 W (A to B)

one end supported. 16 (A to B) y= 1 W (5x 3 – 3l 2 x)
M = 5 Wx 96 El
   
Center load R2 = 11 W 16 3
16 (B to C) (B to C) y= 1 W 5x 3 – 16 x – l – 3l 2 x
(4) 96 El 2
Y
A
l
2
W
C M2
M2 = 3 Wl
16 
M = W 1 l –11 x
2 16  Max y = – 0.00932 Wl
3
at x = 0.4472l
X
O (A to B) V=+5 W Max +M = 5 Wl at B El
l B 16 32 2

(B to C) V = – 11 W Max –M = – 3 Wl at C  = – 1 Wl at A
16 16 32 El

3a ll – a 
2 3
One end fixed, R1 = 1 W 3
(A to B) M = R1x
(A to B) y = 1 R1 (x3 – 3l 2x) + 3Wa2x
one end supported. 2 (B to C) 6El
Intermediate load R2 = W – R1 (B to C)
M = R1x – W(x – l + a)
y = 1 R1 (x3 – 3l 2x) + W 3a2x – (x – b)3
 
(4)
Y b W a
M2 = 1 W a3 + 2al 2 – 3a2l Max + M = R1(l – a) at B; 6El
A C M2
X
2 l 2 Max. possible value
O B
(A to B) V = + R1 if a < 0.586l, max y is between A and B at:
l = 0.174 Wl
(B to C) V = R1 – W when a = 0.634l
Max – M = – M2 at C;
x=l
1– 2l
3l – a
Max. possible value 2
+ b2)
if a > 0.586l, max is at: x = l (l 2
= – 0.1927Wl 3l – b2
3
when a = 0.4227l if a > 0.586l, max y is at B and x = – 0.0098 Wl ,
El
max possible deflection

al 
3
= 1 W – a2 at A
4 El

(4) M2 = Constraining Moment

36
 Loading, support Reactions R1 and R2, Bending moment M and Deflection y, maximum deflection,
and reference constraining moments maximum positive and negative and end slope 
number M1 and M2 bending moment
and vertical shear V

 38 x – 21 xl 
2
One end fixed, R1 = 3 W M=W y = – 1 W (3l x 3 – 2x 4 + l 3x)
one end supported. 8 48 Ell
Uniform load. 3
R2 = 5 W Max + M = 9 Wl at x = 3 l Max y = – 0.0054 Wl at x = 0.4215l
8 128 8 El
Y W = wl 2
1 Wl
w
A B M2 = 1 Wl Max – M = – at B  = – 1 Wl at A
X 8 8 24 El
O M2
l V=W 3–x
8 l 

   
3
One end fixed, R1 = – 3 M0 M = 1 M0 2 – 3 x y = 1 M0 2x 2 – x – x l
one end supported. 2 l 2 l 4 El l
End couple. 2
R2 = + 3 M0 Max + M = M0 at A Max y = – 1 M0 l at x = 1 l
Y 2 l 27 El 3
M0 M2
A B
X M2 = 1 M0 Max – M = 1 M0 at B  = – 1 M0 l at A
O 2 2 4 El
l
V = – 3 M0
2 l

 
2 – a2
R1 = – 3 M0 l 2 (A to B) M = R1x (A to B)
 
One end fixed, 2 l 2 2
one end supported.
l (B to C) M = R1x + M0 y = M0 l –3a (3l 2x – x3) – (l – a)x
El 4l
 
2 – a2
R2 = + 3 M0 l 2
Intermediate couple.
 
2 2
2 l l Max + M = M0 1 – 3a(l 3 – a )
2l (B to C)
1 – 3 l 
Y
M2 = 1 M0 a2
 
a at B (to right) 2 2
A
M0
C
M2
2 2 y = M0 l –3a (3l 2x – x3) – l x + 1 (x 2 + a 2)
O
X
Max – M = –M2 at C El 4l 2
B
(A to B) V = R1
l (when a < 0.275 l )
 
2
(B to C) V = R1
Max – M = R1a at B (to left)  = M0 a – 1 l – 3 a at A
El 4 4 l
(when a > 0.275 l )

Both ends fixed. R1 = 1 W (A to B) M = 1 W (4x – l ) (A to B) y = – 1 W (3l x 2 – 4x 3)

Center load. 2 8 48 El
Y l W R2 = 1 W (B to C) M = 1 W (3l – 4x) Max y = – 1 W l
3
at B
M1 A C M2 2 8 192 El
2 X
O B M1 = 1 Wl Max + M = 1 Wl at B
l 8 8
M2 = 1 Wl Max – M = – 1 Wl at A and C
8 8
(A to B) V=+1 W
2
(B to C) V=– 1 W
2

37
 Loading, support Reactions R1 and R2, Bending moment M and Deflection y, maximum deflection,
and reference constraining moments maximum positive and negative and end slope 
number M1 and M2 bending moment
and vertical shear V

2
Both ends fixed. R1 = Wb3 (3a + b) (A to B)
2
(A to B)
Intermediate couple. l M = – W ab2 + R1x 2 2
2 l y = 1 Wb x3 (3ax + bx – 3a l )
6 Ell
R2 = Wa3 (3b + a)
l (B to C)
2 (B to C)
M = – W ab2 + R1x – W (x – a)
Y a b 2
M1 = W ab2
2 2
M1 A W C M2
l l y = 1 Wa (l –3 x) (3b + a) (l – x) – 3bl 
O
X 6 Ell
B 2 2
l M2 = W a b Max + M = – W ab2 + R1 at B;
l 2 l
Max y = – 2 W a 3b 2
3 El (3a + b)2
(A to B) V = R1 max possible value = 1 Wl
8
(B to C) V = R1 – W
when a = 1 l at x = 2a l if a > b
2 3a + b
Max – M = – M1 when a < b;
max possible value = –0.1481 Wl
when a = 1 l Max y = – 2 W a 2b 3
3 3 El (3b + a)2
Max – M = – M2 when a > b;
max possible value = –0.1481 Wl
2bl
when a = 2 l at x = l – if a < b
3 3b + a

x – xl 
2 2
Both ends fixed. R1 = 1 W M=1 W –1l y = 1 Wx (2l x – l 2
– x 2)
Uniform load. 2 2 6 24 Ell
3
R2 = 1 W Max + M = 1 Wl at x = 1 l Max y = – 1 Wl at x = 1 l
2 384 EI 2
Y W = wl 24 2
M1 M2 M1 = 1 Wl
X 12 Max – M = – 1 Wl at A and B
O A B 12
l M2 = 1 Wl
12


V = 1 W 1 – 2x
2 l 
Both ends fixed. M0 (A to B) M = – M1 + R1x (A to B)
R1 = – 6 (al – a2)
Intermediate couple. l 3 (B to C) M = – M1 + R1x + M0 y = – 1 (3M1x 2 – R1x 3)
M0 6El
R2 = 6 (al – a2)
 
2 3
l 3 Max + M = M0 4 a – 9 a 2 + 6 a 3 – 1 (B to C)
Y a
M1 A M0 C M2
M l l l
X
M1 = – 20 (4l a – 3a2 – l 2)
l y = 1 (M0 – M1) (3x 2 – 6l x + 3l 2)
O B 6El
M just right of B – R1 (3l 2x – x 3 – 2l 3)
l M2 = 20 (2l a – 3a2)
l
V = R1 2M1 1
 
2 3
Max + M = M0 4 a – 9 a 2 + 6 a 3 Max – y at x =
R1
if a >
3
l
l l l
2M2 2
just left of B Max – y at x = l – if a < l
R2 3

38
Table 4.03 Formulae for Torsional Deformation and Stress
ML M
General formulae:  = T ,  = T , where  = angle of twist (rad); MT = twisting moment (N · mm);
KG Q
l = length (mm);  = unit shear stress (MPa); G = shear modulus (MPa); K (mm4) is a function of the cross section.

MT l
Form an dimensions of cross sections Formula for K in  = Formula for shear stress
KG

Solid circular section 2MT

K = 1 r 4 Max  = at boundary
2 r3

2r

Solid elliptical section 2MT

K = a
3 3
b Max  = at ends
a2 + b2 ab 2
for minor axis
2b

2a

Solid square section K = 0.1406a 4 MT

Max  = at mid-point
0.208a 3
of each side
a

Solid rectangular section MT (1.8a + 3.0b)

   Max  = at mid-point
4
K = a3b 1 – 0.28 a 1 – a 4 a 2b 2
3 b 12b
of longer edges
a

(b ≥ a)
b

Hollow concentric circular section K = 1 (r 2MT r1

4
1 – r 04 ) Max  = at outer boundary
2 (r41 – r04)

r1
r0

Any thin open tube of uniform thickness K = 1 Ut 3 Max  =

MT (3U + 1.8t)
, along both edges
U = length of median line, shown dotted 2 U2t 2
remote from ends (this assumes t small compared
t
with least radius of curvatore of median line)

39
Table 4.04 Formulae for Stresses and Deformations in Pressure Vessels
Notation for thin vessels: p = unit pressure (MPa); σ1 = meridional membrane stress, positive when tensile (MPa); σ2 = hoop membrane stress,
positive when tensile (MPa); τs = shear stress (MPa); R = mean radius of circumference (mm); t = wall thickness (mm); E = modulus of elasticity
(MPa); v = Poisson's ratio.
Notation for thick vessels: σ1 = meridional wall stress, positive when acting as shown (MPa); σ2 = hoop wall stress, positive when acting as
shown (MPa); σ3 = radial wall stress, positive when acting as shown (MPa); a = inner radius of vessel (mm); b = outer radius of vessel (mm);
r = radius from axis to point where stress is to be found (mm); ∆a = change in inner radius due to pressure, positive when representing an
increase (mm); ∆b = change in outer radius due to pressure, positive when representing an increase (mm). Other notation same as that used
for thin vessels.

Form of vessel Manner of loding Formulas

Thin vessels – membrane stresses 1 (meridional) and 2 (hoop)

Cylindrical Uniform internal pR

1 =
(or external) 2t
pressure p, MPa pR
t 2 =
2 t
1 R

Radial displacement = R (2 – v1).

E

  
t y
External collapsing pressure p =
R y R 2
1+4
E t

Internal bursting pressure pu = 2 u t

R

Here u = ultimate tensile strength,

where y = compressive yield point of material. This formula is for nonelastic

pR
failure, and holds only when > proportional limit.
t

Spherical Uniform internal 1 = 2 = pR

t (or external) 2t
2 R pressure p, MPa 1
Radial displacement = (1 – v ) R
1 E

Thick vessels – membrane stresses σ1 (meridional), σ2 (hoop) and σ3 (radial)

Torus Complete torus

r a b
under uniform internal
pressure p, MPa
1 =
pb
t 1 2r+ a
O
Max 1 =
pb
t  2a2a––2bb  at 0

1
pR
t
2 = (uniform throughout)
2t

40
 Form of vessel Manner of loding Formulas

Thick vessels – wall stress 1 (longitudinal), 2 (circumferential) and 3 (radial)

Cilindrical 1. Uniform internal radial 1 = 0

pressure p MPa
(longitudinal pressure zero a 2 (b 2 + r 2) b 2 + a2
2 = p • Max 2 = p at inner surface
or externally balanced) r 2 (b 2 – a 2) b2 – a2
σ2 r
σ1 a a 2 (b 2 – r 2)
σ3
3 = – p • Max 3 = – p at inner surface
b
r 2 (b 2 – a 2)

b2
Max  = p at inner surface
b2 – a2

 bb +– aa 
2 2
a = p a 2 2
+v ;
E

 b 2a– a 
2
b = p b 2 2
E

2. Uniform external radial 1 = 0

pressure p MPa
2 2 2 2
2 = – p a2 (b2 + r2 ) • Max 2 = – p 22b 2 at inner surface
r (b – a ) b –a
2 2 2
3 = – p b2 (r 2 – a 2) • Max 3 = – p at outer surface;
r (b – a )

1
Max  = max 2 at inner surface
2

 b 2b– a ;
2
a = – p a 2 2
E

 
2 2
b = – p b a 2 + b2 – v
E b –a

3. Uniform internal pressure p a2

MPa in all directions 1 = p , 2 and 3 same as for Case 1.
b2 – a2
(ends capped)

  b a– a  ;
2 2 2
a = p a b 2 + a2 – v 2 2
–1
E b –a

 b a– a 
2
b
b = p 2 2
(2 – v)
E

Spherical Uniform internal pressure p a 3 (b 3 + 2r 3) b 3 + 2a 3

MPa 1 = 2 = p • Max 1 = max 2 = p at inner surface
2r 3 (b 3 – a 3) 2(b 3 – a 3)
σ2 r
σ1
a a 3 (b 3 – r 3)
σ3 3 = – p • Max 3 = – p at inner surface;
b r 3 (b 3 – a 3)

3b 3
Max  = p at inner surface
4 (b 3 – a 3)

2b(b+ –2aa )(1 – v ) + v;

3 3
a = p a 3 3
E

2 (b3a– a ) (1 – v )
3
b = p b 3 3
E

 1 – ba 
3
2y
Yield pressure py = 3
3

Uniform external pressure p b 3 (a 3 + 2r 3) 3b 3

MPa 1 = 2 = – p • Max 1 = – max 2 = – p at inner surface
2r 3 (b 3 – a 3) 2 (b 3 – a 3)

b 3 (r 3 – a 3)
3 = – p • Max 3 = – p at outer surface;
r 3 (b 3 – a 3)

2 (b3b– a ) (1 – v );
3
a = – p a 3 3
E

2a(b+ –2ba )(1 – v ) – v 

3 3
b = – p b 3 3
E

41
Table 4.05 Buckling of Columns, Rings and Arches
E = modulus of elasticity, I = moment of inertia of cross section about central axis perpendicular to plane of buckling. All dimensions are in mm,
all forces in N, all angles in radians.

Form of bar;
Formulas for critical load Fc , or critical unit load qc
manner of loading and support

Fc = El
Uniform straight bar under end load 2

One end free, other end fixed 4l 2

l l

Fc = 2El
Uniform straight bar under end load 2

Both ends hinged l

l l

Fc = El 2
Uniform straight bar under end load 2

One end fixed, other end hinged and (0.7l )

horizontally constrained over fixed end

0,70.7l
l

0,30.3l
l

Uniform circular ring under uniform radial qc = 3 El

pressure q N•m. Mean radius of ring r. r2
q

  – 1 
Uniform circular arch under uniform radial 2
qc = El3 2
pressure q. Mean radius r. r
Ends hinged

Uniform circular arch under uniform radial

pressure q. Mean radius r. qc = El3 (k 2 – 1)
r
Ends fixed
Where k depends on  and is found by trial from the equation: k tan  cot k = 1 or from the following
q
table:
2
 = 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 120° 180°
k = 17.2 8.62 5.80 4.37 3.50 3.00 2.36 2.00

42
Table 4.06 Formulae for Flat Plates
Notation: W = total applied load (N); p = unit applied load (MPa); t = thickness of plate (mm);  = unit stress at surface of plate (MPa); y = vertical
deflection of plate from original position (mm);  = slope of plate measured from horizontal (rad); E = modulus of elasticity;  = Poisson’s ratio;
r denotes the distance from the center of a circular plate. Other dimensions and corresponding symbols are indicated on figures.
Positive sign for  indicates tension at upper surface and equal compression at lower surface; negative sign indicates reverse condition.
Positive sign for y indicates upward deflection, negative sign downward deflection. Subscripts r, t, a, and b used with  denote respectively radial
direction, tangential direction, direction of dimension a, and direction of dimension b.
All dimensions are in mm.

Manner of loading and Case No. Formulas for stress and deflection

Edges supported
Uniform load over Circular and solid
entire surface
a
W = p a2 (0 ≤ r ≤ a)
r1
Y

(3 + )  1 – ar 
2
(At r) r = – 3W2 2
8 t

(3 + ) – (1 + 3) ar 
2
t = – 3W2 2
8 t

(At center) Max r = t = – 3W2 (3 +)

8 t
3W (1 – ) (5 + ) a 2
Max y = –
16 Et3

(At edge)  = 3W (1 – 3) a

2 Et

Edges fixed
(3 + ) ar – (1 + )
2
(At r) r = 3W
Uniform load over 8 t 2 2

(3 + ) ar – (1 + )
entire surface 2
t = 3W2 2
8 t
W = p a2
(At edge) Max r = 3W ; t =  3W2
4 t 2 4 t
l
(At center) r = r = – 3W (1 2+ )
8 t
3W (1 – 2) a 2
Max y = –
16 Et 3

Uniform load over Edges supported Edges clamped

entire surface
2
At centre 0.75 a p 0.167 a 2 p
= =
 
of plate a3
t2
t 2 1 + 1.61
b3 (a=b)
a
At centre 0.50 a 2 p
=0 =
1+0.623 ab 
of edge 6
2
b t 6

4 4
0.142 a p 0.0284 a p
Max y

(b ≥ a) Et 3  a3
1+2.21 3
b  
Et 3 1+1.056
a5
b5 

43
 Manner of loading and Case No. Formulas for stress and deflection

Edges supported Equilateral triangle, solid

Distributed load
of intensity p over
entire surface

1/3a a
OO
pa 2
y Max x = 0.1488 at y = 0, x = – 0.062a
t2
pa 2
Max y = 0.1554 2 at y = 0, x = 0.129a (values for  = 0.3)
t
pa 4 (1 – 2)
Max y = at centre O.
81Et 3

Edges supported Circular sector, solid

Distributed load
of intensity p over
entire surface

a
pa 2 pa 2 pa 4

Max r = ß Max 1 = ß1 Max y = 
t2 t2 Et 2

(values for v = 0.3)

 45° 60° 90° 180°
ß 0.102 0.147 0.240 0.522
ß1 0.114 0.155 0.216 0.312
 0.0054 0.0105 0.0250 0.0870

Solid semicircular 0.42pa 2

plate, uniform load p, Max  = r in A =
t2
all edges fixed
0.36pa 2
r in B =
t2
2
0.21pa
Max t = at C
t2
A C B
CL

44