Supply PDF

TCES 104
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION SUPPLY
1
muhumuzajunior193@gmail.com. What’s app: 0759-023632
SUB-MODULE I: WORKSHOP SAFETY
Safety in an electrical workshop;
 means much more than the provision which enables persons
to use electricity without risk of shock.
 Means to prevent accidents, not necessarily of electrical
nature, must at all times be part and parcel of workshop
procedures and facilities.
Listed below are some of the DOs and DON’Ts associated with the
working conditions.
Dos
While in a working condition, always remember to do the following,
 Know the workshop procedures for evacuation in the event of
an emergency.
 Know where emergency exits are located.
 Know where telephones are located in order to contact
emergency services.
 Wash hands after accidental contact with any corrosive or
irritant sub stance.
 Always ensure that there is enough working space and
adequate levels of lighting when working, especially where
electrical equipment is present.
 Wear correct personal protective equipment for the job.
 Adopt the correct posture when lifting.
 Use the correct access equipment while at work. e.g. ladders
and should be placed at reasonable angle.
 Ensure that any machinery is mechanically and electrically
safe to work on or with.
 Report any un safe situation that you cannot remedy
personally.
 Ensure that when a job is completed, everything is put back to
normal. i.e. cleaning the work shop, cloning and storage of
tools.
 Know where first aid box is located.
2
DON’Ts
While in a working condition, do not attempt to do the following,
 Leave pools of liquid on floors, or objects lying in access ways.
 Wear loose clothing that may catch or snag, especially when
using rotating machinery.
 Work in untidy fashion.
 Misuse tools and equipment or use damaged tools.
 Attempt to lift and carry objects that are too heavy, or that
obstruct vision.
 Take short-cuts or take risks.
 Ignore warning signs or alarm bells.
 Play the fool in a working environment.
ACCIDENTS IN WORKSHOP
Definition of an accident:
An accident is defined as any un expected occurrence that may
cause injury or harm to a person.
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS IN WORKSHOPS
There are two main causes of accidents in factories and workshops.
These include;
 Carelessness
 Ignorance factor
CARELESSNESS
When any task is done often enough it becomes familiar to the point
at which boredom sets in. when this happens, original high
standards begin to slide. The result is often an accident to that
person or to an innocent fellow worker, which may or not may be
fatal.
IGNORANCE FACTOR
This does not mean lack of intelligence. Rather it means lack of
sufficient technical knowledge to perform a task efficiently and to
leave the task in a condition which is safe. Many tasks seem simple
when done by an expert. If there is lack of knowledge, a task should
be done under expert supervision.
3
WORKSHOP HAZARDS
A hazard is anything that causes a risk or harm in a working
condition. There are many occupational hazards faced by
electricians at work and these include;
 Electric shock
 Burns
 Cuts
 Falls
 Contact with chemicals and toxic fumes
ELECTRIC SHOCK
Definition of electric shock:
Electric shock is defined as a dangerous psychological effect
resulting from the passage of electric current through the
human body.
A severe electric shock will affect the nerves which control the
breathing and the action of the heart. Not everyone would have the
same level of shock from the same source, it would depend on the
variables of body resistance, his or her health. However, it is
generally accepted that 50mA (0.05A) at 230V can be lethal.
Below this level, contact with a live source throws us away from the
source and above 50mA, muscles contract or freeze and we are un
able to break contact. This also causes interruption of the hearts
rhythm by stopping its beating, burns to the body, burning of
internal organs and loss of breathing.
4
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Electricity, with the exception of extra-low voltage, is potentially
lethal. It must be treated with respect at all times and used only in
approved ways.
Many people die every year as a result of misuse of electricity. They
die as a direct result of electric shock, or as indirect result of faulty
or misused electrical equipment that causes fire.
The following important points should be remembered when
working with electricity;
 Never take it for granted that the circuit is ‘dead’. Always
check thoroughly using a test lamp or neon tester. Never
check for live by touching conductors with finger tips or
tongue.
 Never work on a live circuit. If a circuit must be worked on
while live, should be done by an experienced electrician.
 If working on a circuit to which other persons may have
access, always remove circuit fuses and have the places
locked. Notices like MEN AT WORK should be placed at
positions of isolation.
5
FIRST AID
First Aid can be defined as a temporary measure until skilled
assistance can be obtained.
As a legal requirement, every factory and workshop must have a
first-aid kit and it is very important to have some knowledge
basically for the treatment of injuries.
Basic components of a first-aid kit
A first-aid kit should at least have the following basic components;
 Sterilized clothes
 Surgical blades
 Sterilized bandage
 Spirits
 Cotton
 Tablets (pain killers) etc.
TREATMENT FOR ELECTRIC SHOCK

In the treatment of electric shock, all efforts are made to ensure the
patient’s body is working normally. Before any treatment is done, it
is of great importance to ensure the following steps;
 Isolate the contact object from power to make the circuit dead.
 If the switching control can’t easily be accessed, don’t touch
the patient using bare hands. Using a jacket, a chair, dry
wood, dry newspapers, belt, and giving him or her a kick, the
patient should be pulled away from the live contact with the
object.
 Start artificial respiration until the patient’s breathing goes
back to normal.
There are two basic methods for shock treatment to which every
practicing electrician in electrical industry must have knowledge of.
These include;
 Holger Nielsen method
 Mouth – Mouth or Kiss of life method
6
A. HOLGER NIELSEN METHOD
This method of shock treatment should be practiced when the
patients tongue has been swallowed and is not breathing. Three
firm slaps between the shoulders will bring the tongue forward.
Start the procedures as follows;
 Move forward and press down with a light pressure to drive air
from the lungs for at least one to two seconds.
 Quickly slide hands down to the patient’s elbows for a second.
 Slightly raise the elbows by moving your body backwards a
little. This will allow air into the patient’s lungs and should
take about two seconds.
 Lower elbows and slide hands to patient’s back to resume
original position in about a second.
 Repeat the above movements until the patient retains his or
her normal breathing.
 Take the patient to the hospital for further treatment as soon
as possible.
B. MOUTH-TO-MOUTH METHOD (KISS OF LIFE)

This method of shock treatment should be practiced when the
patient is still breathing. This has proved easy to apply compared to
Holger Nielsen method. The following procedures should be
practiced in order to rescue the patient’s life;
 Switch off the supply. If this is not possible, pull the causality
away from contact using insulating materials.
 Lay the patient on is back with the head held in both hands.
 Remove any obstruction from breathing such as tight clothes.
 Close the patients nose with one hand.
 Put your lips around the patient’s mouth to make an air tight
seal.
 Take a deep breath.
 Blow air steadily into the patients mouth until his chest rises.
 Remove your mouth and watch for the contraction and
expansion of the patient’s chest.
7
 Repeat the above procedures for about six times until the
patient’s breathing goes back to normal.
 Take the patient to the hospital for further treatment.
Precaution: A thin handkerchief should be placed over the patient’s
mouth or nose as a preventive measure.
Treatment for burns

 Do not remove burnt clothes from the patient.
 Immerse burnt areas in water.
 Do not apply oils or grease on burnt areas.
 Cover burns with a clean sterilized cloth.
 Arrange for medical help if burns are severe.
Treatment for cuts
 Small cuts should be washed in running water and a dressing
applied.
 More severe bleeding of deep cuts should be stopped by
applying pressure to the wound.
 Call for medical assistance.
Treatment for falls
 make the causality lie still.
 check for obvious injuries.
 if in doubt, call for medical help.
Treatment for contact with chemicals
 Wash the affected area with plenty of clean water.
 Cover the area with a dry dressing.
 Get the causality to the hospital.
8
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
PPE is designed to protect you from hazards found on or off job.
Examples include;
 Helmets/hard hats  Overall and over coats
 Goggles and safety  Gloves
glasses  Ear plugs or earmuffs
 Foot protective wears  Respirators
Hard hats or helmets. These can protect workers’ heads from
being hit by objects or coming in contact with electricity. Different
types of hard hats protect against different hazards.
Foot protective wears i.e. safety shoes, leggings and foot

guards. These will help protect workers’ from falling objects, sharp
objects, wet and slippery surfaces and electrical hazards.
Face shields, goggles and safety glasses. With side shields can
protect workers from liquids and solids that can get into their eyes.
Earplugs or earmuffs. These can help prevent

damage to hearing. Exposure to high noise levels
can cause to irreversible hearing loss as well as
physical and psychological stress.
Gloves. These can protect workers’ hands from chemicals, hot and
cold temperatures, vibration and sharp objects. Gloves must fit
properly and be the right kind of material for the job.
Full body suits i.e. overall, overcoats, reflector jackets. In some
cases, workers must protect most of all of their bodies against heat,
cold, radiation, hot metals and liquids, body fluids or hazardous
materials.
9
ELECTRICITY REGULATIONS
There are three main sets of regulations to which the electrician
must conform in order that an installation shall be safe from;
 Excess current  Mechanical damage
 Electric shock  Earth and current
 Fire outbreak leakages
 Corrosion
These are as follows

1. Electricity Special Regulations (Factory’s Act) 1908 &
1944
These regulations cover the generation, transmission, distribution
and use of electrical energy in factories and workshops.
2. The electricity supply regulations 1937
The purpose of the electricity supply regulations is to ensure the
safety of the public and for ensuring a proper and sufficient supply
of electrical energy.
Under these regulations, the supply authority under takes to supply
the consumer at a stated voltage, phase and frequency with
permissible variations.
The supply authority has the right to withhold connection or
disconnect a supply if their regulations are not adhered to.
3. Regulations for the electrical equipment of buildings (IEE
regulations)
These regulations have been devised by the wiring committee of the
Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE), to ensure the safety in the
utilization of electricity in and out of buildings.
The IEE regulations are of considerable assistance to electricians as
they largely cover the requirements of electricity supply regulations.
10
NON-STATUTORY REGULATIONS
These are a number of other widely regulations which deal with
specific aspects of installation work and equipment in certain
conditions and situations.
STATUTORY REGULATIONS
These regulations are part of the industrial law of this country and
must be compiled with or a penalty of their fine or imprisonment or
both. The main regulations are general in content being clarified
and purified which deal with specific types of installations and
installation conditions.
BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS (BSS)

The British standard institute(BSI) was formed in 1901 as the
engineering standard committee. It has the following purposes;
 To formulate National standards and Codes of practices
covering major industries in Britain and other countries.
 The BSI purposes through its various committees to set
technical specifications for testing the quality of materials,
their powerness and dimensions.
 The biggest one also draws up definition for technical terms to
ensure prices and agreed descriptions.
CODES OF PRACTICES
These are also drawn up and issued by British Standard
Institute(BSI). They have the following purposes;
 They indicate standards of good practice sand take form of
communications so far as electrical practice is concerned.
 The codes generally add up some degree of safety as indicated
by the IEE regulations.
 They go further to select the number of methods approved by
the regulations and recommend them as preferred practices.
11
GUIDING QUESTIONS
1. (a) Define the term ‘Safety’ as applied to electrical
workshop?
(b) As a practicing electrician, explain the Dos and
DON’Ts associated with the working conditions in an
electrical workshop.
2. (a) Explain any two causes of accidents in electrical
factories and associated working conditions.
(b) Electric shock being one of the occupational hazards,
it has promoted to loss of many lives in the electrical
industry. Explain the three important measures that
should be taken by any one working with electricity.
3. (a) define the term ‘First Aid’
(b) list any five components that should be contained
within a first aid kit box.
(c) Okello is a trainee at Karuma falls dam and is
reported to have been shocked by electricity and is still
breathing. Explain the best suitable method you would
use as a senior electrician to give Okello the first help
before he is taken to the hospital.
4. (a) Define the term personal protective equipment giving
at least five examples.
(b) Explain the function of each of the given examples in
4(a) above.
5. (a) explain the three main sets of regulations to which
electricians must conform with.
(b) State the purpose of the following as applied to
electrical industry
(i) British standards
(ii) Codes of practices
12
SUB-MODULE II: BASIC TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
There is virtually no job that can be done without the use of tools.
Tools ca be regarded as extensions to our arms and fingers.
Tools enable us to perform many tasks which would otherwise be
extremely difficult such as tightening up the nut using fingers
instead of with a spanner.
The good workman recognizes his or her tools as items without
which he/she cannot do a good job.
The following is a list of tools used by the electrician; a complete
basic tool kit will have the following items. These are classified as;
first fix and second fix tools.
FIRST FIX
These tools are used for chasing walls and lifting floor boards. They
include;
TOOL ITS APPLICATION
Club hammer This is for use with cold chisels and bolster.
Precautions:
 Ensure that the handle is in good
condition.
 Do not use the hammer if the head is loose.
Claw hammer This is used for driving in and out nails in joists
and floor boards.
Precautions:
 Ensure that the handle is in good
condition.
 Do not use the hammer if the head is loose.
Hand drill These are for use with metal drill and masonry
Electric drill drill.
Precaution:
 Check thoroughly for any breaks and loose
connections on the cable cords in case of
electric drill.
 Ensure that the drill bits are fitted properly
before work can begin.
13
Tenon saw These are used for cutting floor boards, plastic
Pad saw and metallic accessories and armored cables.
Hack saw Precaution:
 They must be kept sharp and greased
when not in use.
Cold chisels These are for use on brick work and concrete to
make ways for conduits, M
kay, etc.
Precaution:
 Ensure no mushrooming
 Ensure that the cutting edges are kept
sharp.
SECOND FIX TOOLS

These tools are used for fitting accessories such as socket outlets,
switches, lamp holders and so on. They include;
Screwdrivers These tools are used for fixing
(flat and star) screw nails.
Precaution:
 Do not use screwdrivers as
chisels
 The handles of screwdrivers
must be in a perfect condition
 The tips must be kept at the
correct size
 Only the correct size of the tip
should be used on the screw.
Wire cutters These are used for preparing cable
Insulation strippers ends.
Precaution:
 They should be kept clean
and sharp
14
Electrician pliers These are used for general work.
Electrician side cutters Precaution:
 Their cutting edge must be
kept sharp
Files These are used for removing sharp

edges and burrs.
Precaution:
 Always use a handle on a file
Electrician knife This is used for cutting insulation

in cables
Precaution:
 Use a well sharpened knife.
 They should be kept in a tool
box when not in use.
Measuring tape These are used for taking
measurements in electrical work.
Precaution:
 Steel tapes must not be used
near live equipment
Selection of spanners These are used for general use
Soldering iron It is used for soldering electrical

joints
15
Draw tape Used for pulling cables through
conduits
Phase tester Used for testing live circuits

Precaution:
 Moisture must be kept away
while in use
Scriber Used for marking metal

Precaution:
 The points should be kept
sharp
Center punch
Used for marking metal prior to

drilling
16
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF TOOLS
All tools should receive regular care and attention at frequent
intervals throughout their working life. This is necessary if the tools
are expected to perform their tasks efficiently.
 Tools and equipment shall be kept in a proper operating
condition and used only for the purpose for which they were
designed.
 All tools should be inspected at regular intervals, and any tool
that develops defects while in use shall be taken from service
until restored in a proper working condition.
 Hammers and similar tools shall be kept in good condition and
shall not be used if the handles are loose or cracked.
 All files, rasps and other hand tools that have a sharp tang
shall be equipped with approved handles.
 Tools not in use shall be kept away for them not create a
tripping or stumbling hazards.
 Files clogged with minute lamps of metal after filing soft metal,
should be removed using a file card- a brush made of hard
wire bristles nailed into a piece of wood.
 Mushrooming of cold chisel heads should be removed by
grinding.
GUIDING QUESTION
1. (a) List ten tools that are always contained in an electrician kit of
tools
(b) Explain the application of each of above mentioned tools in
1(a) above.
17
SUB-MODULE III: GENERATION OF POWER
SOURCES OF POPWER.
There are various sources from which power can be obtained. These
can be classified into two categories and they include;
 Renewable sources
 Non-renewable sources.
RENEWABLE SOURCES
These are sources of energy which occur naturally and
continuously in the environment. i.e. They can be made again in a
short period of time once they are used up. Examples include;
 Hydro power
 Solar power
 Wind power
 Wave power
 Geothermal
 Tidal power
 Biomass
18
HYDRO POWER
This is achieved by damming of rivers. The water stored in a dam is
released at a high pressure on to the turbine blades. The turbine
captures the hydraulic energy i.e the energy from falling water, and
turns it into mechanical energy which is applied across the turbine
shaft. The shaft is coupled to the alternator that changes the
mechanical energy into electrical energy and electricity is produced.
The system has enormous initial costs but has relatively low
maintenance costs and provide power quite cheaply.
Advantages of hydroelectric power

Producing electricity using hydroelectric power has some
advantages over other power producing methods. These include;
 Fuel is not burned so there is minimal pollution
 Water to run the power plant is provided free by nature
 Hydro power plays a major role in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions
19
 There are relatively low operations and maintenance costs
 The technology is reliable and proven over time
 It is renewable. Rainfall renews the water in the reservoir, so
the fuel is almost always there.
 In addition to production of electricity, it can be used for other
purposes such as providing water for irrigation, home use etc.
Disadvantages of hydroelectric power
 There are high investment costs
 In some cases, inundation of land and wild life habitat
 There is also loss or modification of fish habitat
 There is also fish entrainment or passage restriction
 Also in some cases, there are changes in reservoir and stream
water quality
 There is also displacement of local populations in some other
cases.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
This type of energy is obtained from the internal heat of the planet
and can be used to generate steam to run a steam turbine which in
turn, generates electricity.
The radius of the earth is about 4000mileswith an internal core
temperature of around 4000oC at the Centre. Drilling three miles
from the surface of the earth, a temperature of about 100oC is
encountered, this is sufficient to boil water to run a steam powered
electric power plant.
Fortunately, however volcanic features called geothermal hotspots
are found all around the world. These are areas which transmit
excess internal heat to the outer crust which can be used to
generate electricity.
20
CATEGORIES OF GEOTHERMAL
There are various categories of geothermal energy sources, these
include;
 Dry steam field
 Wet steam field
 Hot dry resources
 Magma
 Volcanoes
A. GEOTHERMAL DRY STEAM POWER PLANTS

This type of geothermal power plant was named dry steam
since water that is extracted from underground reservoirs has
to be into gaseous form.
Geothermal steam of at least 150oC(300oF) is extracted from
reservoirs and it is then sent to turbines and electricity is
generated.
Fig. above shows a schematic diagram of a dry geothermal

power plant.
21
B. GEOTHERMAL FLASH STEAM (WET STEAM POWER
PLANT)
In wet steam reservoir, the water is under reservoir. However,
because water under the reservoir is under pressure, it does
not boil but remains in the liquid state whenever water comes
to the surface.
Pressure is reduced and rapid boiling occurs and the liquid
water flashes into a mixture of hot water and steam.
The steam can be separated and used to generate electric
power ion usual manner. The remaining hot water can be
utilized to generate power to yield pumped water.
The condensed steam will then separate in a flash chamber
and is brought again back in geothermal field. The power
generation of such a system can be made economically by
associating chemical industry with power to make use of
turbine and gases.
Fig. above shows a schematic diagram of a geothermal wet

power plant.
22
Advantages of geothermal
 It is versatile in its use (durable)
 It is cheap compared to the other energy sources
 It has a greater amount of net energy transit system than
other systems
 They have the highest power factor of 85% to 90%
compared to other forms of energy
 It is cheaper in production cost
 It is un exhaustible resource.
Disadvantages of geothermal
 The drilling operation is noisy
 The overall efficiency for power production is low of about
15%.
 The steam water pushing out of the gas may contain
water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and random gases which
cause air pollution which is hazardous.
 A large area is needed for exploitation of geothermal
energy.
C. TIDAL ENERGY
This is the energy obtained from changing sea levels, (the tide
moving from high to low and vice versa).
This renewable resource has great potential as tides are much
more predictable than wind power and solar energies which
are not at all consistent.
Adam with a power house and turbine is constructed across
an embankment to form a basin (head pond) of sufficient size
to allow production of electricity over a reasonable period.
Advantages of tidal energy

 Reduced greenhouse gas emissions by tidal power
 Easy to predict
Disadvantages of tidal energy
 Has effect on plants which live near a tidal station
 Very expensive to construct the dam
23
D. SOLAR ENERGY
It is one of the most resourceful sources of energy for the
future. The reason for this is that the total energy received
each year from the sun is around 35000 times the total energy
used by man.
However, about a third of this energy is either absorbed by the
outer atmosphere or reflected back into space.
Solar energy can be applied in running cars, powering solar
plants, powering space ships and many other applications.
Photovoltaic cells when suitably positioned convert sun light to
electricity.
E. WIND POWER
It is another source of energy that can be used without
producing by-products that are harmful to nature.
The fins of a wind mill rotate in a vertical plane which is kept
vertical to the wind by means of a tail fin and as wind flows
across the blades of the wind mill, it is forced to rotate and
can be used to generate electricity.
Harnessing the wind is highly dependent upon weather and
location. The average wind velocity of earth is around 9m/s
and the power that could be produced when a windmill is
facing a wind of 10m.p.h (i.e 4.5m/s) which is around 50W.
F. WAVE POWER
These energy originating from small lakes and rivers caused by
the movement of winds to drive a generator.
G. BIO MASS
This the energy got from organic matter and it can produce
light energy and mechanical energy.
Bio mass can be got from forest residues, agricultural
products, animal wastes and delivered material including
sewages.
24
NON RENEWABLE SOURCES
These are sources of energy which can’t be made again once
they are used up.
These energy sources come out of ground s liquids, gases,
solids as a result of pressure and heat. Examples are;
 Fossil fuels
 Nuclear fuel(uranium)
NUCLEAR FUELS
With this power source, a modern technology is providing new
techniques to make them more economic, relative to other
types power stations.
The fuel is uranium and relatively small quantities will
produce vast amounts of heat. It is however a very expensive
fuel, and the capital cost of building a power station to cope
with all the dangers of using such fuel renders generation in
this way at present, uneconomic.
Advantages of nuclear fuels

 Relatively small quantities of uranium produce large
amounts of heat.
Disadvantages of nuclear fuels

 Uranium used is a very expensive fuel
 It is very expensive to construct and cope up with all the
dangers of using such a fuel.
 It is not renewable
25
POWER GENERATING SYSTEMS
 Turbine
This is an electrical device which changes energy from
some sources to mechanical energy which is further
converted into electrical energy.
Types of turbines
There are various types of turbines which can be
classified according to the source from which electricity is
to be generated. These include;
 Water turbine
 Steam turbine
 Wind turbine
a. Water turbine: it converts hydraulic energy from
falling water into mechanical energy which can be used
to run an alternator and electricity is produced.
b. Steam turbine: this is used to capture energy
generated from steam into mechanical energy which in
turn drives the alternator and electricity is produced.
c. Wind turbine: this kind of turbine captures the energy
generated from wind and converts it into mechanical
energy which drives the alternator and electricity is
produced.
 Generator
In a generating station, a generator is coupled to the
shaft of a turbine. As the turbine shaft rotates, it drives
the armature inside the generator making it to cut the
lines of magnetic forces produced by the permanent
magnet. Buy the process of electro-magnetic induction,
these are converted into electricity.
26
 Insulators
These are components which are attached to the
supports and insulate the conductors from the ground to
prevent any leakage current.
Properties of insulators
 High mechanical strength to withstand conductor
load
 High electrical resistance material to avoid leakage
currents to earth.
 High relative permittivity in order that die electric
strength is high.
 Should be free from impurities and cracks,
otherwise, the permittivity will be lowered.
 Conductors
These can be classified as copper, aluminium etc. They
are used for carrying electricity from sending end station
to the receiving end station.
The choice of material and size of conductors is of
considerable importance and therefore should have the
following properties;
 High electrical conductivity
 High tensile strength in order to withstand
mechanical stresses
 Low cost so that it can be used for long distances
 Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume
is small.
 Cables
These are length of single insulated conductors solid or
stranded of one or more such conductors each provided
with its own insulation laid up together under the same
sheath.
These can be underground cables or overhead cables
upon the purpose they are called on to serve.
27
 Transformers
As far as generation of electricity is concerned, the
generated power is not enough for transmission.
Therefore, this power needs to be stepped up to a
considerable value required for transmission after
generation. This can only be done by use of step up
transformers.
Hence, a transformer is an electrical device for stepping
up or down voltages and currents.
 Switch gear
It is an electrical apparatus used for switching,
controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and
equipment.
The switch gear includes the following equipment;
 Switches for opening and closing electrical circuits
in a convenient way.
 Fuses
 Circuit breakers etc.
Essential features of a switch gear
(a) Complete reliability: It should be reliable to isolate

the faulty section from the remainder circuits due to
continued interconnection and increasing capacity of
generating station.
(b) Absolutely certain discrimination: It should be able

to discriminate between faulty and healthy section thus
ensuring continuity of supply.
(c) Quick operation: Should operate quickly in case of a

fault so that there is no harm to generators, transformers
and other equipment by short circuit currents.
(d) Provision for manual control: Incase electrical
control fails, the necessary operation can be carried out
through manual control.
28
(e) Provision for instruments: Such as ammeters,
voltmeters, current and voltage transformers for
connecting to the main switch board.
 Substation
This is an assembly of apparatus used to change some
characteristics e.g. AC to DC voltage, frequency, power
factor etc. of electrical supply.
The following are the important points which must be
kept in view while laying out substations;
 Should be located at a proper site i.e. at the center
of the loads.
 Should provide safe and reliable arrangement.
 Should be easily operated and maintained.
 Should involve in minimum capital.
Classification of substations
There are several ways of classifying substations.
However, the two most important ways are according to;
 Service requirement
 Constructional features.

According to service requirement:
A sub – station may be called upon to change voltage
level or improve power factor or convert AC into DC
power. According to service requirements, substations
may be classified into;
 Transformer substation: For changing voltage level
of power supply.
 Switching substations: For switching operation of
power lines
 Power factor correction substations: For
improving power factor of the system and are
located at the receiving end of the substation.
29
 Frequency changer substation: For changing
supply frequency such as for industrial utilization.
 Converting substation: For changing AC to DC
power to be used for various purposes such as
electro plating, electric welding etc.
 Industrial substations: To supply power to
individual industrial concerns.
According to constructional features:
These substations have many components e.g. circuit
breakers, switches, fuses, instruments etc.) which must
be housed properly to ensure continuous and reliable
service.
According to constructional features, the substation is
classified as follows;
 Indoor substations: For voltages up to 11KV, the
equipment of the substation is installed indoor
because of economic considerations. When the
atmosphere is contaminated with impurities, it can
be erected up to 66KV.
 Outdoor substations: For voltages beyond 66KV,
equipment is invariably installed out door because
clearances between conductors and space required
for switches, CB and other equipment becomes so
great that it is not economical to install the
equipment indoor.
 Underground substations: In thick populated
areas, space available for equipment and building is
limited and the cost of land is high. For such cases,
the substation is created underground.
 Pole mounted substations: This is an outdoor
substation with equipment mounted over head on
H-pole or 4-pole structure. It is the cheapest form of
substation for voltages not exceeding 33KV/11KV.
30
 Bus bars
These are heavy conductors usually bear fitted in
metallic closer erected either horizontally or vertically to
supply different final circuits and floors.
SUB MODULE IV: TRANSMISSION OF POWER

Transmission is the transfer of electricity in bulk from the
generating site to the distribution centers.
When power is carried in large amounts, by overhead lines and
underground cables, it is said to transmitted and the lines used are
called transmission lines.
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
The two types of transmission of power include;
 Underground transmission
 Overhead transmission
UNDERGROUND TRANSMISSION
In this type of transmission, underground cables are used where
there is a visual objection to overhead lines or where it would not be
convenient to use lines.
Both paper and PVC insulated cables are used with copper and
aluminium conductors.
Aluminium conductors have now come into favor because it costs
less than copper and because of their light weight, they require
smaller cable-laying Labour force.
Copper conductors are stranded and aluminium conductors are
found in both stranded and solid forms.
31
Protection of underground cables
Protection of underground cables from mechanical damage is
provided for by steel wire or steel tape armoring.
Methods of laying underground cables
There are three methods of laying underground cables. These
include;
 Direct laying method
 Draw-in method
 Solid method
OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION
This is the cheapest system of carrying power, particularly where
light loads are concerned as might be in a firm installation. Here,
cables are used only in very short lengths.
However, the cost of producing cable rated at the lower voltages
33Kv, 11Kv and 415V enables its use to be wide spread.
Advantages of overhead transmission over underground
The most advantage of transmitting power by overhead means over
underground means is economy because of the following reasons;
 Enormous costs will be involved in manufacturing a cable
whose insulation was capable of withstanding high voltages
between phases.
 Compensation to farmers for destruction of agricultural land
by underground means is more expensive as compared to
overhead means.
 The cost of locating and repairing a fault on underground
cable would involve many times the cost compared with that
for a fault on an overhead line.
With the above reasons therefore, overhead transmission systems
are the only economic proposition.
32
NATIONAL GRID
The national grid is a modern system which is vast and complex
network of overhead lines and underground cables carrying power
at high voltages to the current load density.
The very nature of the grid system is such that power has to be
transmitted over long distances. This immediately creates a
problem of voltage drop.
To overcome this problem, a high voltage is used for transmission
being known as the super grid.
The purpose of the grid system

The purpose of the grid system is to maintain a secure supply of
electricity at a standard voltage and frequency to consumers
throughout the country.
Advantages of the grid system

Having stated its purpose, we can now list several advantages that
have resulted from its introduction;
 Security of supplies
 Standardization of frequency and voltages
 Economy
 The ability to transmit very large loads for considerable
distance without loss
 The ability to transfer electricity to and from different parts of
the country.
33
Functions of the grid
In order to fulfil its purpose, the grid system must function in the
following way.
 It estimates the load required in different areas each day. This
information is used to purchase the country’s power
depending on the demand.
 Power station are used to their maximum efficiency, which in
turn reduces the cost of generation.
 Due to the fact that the system is interconnected, bulk supply
points can be fed from other areas, should a failure of the
usual supply occur.
COMPONENTS OF A TRANSMISSION OVERHEAD LINE
An overhead line may be used to transmit or distribute electric

power. The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a
great extent upon the mechanical design of the line.
While constructing an overhead line, it should be ensured that
mechanical strength of the line is such so as to provide against the
most probable weather conditions.
There in general, the main components of an overhead line are;
 Conductors
 Line supports e.g. poles, towers
 Cross arms
 Jumpers
 Insulators
 Stay wires or Guy
34
 Conductors
These can be classified as copper, aluminium etc. They
are used for carrying electricity from sending end station
to the receiving end station.
The choice of material and size of conductors is of
considerable importance and therefore should have the
following properties;
 High electrical conductivity
 High tensile strength in order to withstand
mechanical stresses
 Low cost so that it can be used for long distances
 Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume
is small.
Most commonly used conductor materials for overhead
lines are copper, aluminium, galvanized steel etc.
 Line supports
These may be poles or towers which keep the conductors
at a suitable level above the ground. In general, the line
supports should have the following properties;
 Cheap in cost
 Have longer life
 Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance
 Light in weight without loss of mechanical strength
 High mechanical strength to with stand the weight
of conductors and wind loads.
35
 Cross arms
These are structures attached to the line supports to
provide space for the attachment of insulators.
Fig. above shows across-arm fixed onto an electric

pole
 Jumpers
These transfer electric power from the sending end of the
conductor to the receiving end of the conductors by-
passing the line supports, cross arms and insulators.
Fig. above shows a jumper crossing power from end to end
36
 Stay wires/Guy
These provide additional support to the electric poles
from the effects of stress provided by conductors.
Fig. above shows a stay wire
 Insulators
These are attached to the line supports and insulate the
conductors from the ground. Therefore, conductors must
be properly insulated from supports such that current
does not flow to earth through them.
37
TYPES OF INSULATORS
There are several types of insulators but the commonly used are;
 Pin type
 Suspension type
 Strain insulators
 Shackle insulators
Pin type insulator

As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is secured to the
cross-arm on the pole. There is a groove on the upper end of
the insulator for housing the conductor. These are used for
transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages up
to 33kV. Beyond this voltage, pin type insulators become too
bulky and hence economical.
Fig. above shows a pin type insulator
38
Suspension type insulator
This type of insulator is used for voltages above 33kV. They
consist of porcelain discs in series by metal links in form of a
string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this
string while the other end of the string is secured to the cross-
arm of the tower.
Fig. above shows a suspension type insulator
Strain insulators
When there is a corner or sharp curve of the line, the line is
subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve excessive
tension, strain insulators are used.
Fig. above shows a strain insulator
39
Shackle insulators
These are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines.
They can be used either in a horizontal or vertical position.
They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the
cross-arm.
Fig. above shows a shackle insulator
40
GUIDING QUESTIONS
Question one
a) Describe with the aid of a diagram, how electric power is
generated at Owen falls dam in Uganda. (15mks)
b) State any three advantages of HEP source over other sources.
(03mks)
c) Give any two power generating systems at Owen falls dam in
Uganda. (02mks
Question two
a) Define the following terms giving two examples in each case.
i. Renewable source of energy. (04mks)
ii. Non-renewable source of energy. (04mks)
b) Explain briefly the following sources of power.
i. Wind power source (04mks)
ii. Geothermal source (04mks)
iii. Solar energy source (04mks)
Question three
a) Define the term transmission of electricity. (02mks)
b) Explain the two types used in transmission of electric power.
(06mks)
c) With the aid of sketches, explain the application of the
following types of insulators used in transmission lines.
i. Shackle insulator (03mks)
ii. Pin type insulator (03mks)
iii. Strain insulators (03mks)
iv. Suspension insulators (03mks)
41
SUB MODULE V: DISTRIBUTION OF POWER
If the power is to be supplied to various consumers locally is said to

be distributed.
Distribution at high voltage involves provision of the transformer
substation where the energy is transformed down or stepped up to
the standard voltage. There are various systems by which DC and
AC power can be distributed. These include;
 DC two wire system
 DC three wire system
 AC single phase two wire
 AC single phase 3-wire
 AC three phase 4-wire
DC TWO WIRE SYSTEM
The early DC system was two wire with a positive and a negative.
The supply voltage varied between 110-250V. This was little power
to run machines which needed to transmit large quantities of
energy.
Therefore, a new system of distribution was adopted and this was
3-wire system
42
DC THREE WIRE SYSTEM
This consists of a generator generating 500V, the positive outer and

the negative outer providing 500V between them. The third
conductor called the neutral or the middle wire was earthed and
thus providing a supply voltage of 250V between the outer and the
neutral.
Machines called balomers were used to maintain the voltage in the
3-wire DC system constant at all conditions.
Applications of DC power
Now days, DC systems are widely used in industries for DC
machines which offer variable speed facilities e.g. in the production
system for steel plate and sheet plastics.
43
AC SINGLE PHASE TWO WIRE
In this case, supply is normally from the secondary of a transformer

at the distribution substation.
One side of the secondary is always earthed and the conductor
connected to this side is the neutral conductor. The conductor
connected to the outer end of the secondary winding is called a live
conductor.
AC SINGLE PHASE THREE WIRE
With this system of distribution, supply is from the secondary of a

transformer but with a double voltage of 2-wire case.
The transformer is center tapped and earthed at this point. The
third conductor is connected to the center tapping and this
becomes the neutral conductor. The outer conductors are live
(phase conductors).
Power circuits are connected to the outer conductors and lighting
loads are connected to one of the live conductors and neutral.
44
AC THREE PHASE 4-WIRE
The figure above shows the system of distribution transformer with

connections made for both single and three phase supplies.
Transformer windings are connected in star formation, the star
point being earthed and connected to the neutral conductor. This is
used for general distribution purposes.
It has circuits of single phase with a common earthed conductor
called neutral conductor. Power circuits are connected in phase
(live) conductor only e.g. 3-phase motors and single phase circuits
are connected to one of the phase conductors and neutral e.g. light
circuits.
Advantages of 3-phse 4-wire distribution
 It can be used for both domestic and small scale industries
 It is also a good distribution system since it enables balancing
for safety purposes
 It gives the voltage ranges of 415V and 240V, so the frequency
is standard at 50Hz.
45
STANDARD VOLTAGES
The standard voltages for a consumer’s supply are;
 415V, 3-phase AC
 240V, single phase AC
The voltages for consumer’s circuits are normally classified as
follows;
 Extra low voltage (Band I)
This is the voltage below 50V
 Low voltage (Band II)
The voltage above 50V and not exceeding 250V
 Medium voltage
The voltage over 250V and not exceeding 650V
 High voltage
The voltage over 650V and not exceeding 3000V
 Extra high voltage
The voltage over 3000V
The above voltages are either between conductors (phase or

live) or between one conductor and earth (phase or live and
neutral).
46
QUIDING QUESTIONS
Question one
a) Describe four devices found in a power distribution sub station
b) With the aid of a diagram, explain how a three phase
distribution substation supplies
power to both the industrial and domestic consumers
c) State the nominal voltage for;
(i) An industrial consumer
(ii) A domestic consumer
47
SUB MODULE VI: CABLES AND CONDUCTORS
CONDUCTORS
A conductor is a material which offers a low resistance to the flow
of current.
Conductors of everyday use must be;
 Of low electric resistance
 Mechanically strong and flexible
 Relatively cheap e.g. silver is a better conductor than copper
but it is too expensive for practical purposes. Other examples
of conductors are Tin, Lead and Iron.
FORMATION OF CONDUCTORS
Materials used
Electric conductors are usually made of copper although aluminium
is used to a great extent particularly as the price of copper
increases.
Copper conductors are formed from a block of copper which is
cold-drawn through a set of dies until the desired cross-sectional
area (c.s.a) is obtained. This copper wire is then dipped into a tank
containing molten tin and this is done for two reasons;
 To protect the copper if the wire is to be insulated with
vulcanized rubber as this contains Sulphur which
attacks copper.
 To make the copper conductor easier to solder.
Aluminium wire is also drawn from sold block of aluminium but it
is not tined.
48
COMPARISION OF ALUMINIUM COPPER CONDUCTORS
ALUMINIUM COPPER
- Small weight for similar - Better electrical and
resistance and current thermal conductor,
carrying capacity. therefore, low c.s.a
required for the same
voltage drop.
- Easier to machine - Greater mechanical
strength.
- Greater current density - Corrosion resistant
because of larger heat
radiating surface.
- Resistivity 2.845µΩcm - Much easier to joint.
- Low resistivity 1.78µΩcm.
NOTE: The determining factor in the use of one type of material for
conductor is usually that of cost.
STRANDING OF CONDUCTORS
Conductors are often stranded to make a complete cable more
flexible.
A set of number of strands used in conductors are;
1,3,7,19,37,61,91, and 127
Each layer of strands is spiraled onto the conductor in opposite
direction to the previous layer. This system increases the flexibility
of the completed cable and also minimizes the danger of opening up
of the strands under resisting force.
SIZE OF STRANDED CONDUCTORS
The size of a stranded conductor is given by the number of strands
and the diameter of individual strands e.g. 7⁄0.85 𝑚𝑚 cable, consists
of seven strands of wire and each strand having 0.85mm diameter.
Solid (non-stranded) conductors are now being used in new
installations.
49
BARE CONDUCTORS
Copper and aluminium conductors are also formed in a variety of
sections e.g. Rectangular and circular sections of bare
conductor systems.
Applications of bare conductors
Bare conductors are applied in various electrical systems including;
 Extra-low voltage electro plating
 Substation work
Safety precautions
The following safety precautions must be taken in open bus-bar
system (above extra low voltage). They must be;
 In accessible to un authorized persons.
 Free to expand and contract.
 Effectively insulated.
 Where bare conductors are used in extra low voltage systems,
they must be protected against risk of fire.
INSULATORS
An insulator is a material which offers a very high resistance to the
flow of current.
Properties of an insulator
An insulator should have certain electrical, mechanical, physical
and chemical properties.
 Electrical properties: It should have high resistance.
 Mechanical properties: It should be capable of withstanding
mechanical strengths e.g. Compression and tensional forces
imposed on conductors.
 Physical properties: The perfect insulator should physically
be;
a) Non absorbent
b) Capable of withstanding high temperatures.
50
 Chemical properties: An insulator must be capable of
withstanding corrosive effects of chemicals.
No insulator is perfect and each type is picked for a particular
application e.g. porcelain and fire clay are good insulators but
could not be used for covering conductors forming cables
because they are not flexible.
PVC is also a good insulator but cannot be used in conditions
where the temperature exceeds 45oC insulation for electric fires.
Other examples include; mica, paper, plastic, air, rubber etc.
CABLES
Definition:
A cable is a length of single insulated conductor solid or stranded
of one or more such conductors each provided with its own
insulation layed up together under the same sheath.
CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES
A cable usually derives its name from the type of insulation used.
a) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cable.
This is termed as thermo-plastic cable as the insulation is
formed with a systematic resin which softens when heated.
The process of manufacture is as follows;
- The PVC is extruded on the conductors by passing them
through a die onto which a soft PVC is formed.
- The formed cable is then passed through a trough of cold
water to harden the plastic insulation.
51
b) Multi-core cable
This cable is made up of two or more insulated conductors.
Multi-core cables are sheathed in a protective covering e.g.
tough rubber for sheathed cables (T.R.S) and PVC for plastic
cables.
c) Tough-rubber sheathed (T.R.S) cable.
This is made of specially toughened rubber which is resistive
to acids and alkalis. Specially constructed T.R.S which has been
rein enforced with tape and external braiding is used on farm
yards.
d) Polychloroprene (P.C.P or Neoprene) cable.
An insulation somewhat similar to that of T.R.S but capable of
withstanding most weather conditions and particularly sun light.
e) Heat resistant, oil resistant and frame retardant (H.O.F.R)
cable.
These cables are used in conditions damaging PVC cables
such as high temperatures and oil. The resistant qualities are
developed by vulcanizing (or curing process) which forms an
elastomer capable of withstanding tough conditions and still
retaining its flexibility.
COMPARISION OF T.R.S AND PVC CABLES
T.R.S CABLES PVC CABLES

- Affected by oil and - Largely un affected by
water. oil, water and
corrosive chemicals
- More flexible. - Hardens at low
temperatures and
softens at high
temperatures.
- Must be protected - Does not support
against sun light. combustion
NOTE: A maximum operating temperature for both rubber and PVC
cables is 45oC
52
FLEXIBLE CABLES AND FLEXIBLE CORDS
The IEE regulations define a flexible cable as a cable consisting of
one or more cores each containing a group of wires, the diameter of
wires and the construction of the cable being such as to afford
flexibility.
A flexible cord is defined as a flexible cable in which the cross

sectional area does not exceed 4mm2 and of which each conductor
consists of strands of diameter not exceeding 0.31mm.
ARMOURED CABLES
These cables are used where there is likelihood mechanical damage
to conductors or insulation e.g. underground cable runs.
The following are the main types of armoured cables;
 PVC armoured cables
 Paper insulated lead covered steel wire armoured cable
(PILCSWA).
PVC ARMOURED CABLE.
This is made up of PVC insulated cores packed with PVC to give a
circular cross section. An outer PVC sheath covers the galvanized
steel wire as shown below.
53
Fig. above shows a PVC armoured cable.
CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF A PVC ARMOURED CABLE
Fig. above shows the cross sectional view of a PVC armoured cable.
JOINTING AND TERMINATING PVC ARMOURED CABLE

PVC armoured cables may be terminated and jointed at the type of
cast iron boxes although plastic boxes are often used. The following
points require consideration;
 PVC insulation must be protected against heat e.g. with cloth
or tape.
 PVC tapes should be used for insulating conductors.
 Particular care must be taken with the cleaning and clamping
of the galvanized wire armoring as it is often the sole earth
continuity conductor.
 Compound temperature. The temperature of hot pouring
compound should such that it does not melt the PVC
insulation of the conductors. This can be checked by dipping a
piece of scrap PVC into the compound before pouring.
54
Advantages of PVC armoured cables
 It affords good mechanical operation
 The steel armoured cable can be used as earth continuity
conductors (ECC)
 It is fairly easy to terminate
 It is fairly light and easy to handle
Disadvantages of PVC armoured cables
 Hardness and crackness at low temperatures.
 Softens under temperatures above 65oC.
 Fairly expensive in terms of cost.
IEE Regulations on installation of PVC armoured cable.
 Where exposed to mechanical danger, they shall be furtherly
protected. Make concrete ducts for further protection.
 Its amours should be mechanically and electrically continuous
and be used as ECC.
 During installation, they must be installed at a depth not less
than 500mm.
 They should not be installed in very low temperatures and
high temperatures
 The minimum bending radius should not be less than 6 times
the outside diameter.
Applications of PVC armoured cable

 Underground purposes
 Domestic installations
 Industries for main supplies
55
PAPER INSULATED LEAD COVERED STEEL WIRE ARMOURED
CABLE (PILCSWA).
KEY
1) Water proof serving (Tough PVC)
2) Steel wire armoring. Also used as earth continuity
conductor.
3) Fute bending
4) Lead alloy sheath
5) Paper impregnated for circular cross section.
6) Paper impregnated insulator
The construction of a PILCSWA cable is as shown above.
JOINTING AND TERMINATION OF A PILCSWA CABLE

When terminating at the sealing chamber, the following procedures
should be followed;
 Place binder 1M from end of the cable.
 Remove tough PVC to this point.
 Bend steel wire armoring back until it is clear of lead sheath.
 Remove approximately 12cm of lead sheath and clean
remainder.
 Place brass gland on the cable leaving approximately 10cm of
lead sheath showing. Wedge gland on wood to keep central on
cable.
 Plumb joint using plumbers metal.
56
 Clean galvanized wire with paraffin rag and shape wires over
plumb.
 Clamp wires to gland and bolt gland to sealing chamber.
 Cut back paper insulation on conductor and make it through
joint.
 Assemble sealing chamber and pour in hot bitumen to seal oil
impregnated paper insulation against moisture.
Advantages of PILCSWA cable
 It has a very good mechanical protection
 It has a very high current currying capacity
 Steel wire armoring can be used as ECC
 It can’t be affected by moisture.
Disadvantages of PILCSWA cable
 It is very expensive
 It has a bigger bending radius
 Paper is affected by moisture
 It is heavy due to many layers
IEE Regulations governing installation of PILCSWA cable
 The cable should be protected where risk of danger is expected
 The minimum bending radius should not be less than 2 times
the outside diameter
 As the cable is used underground, it should be buried at a
depth of 500mm
57
MINERAL INSULATED METAL SHEATHED CABLE (MIMS)
This cable is often referred to as “mineral insulated copper
covered cable” (MICC) with copper or aluminium conductors.
Construction of MIMS cable

The MIMS cable consists of three parts;
1) Copper or aluminium conductors: Each consists of a single
copper conductor. Common core numbers are 1,2,3,4, & 7.
2) Insulation: The insulation between the cores is magnesium
oxide, a material capable of withstanding high temperatures
but which is absorbent to moisture.
3) Outer sheath (copper or aluminium sheath): This is the
seamless copper or aluminium tube. The cable is formed by
drawing a section through a series of dies, so that the relative
distance between the cores and sheath is constant during the
manufacture and use of the cable.
JOINTING AND TERMINATING MIMS CABLE

Terminations are made at glands. The procedures for termination
are as follows;
 Slip gland nut, compression ring gland body onto the cable.
 Strip sheath using stripping tool.
 Screw on sealing pot (forced thread).
58
 Slip disc and sleeve assembly on cores.
 Press compound into sealing pot (making sure that all copper
particles have been removed).
 Crimp sealing pot with crimping tool.
 Clean off surplus compound.
NOTE: All terminations should be tested on completion (between
poles and poles to earth)
Advantages of MIMIS cable

 It is heat resistant and withstands temperatures of up to
250oC.
 It affords good mechanical protection.
 The sheath provides earth continuity conductor.
 It is long lasting if it is installed properly.
 It has high current carrying capacity.
 It has a smaller bending radius.
Disadvantages of MIMS cable

 It is expensive in terms of cost
 It has a greater voltage drop per meter as specified by current
ratio.
 Terminations take time and must be done by a skilled person.
IEE Regulations governing installation of MIMS cable

 They should be further protected where exposed to mechanical
danger.
 The bend shall be properly sheathed before the cable is put
into use.
 Bending radius shall be less than outside diameter.
 Sealing materials shall be of the same temperature reading.
59
LEAD ALLOY SHEATHED CABLE
Advantages of lead alloy sheathed cable

 The sheath can be used as ECC
 It can withstand mechanical dangers to the good extent
 The sheath provides sound protection against moisture.
 The bending radius is small i.e. external outside diameter.
Disadvantages of lead alloy sheathed cable
 Mechanical protection is not very sound as the sheath is iron.
 Mechanical protection is also not sound the alloy is soft.
IEE Regulations on installation of lead alloy cable
 Cables shall be protected where necessary.
 The metallic sheath must be prevented from coming into
contact with cables of extra low voltage circuits.
 The minimum bending radius shall not be less than 6 times
the outside diameter.
Applications
 On surface wiring
 Underground wiring systems
60
GUIDING QUESTIONS
Question one
a. Define the term “cable”
b. With the aid of a well labelled diagram, explain the
construction of a PVC armoured cable.
c. Explain the procedures taken while terminating and jointing a
PVC armoured cable.
d. State the merits and demerits of PVC armoured cables.
e. Explain the IEE regulations regarding installation of PVC
armored cables
Question two
a. What is the minimum depth for cables laid underground?
b. State the methods used for laying underground cables.
c. With the aid of a diagram, explain the advantages and
disadvantages of MICCS cable.
d. What are the IEE regulations regarding installation of the
above cable.
Question three
a. Differentiate between a flexible cable and a flexible cord
b. State the minimum bending radius of a PVC armoured cable
c. With the aid of a diagram, explain the procedures for
terminating a PILCSWA cable.
d. State the safety precautions that must be observed when
installing armoured cables.
61
PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
PROTECTION
Protection can be defined as the automatic disconnection of supply
in case of a fault by means of protective devices.
Reasons for fitting protective devices in an installation.

There are three reasons as to why protective devices are fitted in an
installation. These include the following;
 To protect the circuit against excess current
 To protect circuits against earth leakages
 To allow the consumer or maintenance electrician to isolate
the installation from the supply.
Several protective measures should be put under consideration as
the way of preventing mechanical damage caused by physical
impact and the like. These include;
 Protection against electric shock
 Fault protection
 Protection against over current
 Protection against corrosion
(a) Protection against electric shock

There are two ways of receiving electric shock i.e.,
 By contact with intentionally live parts
 By contact with conductive parts made live due to a fault.
It is obvious that we need to provide protection against both
of these conditions.
62
(b) Fault protection
The IEE regulations suggest five ways of fault [protection
against contact with parts made live due to a fault. These
include;
 Protective earthing
 Protective equipotential bonding
 Automatic disconnection in the event of a fault
 Double insullation/rein enforced insulation
 Electrical separation.
Electrical separations: This method of protection relies on a
supply from a safety source such as an isolating transformer, which
has no earth connection on the secondary side.
In the event of a circuit that is supplied from a source developing a
live fault to an exposed conductor parts, there would be no path for
shock current to flow.
Therefore, great care must be taken to maintain the integrity of this
type of system as interconnection with other circuits would render
the protection useless.
63
(c) Protection against over current
An over current is a current greater than the rated current of a
circuit. It may occur in two ways;
 As an over load current
 As a fault current, which may also be divided into;
i. A short circuit current
ii. An earth fault current
These conditions need to be protected against in order to avoid
damage to circuit conductors and equipment. In practice,
fuses and circuit breakers will fulfill both of these needs.
Over loads: These are over currents occurring in health
circuits. They may be caused
i. by faulty appliances
ii. by surges due to motor staring
iii. by plugging in too many appliances in a socket outlet
circuit.
SHORT CIRCUIT AND EARTH FAULT CURRENTS

A short circuit current is a current that will flow when a “dead
short” occurs between live conductors i.e. line to neutral for single
phase and line to line for three phase.
Earth fault current is a current that flows when there is a short
between a line conductor and earth.
Prospective short circuit current (PSCC) and Prospective earth fault
current (PEFC) are collectively known as the Prospective fault
current (PFC). The term is usually used to signify the value of fault
current at a fuse or circuit breaker positions.
64
TYPES OF PROTECTION
The types of protection used fall into three categories;
1. Electro-magnetic protection
2. The fuse
3. Thermal protection (circuit breaker trips)
NB. Fuses and Circuit breakers are the common protective devices
used in an electrical installation.
FUSES
Definitions:
A fuse. A device for opening the circuit by means of a thin
conductor designed to melt when excess current flows.
Fuse element. This is the part of the fuse designed to melt when
the fuse operates.
Fusing current. This is the current that will make the fuse to
blow/operate/melt in a specified time and prescribed conditions
when excess current flows.
Fusing factor. This is the ratio of the fusing current to the current
rating.
Current rating. This is the maximum current a fuse will carry for a
definite period without blowing of the fuse element.
Fuse carrier. This is the part found inside the fuse designed to hold
the fuse element and terminated with the fuse element.
65
TYPES OF FUSES
There are three types of fuses,
1. Rewirable fuse
2. Cartridge fuse
3. High breaking capacity (H.B.C) fuse formerly termed as
the high rapturing capacity fuse (H.R.C)
REWIRABLE FUSE (BS 3036)
Figure above shows a Rewirable fuse to BS 3036

This type of fuse consists of fuse holder, fuse element, the holder
and the carrier being made of porcelain.
The fuse element is connected between the contacts of the holder
and the carrier and is made up of fine copper which possess a
heating resisting pad.
An asbestos tube is usually fitted to minimise the effect of arcing
when the fuse element melts.
ADVANTAGES OF A REWIRABLE FUSE
 They are cheap compared to any other type of fuse
 They are easy to replace
 Don’t have moving parts
 Easy to check
66
DISADVANTAGES OF REWIRABLE FUSE
 A wrong size of fuse wire can be used since it is reparable
 Detorialates with age i.e. they can easily be spoilt.
 They have a high fusing factor
 They have a low braking capacity
 Not advisable for short circuit protection
 The fuse holder and the carrier can be damaged as a result of
arcing in the event of a heavy overload.
NOTE: the IEE regulations give approximate sizes of tinned copper
wire to be used for elements in semi-enclosed fuses e.g.
STANDARD WIRE GAUGE CURRENT RATING

0.2mm 5A
0.35mm 10A
0.50mm 15A
CARTRIDGE FUSE (BS 1361 & BS 1362)
Fig. above shows a Cartridge fuse

A cartridge fuse consists of a porcelain tube with metal end caps to
which the element is attached. The tube is filled with silica powder.
These fuse are generally found in modern top plugs used with 13A
socket outlets, in some distribution boards and at the mains intake
position.
67
ADVANTAGES OF CARTRIDGE FUSE
 Do not deteriorate with age
 Maintain accuracy in breaking at rated values
 Do not arc when interruption faults
 Quick and easy to replace
DISADVANTAGES OF CARTRIDGE FUSES
 It is relatively expensive compared to semi-enclosed fuses
 Suitable for use where extremely high values of volts may
occur.
Colour code
The Colour code of these fuses is as follows;
RATING COLOUR
5A White
13A Brown
15A Blue
30A Red
60A Purple
68
HIGH BRAKING CAPACITY (HBC) FUSE
OR
HIGH RAPTURING CAPACITY (HRC) FUSE, 60A RATING
Fig. above shows HBC fuse

The HRC fuse is a sophisticated variation of the cartridge fuse and
is normally found protecting motor circuits and industrial
installations.
It consists of a porcelain body filled with silica with a silver element
and lug type end caps. Another feature of HRC fuse is the indicating
element, which shows when the fuse has blown.
ADVANTAGES OF HRC FUSE

 No deteriorating of the fuse element
 It can’t be fused incorrectly with a wrong gauge of wire
 It has a high speed of operation
 It affords discrimination
 It affords close excess current protection
 It has a consistence performance
 It has a low cost compared to miniature circuit breakers
69
DISADVANTAGES OF HBC FUSE
 It is more expensive than any other fuse
 They are bulky/ heavy
 They can’t be rewired.
Selection of a fuse
For safety and reliable operation, the following information should
be known before selecting any type of fuse;
 The voltage of the circuit
 The degree of current of protection required
 The maximum value of float current available
 The maximum value of float in KVA.S
MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MCB)

Definition:
A circuit breaker is a device which open and close normally in the
circuit and automatically opens when there is an overload.
The tripping switch of circuit breakers may be electromagnetic or
thermal and generally both of these actions are used in modern
circuit breakers.
Protection against sustained overload or overload current is given
by bending of Bi-metallic strip with its time lag effect while high
speed protection against short circuit is given by magnetic
operation.
70
TRIPPING MECHANISM OR ACTION OF CIRCUIT
BREAKERS
The tripping mechanism or action of circuit breakers can either be;
1. Magnetic tripping
2. Thermal tripping mechanism
MAGNETIC TRIPPING CIRCUIT BREAKER
Fig. above shows magnetic action of a circuit breaker.
Operation
The magnetic tripping circuit breaker employs a solenoid which is a
coil with an iron slag.
The normal current that flows via this is enough to produce a
significant flux.
As soon as the circuit current increases to a pre-determined level,
the magnetic strength increases to cause the iron slag move
towards the coil and collapse the attached tripping linkage to open
the contacts as shown in the OFF position above.
71
THERMAL TRIPPING MECHANISM
Fig. above shows thermal tripping action of circuit breaker

Operation
The thermal tripping circuit breaker uses a heat sensitive bi-metal
element. When the element is heated to a pre-determined
temperature, the resultant deflection is desired to trip the circuit
breaker as shown in the OFF position above.
The time taken to break the element to this temperature provides
necessary time delay characteristics.
The Bi-metal element may be arranged to carry the circuit current
and so being directly self-heated or a coil carrying current may be
wound on it and so being indirectly heated.
Because of time lag associated with heating, tripping with this
circuit breaker is not so rapped as the magnetic type. The rate of
bending depends upon the overload current.
72
MAGNETIC OVERLOAD TRIPPING WITH OIL DASH POT
Fig. above shows magnetic overload action with oil dash pot
Operation
This type consists of an electro-magnetic strip to which the plunger
is attached on the solenoid.
The operating current can be adjusted by varying the position of the
plunger with respect to the oil.
The oil dash pot is used to provide the time lag. When the plunger
is attracted towards the solenoid by excess current, the oil in the
dash pot must pass through the bi-pass hole in the position before
the plunger can travel far enough to make the tripping contacts
thus delaying the operation.
There is always a means of varying the size of the hole so that the
time lag can be adjusted to suit the load conditions.
73
Close excess current protection
This is the type of excess current protection that will operate within
four hours at a fusing factor of 1.5 times the designed load current
of the circuit it protects. An example is a miniature circuit breaker.
Coarse excess current protection
This is the type of excess current protection that will not operate
within four hours and not at a fusing factor of 1.5 times the
designed load current of the circuit it protects. An example is a
semi-enclosed fuse.
Advantages of using circuit breakers over fuses.
 The fault circuits are easily identified by the ON and OFF
markings on the circuit breaker.
 The supply can easily be restored once the fault has been
rectified or connected.
 The circuit breaker will trip and clear its self satisfactorily
when switched ON while the fault still exists.
 The circuit breaker discriminates between sustained overload
and harmless transient currents such as motor starting
currents.
 The tripping characteristics are set by the manufacturer and
can’t be changed.
 In the event of an overload of faults, all poles are
simultaneously disconnected from the supply.
 Circuit breakers can also be used as normal control circuit
switches.
 Circuit breakers provide protection against single phasing.
Disadvantages of using circuit breakers.
 They are relatively expensive compared to fuses
 Circuit breakers have mechanical moving parts thus require
enough maintenance.
 Tripping heavy loads becomes distorted due to heat.
 Ambient temperature affects their tripping characteristics.
 Regular tests are required to ensure their satisfactory
operation.
74
CONSUMER’S INSTALLATION
SUPPLY CONTROL
The IEE regulations say that
every installation supplied
with an external source has to
be controlled by a switch gear
inco-operating the following;
1. A means of isolating the
whole installation
2. Over current protection
(overload and short-circuits)
3. Protection against earth
leakage currents
In a consumer control supply

equipment shown above, there
is a large cut out fuse and
neutral block.
If the cable is under ground,
the termination in form of a
sealing is combined with the
cut out unit.
The cut out fuse is such that it will carry out infinite maximum
current that will flow when the load is connected to the system.
75
CONSUMER’S MAIN SWITCH
From the meter, the installation main cables (pigtail cables) are
taken to the main switch which should be a double pole linked
switch to be able to isolate the installation.
When the switches are combined in one unit, it is called a switch
fuse.
Distribution fuse board
This is the item which distributes electricity to various circuits
which go to make up the complete electrical installation. They are
protected by fuses or circuit breakers.
Earth leakage circuit breakers.
An earth leakage circuit breaker is shown but it can be omitted, if a
circuit fuse is adequate to give earth leakage protection.
76
Final sub-circuits
This is the circuit which is not split up to the supply or to feed
other circuits.
Switch gear
This is an assembly of the main switching apparatus for operation
regulations and protection in electrical installations.
CONSUMER CIRCUITS
Medium voltage precautions
 All switch gears should be labelled to identify the circuit they
control.
 All live terminals between which low and medium voltages
exist should be sorrounded with an insulating material and
should be enclosed in an earthed metal.
 Single phase distribution boards which are connected to
different phases must be more than 2M apart from each other.
 Where medium voltage is present, a table should be put to
indicate the voltage present.
Protective devices
The IEE regulations require that the characteristics of the device
protecting the circuit to be conducted with the conductors forming
the circuit should be such that;
 Its nominal current (IN) or current setting for the circuit
breaker is not less than the designed current which is the
maximum nominal current. IN is not greater than the current
carrying capacity of the circuit conductors.
 The current which operates the fuse or circuit breakers
causing it to disconnect should not exceed 1.5 times the
lowest of any current carrying capacities for the circuit
conductors.
77
FINAL CIRCUITS
Definition:
A final circuit is the circuit connecting direct to the current using
equipment or to a socket outlet or to the other outlet points for the
connection of such equipment.
GROUPS OF FINAL CIRCUITS

There are five general groups of final circuits;
 Circuits rated at not more than 15A
 Circuits rated over 15A
 Circuits rated over 15A but confirmed to feeding 13A socket
outlets with fused plugs
 Circuits feeding fluorescents and other discharge lamps
 Circuits feeding motors
Circuits rated at not more than 15A
- This may feed an un limited number of points provided that
the total current demand is not exceeding 15A.
- These include 15A, 13A, 5A and 3A. Socket outlets and
lighting outlets, stationary appliances and certain load may be
neglected because their current demand is negligible.
Circuits rated over 15A
 They should not serve more than one point. Examples are;
circuits which feed socket outlets and cooker circuits.
In this group, a water heater circuit is terminated in a 20A
double pole isolating switch.
Circuits rated for 13A socket outlets
The final circuits which serve 13A socket outlets with fused plugs
and 13A switched or un switched connection units are provided by
two types of circuits i.e. ring and radial circuits.
78
Circuits feeding fluorescent and other discharge lamps
These circuits take a high current due to the choke which increase
the current taken by the circuit.
In this case, the rating of a protective device can go as far as 15A
with the size of the cable increasing to 2.5mm2
The regulations, say that any switch controlling circuits comprising
of discharge lamps should have a rating of not more than twice the
steady current in the circuit control unless the switch is specially
designed to break an inductive load at its full rated capacity.
Final circuits for single phase motors

In these circuits, the current rating of cables feeding motors should
be used on the full load current taken by the motor.
The table below shows the name of circuit, its protective

device and size of the cable required for the installation.
NAME OF CIRCUIT RATING SIZE OF CABLE
Cooker 30/32A 10mm2
Ring circuit 30/32A 2.5mm2
Radial circuit 15/20A 2.5mm2
Heater circuit 20A 2.5mm2
Fluorescent circuit 15A 2.5mm2
Motor circuits 15A 2.5mm2
Shaver circuits 5A 1.5mm2
Bell circuits 5A 1.5mm2
Lighting circuits 5A 1.5mm2
Clock circuits 3A 1.5mm2
79
IEE REGULATIONS ON FINAL CIRCUITS
The IEE regulations on final circuits say that;

 Where an installation comprises of more than one final circuit,
each circuit shall be connected to a separate way from the
distribution board.
 The wiring of each final circuit shall be electrically separated
from that of every other final circuit.
 To facilitate the direction of each final circuit for testing, the
neutral conductor shall be connected to the distribution board
in the same order as that in which the live conductors are
connected to fuses.
 All conductors and appliances must be of sufficient size and
power for the work they are called on to do and constructed,
installed, protected so as to prevent danger.
 The rating of the protective device must not be less than the
designed load current of the circuit and also that the rating
should not exceed the current carrying capacity of the lowest
rated conductor in the circuit.
80
LIGHTING CIRCUITS
The method of wiring final lighting circuits may either be loop in 3-
plate or the joint box method.
The loop in method enable all joints to be made at ceiling roses or
switches hence all joints remain accessible.
LIGHT SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

There are numerous switching arrangements that make up a
lighting circuit. The most common ones include;
1. One-way switching arrangement
2. Two-way switching arrangement
3. Intermediate switching arrangement
ONE WAY SWITCHING ARRANGEMENT
In this system, one terminal of the one-way switch receives the
switch feed, the switch wires leave from the other terminal and goes
directly to the luminaire (lamp).
Once operated, the switch contact is held in place mechanically and
therefore electricity is continuously flowing to the light.
In other words, we supply the switch feed terminal as shown below
at point A, operate the switch and it comes out at the wire switch
terminal point B.
81
ONE WAY SWITCHING ARRANGEMENT WIRING DIAGRAM
KEY
N - Neutral
L - Live conductor
E - Earth conductor
R - Red core
B - Black/Blue core
JB - Joint box
The figure above shows a full wiring diagram of a one way switching
arrangement using a multi-core cable (a twin cable with earth).
TWO WAY SWITCHING ARRANGEMENT

Sometimes we need to switch a light ON or OFF from more than one
location e.g. at opposite ends of a long corridor.
When this is required, a different switching arrangement must be
used and the most common being a two-way switching
arrangement.
In this type of circuit, the switch feed is feeding one, two-way switch
and the switch wire goes from the other two-way switch to the lamp.
The two wires that link the two switches together are known as the
strappers.
82
The figure below shows a full wiring diagram of a two-way switching
arrangement through a joint box.
KEY
N - Neutral
L - Live conductor
E - Earth conductor
R - Red core
B - Black/Blue core
JB - Joint box
INTERMEDIATE SWITCHING ARRANGEMENT

If more than two switch locations are required e.g. in a long corridor
with other corridors coming of it, then intermediate switches must
be used. These are wired in the strappers between two, two-way
switches.
The action of the intermediate switch is to cross connect the
strapping wires. These gives us the ability to route the supply to
any terminal depending upon the switch contact positions.
83
The figure below shows full wiring diagram of an intermediate
switching arrangement through a joint box.
KEY
N - Neutral
L - Live conductor
E - Earth
conductor
R - Red core
B - Black/Blue core
JB - Joint box
NOTE: In all the above lighting circuits, the IEE regulations

specifies the following;
 No neutral conductor should be connected in the switch i.e.
neutral does not pass through the switch.
 All switches must be connected in live conductors only. For
circuits wired in multi-core cables, the black core should be
used as live to feed the lamps.
84
RING FINAL CIRCUITS
Definition:
A ring circuit is a final circuit arranged in form of a ring and
connected to a single point of a system.
In these systems, the phase, neutral and circuit protective
conductor are connected to their respective terminals in the
consumer unit, looped into each socket outlet in turn and then
returned to their respective terminals in the consumer unit thus
forming a ring.
If a separate protective conductor is run, it must commence at the
Earthing terminal within the distribution boards looping into all the
socket outlets and fused spur units before returning into the same
Earthing terminal as exactly the same way as wire conductors.
The figure above is a ring circuit showing how fused spur,

non-fused spurs and permanently connected equipment are
connected to a ring circuit.
85
a. Permanently connected equipment (stationary appliance)
It should be locally protected by a fuse which does not exceed
13A rating and be controlled by a switch complying with
BS7671 or be protected by a circuit breaker not exceeding 16A
or 15A rating
b. Non-fused spurs
- Spurs may be installed on a ring circuit. It is more common to
non-fused spurs connected to a circuit at the terminals of a
socket outlet at joint boxes or at the origin of the circuit in the
distribution board.
- A non-fused spur may supply only one single or one twin
socket outlet or one item of a permanently connected
equipment.
- The total number of non-fused spur should not exceed the
total number of socket outlets and items of fixed equipment
connected directly to the ring circuit.
- The size of conductor for the no-fused spur must be the same
size as that of the conductor used on the ring.
86
c. Fused spur
- A fused spur is connected to the circuit through a fused
connection box/unit. The fuse inco-operated should be related
to the current carrying capacity of the cable used for the spur
but should not exceed 13A.
- When the circuit is wired from a fused spur, the minimum size
of the conductor is 2.5mm2 PVC insulated cables and the total
no of fused spurs is un limited.
87
IEE REGULATIONS ON RING CIRCUITS
 Each socket outlet of a twin or multiple socket is to be
regarded as one socket outlets.
 The floor area served by a single 30A or 32A ring final circuit
must not exceed 100M2, in domestic installation.
 Where the floor area exceeds 100M2, an additional ring final
circuit should be installed.
 It’s a good practice to install a separate ring final in a kitchen
of a dwelling as this is normally the load centre of most
domestic installations.
 When more than one ring circuit is installed in the same
premises, socket outlets installed should be reasonably shared
among the ring circuit so that the assed load is balanced.
 Immersion heaters, storage vessels in excess of 15L, capacity
or permanently connected heating appliances forming part of a
comprehensive heating installation, a supply by their own.
 The number of un fused spurs connected to the ring must not
exceed the total number of socket outlets and any stationary
equipment directly connected to the ring.
 A fused spur may be connected onto the ring circuit through a
fused spur box and a rating of a fuse should be 13A
maximum.
88
RADIAL CIRCUITS
Definition:
A radial circuit is a circuit where the conductors do not form a loop
but finish at the last outlet.
There will be a number of outlets in a radial circuit which un
limited provided the floor area is not exceeded and this will be
determined by assessment load and shock protection constraints.
A3 RADIAL CIRCUIT
In domestic premises, this circuit is wired in 2.5mm2 copper cable
and protected by a 20A device.
The floor area is limited to 50M2 and in this area, any number of
socket outlets may be installed and this is shown as below;
The figure above shows a group of socket outlets connected in

a radial form.
89
13A SOCKET OUTLET
A socket outlet is a device with final contacts which is to be
installed in a fixed wiring and intended to receive a plug.
It is designed on standard so that appliances of any rating up to
13A, 3KW,240V can be plugged into it.
The terminals of a socket outlet must be connected as shown below;
IEE REGULATIONS FOR SOCKET OUTLETS

 Provision shall be made so that every portable appliances and
portable lighting fitting can be fed from some adjacent
conveniently accessible socket outlets.
 Switched socket outlets are recommended for the most
location so as to avoid frequent removal of plugs and move on
contacts.
 Sockets for cleaning appliances should be included in holes,
passages and handings as necessary.
 The mounting height of a socket outlet should be 0.5M from
the finished floor and 0.3M from the skirting.
90
A PLUG
It is a device provided with contact pins which are intended to be
attached to a flexible cable and which can be engaged in socket
outlet or in a connector.
The corresponding standard plug is of three pin with a 13A
cartridge fuse. The pins are also marked E, L & N and it is essential
to use a fuse rating appropriate to the appliance to which the plug
is connected.
91
COOKOING APPLIANCES
THE UNITS OF A COOKER

1. Cooker plates: these are
of two types;
(a) Solid type. These have a
wiring element embarked in
cast iron body.
(b) Radiant type. These are
insulated with magnesium
oxide and sheathed.
2. Oven: This is for large
baking and heat is generated
by simmer switch.
3. Grill: This is for small baking
4. Cooker switches: These are for controlling individual
components of the cooker e.g. cooker plates, grill and oven.
Each component is controlled by its own switch.
92
COOKER CONTROL UNIT
The figure above shows the internal wiring of a cooker control

unit with a 13A socket outlet inco-operated.
IEE REGULATIONS ON INSTALLATION OF COOKERS

 The rating of the cooker control circuit should be 30A. The
wiring should terminate on either cooker control unit which
includes a socket outlet or single 30A switch.
 A control unit should be adjacent to a cooker approximately
1350mm above the floor level. Control units with switches are
available with pilot lamps if required.
 A cooker should not be adjacent to a refrigerator and the
control unit should preferably be 2M away from the sink
particularly if it includes a socket outlet.
 If two cookers are to be installed in a room, each cooker shall
be connected to its own way from the distribution board and
control units should be 2M apart from each other.
93
HEAT CONTROL IN COOKERS (HEATING APPLIANCES)
There are different methods of heat control in heating appliances
such as;
 Three-way switch control in cookers
 The simmer start control method
 Thermostat method
(a) Three-way switch control in cookers.

 Some cookers are provided with three heat switch which
may be in high, medium, low and off positions.
 In high position, the two heating elements are connected
in parallel across the supply.
 In the medium position, only one element is connected.
 In low position, the two elements are connected in series.
 In the off position, none of the elements is connected.
HIGH both elements in parallel = 2000W
MEDIUM one element connected = 1000W
LOW both elements in series = 500W
OFF none of the elements is connected = 0W
HEATING RATIO
High. Medium. Low. Off.
2000 1000 500 0
: : :
500 500 500 500
4 : 2 : 1 : 0
94
The diagrams above show a three-way heat control switch
positions in cookers
95
(b) The simmerstart control method.
Another method of heat control is the simmerstart switch. This

is designed to provide different regulations of input heat to
boiling plates.
The simmerstart operates by opening and closing the switch at
different intervals.
The ratio of the time controlled circuit is ON to the time it is
OFF is determined by pressing a graduated knob on the
operator setting.
The simmerstart provides a gradual infinite value means of
control of a cooker hot plates. It consists of bi-metallic strip
sorrounded by heating coil.
Operation
When the control knob is pressed in ON position, the common
allows the strip to raise freely to the extent that the contacts
are never open at the hot plate until it uses full rated power.
96
(c) THERMOSTATS
This is used to control an electric heating appliance so that a
different temperature is maintained.
It is therefore a switch which operates in a changing
temperature control of room, water heaters, cookers ironing
boxes etc.
It maintains a temperature in a defined unit by switching off
the appliance when a high temperature is attained and
switching it again when a low temperature is attained.
There are two types of thermostats;
1. Capillary tube thermostat
2. Bi-metallic strip thermostat
CAPILLARY TUBE THERMOSTAT
The
thermostat consists of a thermally sensitive thrial approximately

5mm in diameter connected to the switch unit by a length of metal
capillary tubing.
The change of temperature in the liquid is the thrial one
transmitted hydronically through the capillary tube to a capsule in
the switch unit.
Movement of this capsule activates a micro gap switch when the
designed temperature is set by the control knob has been reached.
The liquid in the thrial is sensitive to the temperature change
between 200oC and 300oC.
97
BI-METALLIC STRIP THERMOSTAT
The bi-metallic strip is almost identical with the water heater

thermostat and consists of a brass tube which forms the heat
sensitive point of the instrument, the free end being fastened to a
rod inside the tube.
It is made up of a metal alloy which is hardly affected by heat so
that expansion or contraction of the brass tube due to heating or
cooling be fully transmitted to the end of the load where it operates
contacts through a rivet.
The contacts work on a micro-gap principle so only a small
movement of brass tube is required to open the tube or close it.
98
DIVERSITY FACTOR
Definition:
It is the factor which is applied to main and sub-main cable and
associated with the switch gear to reduce the cross sectional area of
the cable and the capacity of the switch gear.
This factor is based on the assumption that all of the connected
loads will not be ON at the same time e.g. total lighting load in a
dwelling.
Light is rarely switched ON at once thus if it can be taken that the
total lighting load is 1000W, at any one time during the life the
installation, only 66% of the loads will be switched ON.
NB. Diversity factor shall not be allowed for calculating the circuits
of the conductor and switch gear of the final sub circuits other than
specified circuits such as cooker circuits.
FINAL CIRCUITS WHERE DIVERSITY FACTOR IS APPLIED

The following are some of the types of final circuits where diversity
factor is applied;
 Lighting
 Heating
 Cooking appliances which are permanently connected
 Motors
 Instantaneous water heaters
 Thermostically controlled water heaters
 Floor warming installations
 Simmer storage space heating installation
 BA fused socket outlet and appliance fed from these socket
outlets.
99
Groups of installations where diversity factor is applied.
There are three general groups of installations in premises where
diversity factor is applied. These include;
(a) Individual domestic installations 0.66
(b) Hotels, lodging and boarding homes 0.75
(c) Shops, stores, offices and business premises 0.9
DIVERSITY FACTOR FOR COOKING APPLINCES

The current rating for the cooker circuit to be installed must be
determined from the assessment of current demeans of cooking
appliances. These will need an allowance for diversity factor.
The IEE regulations indicates methods to be employed for
assessment of the circuit rating using appropriate diversity factor.
These factors are based on the assumption that it would be un
likely for the whole heating elements to be working at the same
time.
For domestic heating appliance (cooker), the current assessment is
as follows;
The first 10A of the rated current + 30% of the remainder of the
rated current + 5A if a socket outlet is inco-operated in the
cooker control unit.
100
Example one
Determine the circuit rating for a 240V,12KW cooker controlled by a
unit having 13A socket outlet inco-operated.
Solution:
Data given;
- P = 12KW
- V = 240V
- I =?
- 13A socket outlet inco-operated
From: P = IV
𝑃 12×103
I= =
𝑉 240
I = 50A
Therefore, current rating of a cooker = 50A
Applying diversity factor for cooking appliances,

Take the first 10A
Remainder will be 50A - 10A = 40A
30
And 30% of remainder will be × 40 = 12A
100
Thus circuit rating for a cooker will be given as follows;
(10A + 12A + 5A for socket outlet)
= 27A
101
Example two
A cooker circuit rated at 70A and controlled by a unit without
socket outlet. Determine the rating of the protective device for this
circuit.
Solution
Load current = 70A
Circuit has no socket outlet.
Applying diversity factor

First 10A
Remainder 70A – 10A = 60A
30
30% of remainder = × 60
100
= 18A
Therefore, rating of the protective device = (10 + 18)
= 28A
Assignment
A cooker has the following loads
I. An oven rated at 2.2KW
II. Two ring plates rated at 1.5KW each
III. One grill plate rated at 2.75KW
IV. One big round plate having a rating of 3KW
It is connected to a 230V supply. Applying diversity factor given by
the regulations for a cooker circuit, calculate the rating of the
protective device for the above cooker unit.
102
ELECTRIC HEATING
If a current is passed through a conductor, the temperature of that
conductor increases. This is termed as the heating effect of an
electric current to heat energy.
ELECTRIC WATER HEATERS

There are two basic types of water heaters and all these water
heaters operate on the basic principle that when water is heated,
becomes less dense and rises. These include;
1. Free outlet or non-pressure type
2. The pressure type water heater
An immersion heater element is fitted at the bottom of the tank or
vertically though the center, so that all the water in the tank will be
heated.
The immersion heater will only heat water above it. But in the free
outlet type, cold water is fed into the tank through an inlet valve.
When this valve is opened, the incoming cold water pushes the less
dense hot water into the outlet pipe.
103
FREE OUTLET WATER HEATER
 This type of water heater consists of a tinned copper tank

insulated against heat loss by a granulated cork or glass fibre
lagging.
 The inlet valve is fitted with a baffle plate to keep the incoming
cold water at the bottom of the tank.
 The outlet pipe has an ant drip syphon which is fitted to
prevent outlet from dripping when the valve is closed.
 The heating element is composed of a nichrome spiral encased
in a plated copper tube and insulated with a refractory (heat
resistant) material.
 The thermostat is used to control the temperature of water in
the tank.
104
PRESSURE TYPE WATER HEATER
 In this type, the hot water tank is fed from a cold water cistern
placed above it.
 The water supplying the cistern is controlled by the ball valve.
 When hot water is drawn off the hot water tank, the cistern
replenishes it and the ball valve comes into operation to refill
the cistern.
 In this way, a constant pressure of water is kept on the hot
water system.
Difference between pressure and non-pressure water heaters.

The non-pressure type is controlled by one valve on the inlet side
and the pressure type is designed to supply one or more outlets on
the hot water side.
105
OPERATION OF THE WATER HEATER THERMOSTAT
The sequence of operation is as follows;

 The heat from the water heats a brass tube causing it to
expand
 An invar (non-expanding) rod is at the end of the tube.
 The movement of the brass tube draws the invar rod away
from contacts, breaking the heater circuits.
 The point at which the contacts open, is designed by the
pressure on the contacts. An adjustable screw allows
variations in the operating temperature, generally 43oC to
82oC.
106
ELECTRIC SPACE HEATING
There are three methods of transferring the heat from the body, that
is;
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Conduction: is when heat is transmitted through a solid.
Convection: is when heat is transmitted by the movement of
heated Particles.
Radiation: is when heat is transmitted from one object to another
without heating the intervening space.
Electric space heaters are sub-divided into two categories;

1. Radiation heating
2. Convection heating
Radiation heating
The simplest example of this

type is the high
temperature(870oC) reflector
type fire.
The heat from the element is
reflected from a polished
surface, and only heats
objects directly in front of it.
Another example is the wall-
mounted heating panel.
107
Convection heating
The convection heater draws in
cold air at the bottom, heats it on
the ‘black heat’ element, and
releases it at the top, forming a
convection current in the
surrounding air.
Convection heaters are used for
back ground heating.
Thermostats are often fitted to the
heaters for automatic control at a
pre-set temperature.
Factors to consider when calculating power required for space

heating
The following are the factors to be taken into consideration when
calculating electric power required for space heating;
 Room area and position, colder facing North
 Materials used in the building
 Number and position of windows
 Comparison of inside and outside temperature
 Number of changes of air per hour generally taken as two.
A rough estimate of heating capacity required may be calculated
using 50W per cubic metre.
108
ELECTRIC BELLS AND INDICATING SYSTEMS
Electrical indicators generally use the magnetic effect of an electric
current.
If a current is passed through a coil, an electro-magnet can be
strengthened by using a soft iron core.
ELECTRIC BELLS
The electro magnet is also used in the operation of electric bells.
There are generally four types of electric bells in common use. Viz;
1. Single stroke bell
2. Continuous ringing bell
3. Trembler bell
4. Palarised bell
SINGLE STROKE BELL

CONSTRUCTION
It consists of two coils of
electro-magnet or cotton
insulated copper wires mounted
on the insulated bobbins.
The bobbins are fixed onto a U-
shaped iron core. Then the soft
iron strip riveted to the spring
loaded armature that carries a
striker attached to it.
The figure above shows a single stroke electric bell
109
OPERATION
When the push button is pressed, a circuit is closed and the
current flows in the bell from terminal T1 through the magnetic coils
and back to terminal T2.
The magnetic coils are then magnetized and attract the armature
and thus causing the striker attached to it hit the gong once. The
armature remains on the attached position as long as current flows
i.e.as long as the bell push is re-pressed.
NOTE: The circuit must be opened and remade before the gong can
again be struck and the position of the armature is so adjusted that
the striker remains just to clear off the bell after the stroke to
prevent muffling of the sound.
TREMBLER BELL
CONSTRUCTION
This type of a bell is commonly
used as the doorbell.
It has a make-break contact
that is provided in the circuit
instead of the coils being
connected directly across the
supply along the bell push.
The coils are in series with the
adjustable contact screw against
which the armature spring leaf
contact normally rests.
The figure above shows a Trembler electric bell
110
OPERATION
When the bell is pressed, the current flows from T1 through the
magnetic coils and along the spring to the make-break contact and
back to terminal T2.
Later the coils become energised and attract the armature thus
making the striker hit the gong. This movement of the armatu5re
from the contact screw breaks the circuit.
As the circuit is opened, the coils are de-energised and the
armature falls back to its original position which makes the circuit
once again complete.
Because of making-breaking contacts, sparking occurs on the
contact points. However, this can be reduced by making the
contacts from silver or platinum.
CONTINUOUS RINGING BELL

CONSTRUCTION
The continuous ringing bell
has a small lever which is
placed below the contact
screw.
This lever drops
automatically on the first
stroke of the bell, and as it
drops, it shorts out the bell
push, thus causing the bell to
ring continuously until the
lever is reset by the cord.
The figure above shows a continuous ringing bell
111
OPERATION
When the bell push is operated, the coils become magnetized and
the armature is attracted towards the coils.
The lever drops on the first stroke and shorts the push. The bell
now operates as a trembler bell.
To stop the bell, pull the cord thus resetting the lever.
PALERISED BELL
CONSTRUCTION
This type of bell can as well be
called magneto-bell. This is so
because it operates from an AC
attained from the type of magneto
as used in certain types of
telephone circuits.
It consists of three limbered
permanent magnets with its two
outside limbs sorrounded by coils
in series.
The figure above shows a Palarised bell
OPERATION
When the circuit is closed, the current flows through the coils and
the current in the coils has one polarity i.e. positive direction, then
one pole or the magnet is strengthened and the other is weakened.
This causes the armature to move thus making the striker to hit the
gong. On the other hand, when the current direction is reversed,
the opposite is true. i.e. the second gong is now hit by the striker.
NOTE: Each cycle of AC causes the armature to pivot thus making
the bell to produce a ringing sound.
112
ELECTRICAL INDICATING SYSTEMS
A bell indicator refers to the light or sign spread on the indicator
board to show the origin of each call.
For this matter, a visual indicator board must be installed. This is
necessary when the bell is to be run from a number of bell pushes
in separate rooms.
The indicator board consists of a number of indicator elements and
each element is connected into one of the contact circuits.
Each point is marked with a respective name e.g. front door, bed
room or dining room.
TYPES OF BELL INDICATORS

There are three types of bell indicators in common use. These
include;
1. Pendrum type
2. Electrical replacement type
3. Mechanical replacement type
PENDRUM TYPE
CONSTRUCTION
The movement of this type of
bell indicator is similar to that
of a single stroke bell.
It comprises of single pole
electro-magnet. The soft iron
armature is pivoted at one end
and the end carries a flag.
The armature is located in front
of the electro-magnet whose coil is connected in series with the bell
push.
113
OPERATION
When the bell push is pressed, the electro-magnet is energised and
attracts the armature.
An adjustable contact screw on the concern bell makes and breaks
the circuit thus making the electro-magnet energised and de-
energised.
The armature swings to and from in a Pendrum fashion for a short
period of time before coming to rest. The movement of the flag is
seen through a hole on a glass screen.
Disadvantage
The disadvantage of this type of bell indicator is that, if a person
called happens to be outside of the room when the bell rings, a
Pendrum may have stopped swinging by the time the person
returns and reaches the indicator board.
ELECTRICAL REPLACEMENT TYPE
CONSTRUCTION
This type f bell indicator
employs two magnetic coils.
One of which is connected in
series with the bell circuit and
another one connected to the
replacement circuit with a
separate bell push.
The armature to which the flag
arm is attached is pivoted at its centre so that it can be attracted by
either magnetic coils.
114
OPERATION
When the bell push is pressed, the armature is attracted a shown in
the diagram above and the flag shows in the window of the indicator
board.
On the other hand, when the replacement push is operated, the
armature is attracted by the other magnetic coil and this movement
restores the flag to its original position.
MECHANICAL REPLACEMENT TYPE

CONSTRUCTION
This type of bell indictor
consists of a single core electro-
magnetic coil. The armature is
in form of a lever and is pivoted
at A and also held in position
by the spring S.
Its armature is provided by the
catch C which holds the flag
arm in OFF position. The flag
arm is pivoted at P and is
weighed as to drop when
released.
OPERATION
When the bell is ringing, the current flows in the magnet causing
the armature to be attracted.
As the armature is attracted, then the catch releases the flag which
falls into the alarm position.
NOTE: this indicator is reset mechanically by the horizontal
movement of the resetting bar from right to left returning the flag to
its original position.
115
BELL TRANSFORMERS
The simplest bell circuit uses a cell or battery for its supply.
The bell may also be supplied from a double-wound transformer
which consists of a soft-iron core with two windings, the primary
and the secondary.
The primary winding is connected to the supply while the secondary
winding supplies a low voltage and is connected to the circuit to be
supplied.
CLASSES OF BELL TRANSFORMERS

There are generally two classes of bell transformers and these
include the following;
1. Class A bell transformers
2. Class B bell transformers.
CLASS “A” BELL TRANSFORMERS

The class A bell transformers provide a choice of three secondary
voltages, 4V, 8V and 12V as shown in the diagram bellow.
The diagram above shows a class “A” bell transformer

116
CLASS “B” BELL TRANSFORMERS
With this type of bell transformer, it provides only a single
secondary voltage of 6V as shown in the diagram below.
The figure above shows a class “B’’ bell transformer
IEE REGULATIONS FOR BELL CIRCUITS

The following points must be put under consideration when
installing bell circuits operating on extra-low voltage supplies;
 The bell transformer must be double wound.
 One point of the transformer, the core and the metal case
must be earthed.
 The used transformer should be connected to a separate way
in the distribution board.
 The cable used to supply the transformer should be of a grade
suitable for the supply voltage in use.
117
FIRE ALARM SYSYTEMS
Definition:
A fire alarm system is an arrangement of call points, detectors,
sounders and other equipment for the transmission and indication
of alarm and supervisory signals, for the testing of circuits and
where required, for the operation of auxiliary services.
PURPOSE OF FIRE ALARM SYSTEM

The purpose of the fire alarm system is to;
 Provide an immediate alarm and so prevent loss of life.
 Also to secure the immediate attention of firefighting staff.
TYPES OF FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS

Fire alarm systems operate as;
1. Open circuit fire alarm systems
2. Closed circuit fire alarm systems
BASIC OPEN CIRCUIT ALARM SYSTEMS
In the open circuit fire

alarm systems, the call
points are normally open
and during operation, the
point closes two contacts in
the bell circuit so enrgising
the bell circuit directly.
The figure above shows a basic open circuit alarm system
118
ADVANTAGES OF OPEN CIRCUIT
 A circuit is simple
 No current is consumed on stand by
 A broken connection of a conduit will not result in a false
alarm.
DISADVANTAGES
 More indication is given if there is a break in the circuit which
makes part or all of the system in operative.
 A short circuit between the conductors can produce a false
alarm.
 The detector points are not monitored for breaks in the cable.
BASIC CLOSED CIRCUIT ALARM SYSTEM

In the closed circuit fire alarm
system, the call points are
normally closed which
therefore necessitates of bell
relay with a bell circuit and the
relay coil is wired in series with
call point circuit.
The relay coil remains energised so keeping relay contacts open and
the bell de-energised.
Should a call point be operated, the contacts open thus de-
energises the relay coil and the armature of the relay returns to its
normal position so closing contacts and cause the bell to ring.
This system is superior to the open circuit and in any part of a call
point circuit will cause the bell to ring.
119
Advantages of closed circuit
 The circuit is simple
 The detector points are monitored
Disadvantages
 Current is consumed continuously on stand by
 No indication is given of a short circuit between conductors
which may make some parts of the system in operative.
 The broken connection in a conductor can cause a false alarm.
NOTE: in both these systems, manually operated call points have
been used. But if protection from fire is required when the premises
are un occupied such as at night, weekends or holidays, the
automatic call points known as detectors are necessary.
MANUAL CALL POINTS

- They should be positioned free from obstructions at the height
of 1.4M above the floor level. They should be located so that
no person need to walk more than 30M from any position
within the premises in order to give an alarm.
- They should be colored “RED”. To discourage malicious calls,
a glass cover should be provided so that the call point cannot
be normally operated until the glass cover has been broken.
- In this method of operation, the information “FIRE ALARM
INCASE OF FIRE, BREAK GLASS” should be clearly shown.
Manual and automatic call points should be connected to
separate circuit.
INDICATOR BOARD: It indicates the origin of the fault in case of
fire.
120
EARTHING
EARTHING TERMS
Earth. The conductive mass of earth, whose electric potential at

any point is conventionally taken as zero.
Earthing: A connection to the general mass of earth by means of an
earth electrode
Earthed: Used to denote an object connected electrically to an earth
electrode
Solidly earthed: Connected electrically to an earth electrode
without fuse, switch, circuit breaker, resistor or impedance in the
earth connection.
Earth electrode: A conductor or group of conductors in intimate
contact with and providing an electrical connection to earth.
Earthing conductor (earth lead): A protective conductor
connecting a mains earthing terminal of an installation to an earth
electrode or to other means of earthing.
Live metal work. An object is said to be live when a difference in
potential exists between it and earth.
Exposed conductive parts. Parts of an equipment which can be
touched and not live parts but which may be live under fault
conditions
Extraneous conductive parts. Parts liable to introduce a potential
generally earth potential and not forming part of an electrical
installation
Bonding. This applies to pipes and other metal work connected
together to form a common earth potential.
121
Equipotential bonding. This is where all metallic parts of an
installation are joined together and connected to the main earthing
terminal.
Circuit protective conductor (CPC). A Conductor connecting
exposed metal work of an installation to the main earthing terminal
of an installation. The CPC can be a separate conductor, metal
conduit or trunking, the metal sheath of a cable, or the conductor
in flexible cord.
Protective multiple earthing(PME). The type of earthing where the
neutral conductor of the incoming supply authority is connected
together with earthing conductor of the consumer’s installation.
Earth resistance. The ohmic resistance between an earth electrode
system and the general mass of earth.
Earth resistivity. The resistance of a cube of side 1M, of a sample
of earth.
THE EARTH
The thin layer of material which covers our planet, be it rock, clay,
chalk or whatever, is what we in the world of electricity refer to as
earth.
Why do we need to connect anything to it? After all, it is not as
if earth is a good conductor.
Let us consider two conductors having potential differences of say,
20V and 26V, their P.d between them will be 26 - 20 = 6V. the
original p.ds, that is 26V and 20V are the p.ds between 20 and 0V
and 26 and 0V.
122
Where does this 0V or zero potential come from?
The simple answer is, in our case, the earth. The definition of
earth is therefore the conductive mass of earth, whose electric
potential at any point is conventionally taken as zero.
This means that if we connect a voltmeter between a live part and
earth, we would probably read 240V, the conductor is at 240V, then
the earth at zero.
The connection of the supply neutral to earth in the figure below
makes it possible to have a complete circuit via the earth.
Supply authority neutrals should be at around 0V, and in order to
maintain this condition, they are connected to the zero potential of
earth.
This means that a person in an installation touching a live part
whilst standing on the earth would take the place of the connected
voltmeter and could suffer a severe electric shock as shown in the
figure below;
123
Remember that, the accepted lethal level of shock current passing
through a person is only 50mA, or 1/20A. the same situation would
arise if a person was touching, say, a faulty appliance and a gas or
water pipe.
One method of providing some measure of protection against these
effects is to bond all metallic parts and connect them to earth. this
ensures that all metal work in a healthy situation is at or near 0V,
and under fault conditions all metal work will rise to the same
potential.
So, simultaneous contact with such metal parts wool not result in a
shock, as there will be no P.d between them. This method is known
as earthed equipotential bonding.
Note that; as previously mentioned, earth its self is not a good
conductor unless it is very wet and therefore, it presents a high
resistance to the flow of fault current.
This resistance is usually enough to restrict fault current to a level
well below that of the rating of the protective device, leaving a faulty
circuit uninterrupted. Clearly this is an unhealthy situation and
this can be overcome by employing various earthing methods. This
gives proper reasons as to why we need to connect the exposed
electrical parts of an installations to the earth.
REASONS FOR EARTHING

There are four major reasons as to why we carryout earthing of all
electrical installation systems and equipment. These include;
1. To maintain the potential of any part of a system at a definite

value with respect to earth (i.e. zero potential).
2. To allow current to flow to earth in the event of a fault, so that
the protective gear will operate to isolate the faulty circuit.
3. To make sure that in the event of a fault, apparatus normally
dead cannot reach a dangerous potential with respect to earth.
4. To prevent or to minimise the risk of shock to human beings
and livestock and reduce the risk of a fire hazard.
124
METHODS OF EARTHING
There are a number of methods used to achieve the earthing of an
installation;
1. A metallic return path provided by the supply authority. This
can be the cable sheath/ armoring of an underground cable.
2. The continuous earth wire(CEW) of a rural overhead
distribution system. This conductor is sometimes known as
the fifth wire or an aerial earth.
3. Direct earthing. Connection to the general mass of earth by
means of earth electrodes buried in the ground at apposition
as near as practicable to the consumer’s earthing terminal.
4. Protective multiple earthing(PME). Also known as the
continuous neutral earthing which uses the neutral of the
incoming supply as the earth point.
5. Installation of automatic fault protection devices such as
ELCB’s.
CONNECTING TO THE EARTH

In the light of previous comments, it is obviously necessary to have
as low an earth path resistance as possible, and the point of
connection to earth is one place where such resistance may be
reduced.
Because of the fact that, when two conducting surfaces are placed
in contact with each other, there will be a resistance to the flow of
current depending on the surface areas in contact.
It is clear then that the greater the surface contact area with earth
that can be achieved, the better. This can easily be achieved by
using different types of earthing connections to the earth.
125
TYPES OF EARTHING
There are several methods of making connection to earth. These can
be as follows.
 Pipe earthing
 Plate earthing Conventional types of earthing
 Rod earthing
 Strip earthing
126
Plate earthing
Generally, for plate type earthing in normal Practice is to use Cast iron plate of size
600 mm x600 mm x12 mm. OR Galvanized iron plate of size 600 mm x600 mm x6
mm. OR Copper plate of size 600 mm * 600 mm * 3.15 mm
Plate is buried at the depth of 8 feet in the vertical position and GI strip of size 50
mmx6 mm bolted with the plate is brought up to the ground level.
These types of earth pit are generally filled with alternate layer of charcoal & salt up to
4 feet from the bottom of the pit.
127
Pipe earthing
For Pipe type earthing, the normal practice is to use GI pipe [C-
class] of 75 mm diameter, 10 feet long welded with 75 mm diameter
GI flange having 6 numbers of holes for the connection of earth
wires and inserted in ground. These types of earth pit are generally
filled with alternate layer of charcoal & salt or earth reactivation
compound.
128
Rod earthing
It is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm
(1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or
hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2
ft.) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a
pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded electrodes in the soil
reduces earth resistance to a desired value.
129
Strip earthing
In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less
than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in x 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal
trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-
section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of
3.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should
not be too small, say less than 6.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or
steel. The length of the conductor buried in the ground would give a
sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than
15m.
130
POINTS TO BE EARTHED
Earthing is not done anyhow. According to IEE rules and IEE
regulations, the following should be earthed;
 Earth pin of a 3-pin plug socket should be efficiently and
permanently earthed.
 All metal casing or metallic covering containing or protecting
any electric supply line or apparatus such as GI pipes and
conduits enclosing PVC cables, iron clad switches, iron clad
DFB etc. should be earthed (connected to earth)
 The frame of every generator, stationary motors and metallic
parts of all transformers used for controlling energy should be
earthed by two separate and yet distinct connections with the
earth.
 In a DC 3-wire system, the middle conductors should be
earthed at the generating station
 Stay wires that are for overhead lines should be connected to
earth by connecting at least one strand to the earth.
METAL WORK EXEMPTED FROM EARTHING

The regulation requires that cable sheath, armours, metal conduit
and trunking, catenary wires and the like shall be effectively
earthed except the following;
a. Metal clips used for fixing cables
b. Metal lamp cups
c. Small metal parts e.g. screws, nameplates which are isolated
by insulating materials.
d. Metal chains for suspension of lighting fittings.
e. Catenary wires where insulated hungers are used.
f. Short isolated length of metal for protection
131
CAUSES OF HIGH SOIL RESISTANCE
• Soils lacking natural moisture content as resistivity increases
with decrease in moisture content.
• Lack of sufficient natural elements to form a conducting
electrolyte.
• Corrosive soils
• Painted and greased earth electrodes etc.
NOTE: conductivity of the soil is essentially electrolytic in nature
and it is therefore depending on the following factors;
• Moisture content of the soil
• Its chemical composition
• Concentration of salts dissolved in the contained water
• Grain size, distribution and closeness of packing since they
control the manner in which the moisture is held in soil.
• Soil temperatures.
HOW TO REDUCE THE SOIL RESISTANCE?

• Installation of multiple electrodes
• Ensure that the whole system is embedded where the moisture
content is high
• System of earthing used should be able to withstand corrosion
• In dry or rocky areas, alternate layers of charcoal and salt can
be used
• Where severe low temperature exists, upper soil layers can
become frozen. Therefore, earth electrodes should be buried
below the frost layer.
132
MEASUREMENT OF AN EARTH ELECTRODE
RESISTANCE
Figure above shows how to measure the earth electrode resistance

- This is done by passing a current through the electrode under test by a
certain voltage and the resistance is obtained by dividing the voltage by
current.
- From the figure above,
X is the earth electrode under test and must be disconnected from all
other sources of power.
Y auxiliary earth electrode
Z is the second auxiliary earth electrode
Z1 and Z2 are alternative positions for Z.
- An AC current of steady value shall be passed between electrode X under
test and auxiliary earth electrode Y placed at a such distance that the
resistance areas of X and Y do not overlap.
- The second auxiliary electrode Z shall be inserted half way between X and
Y and the voltage drop between X and Z shall be measured.
- The resistance of earth electrode is the voltage between X and Z over the
current between X and Y provided that there is no overlap of resistance
areas.
133
EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDENCE
The earth loop impedance is the impedance of earthing the circuit of
a consumer.
The impedance path
The figure above shows the earth fault loop path.

Construction of earth loop path
The construction of the earth fault loop path is as follows starting
from the point of fault,
 The circuit protective conductor (CPC)
 The consumer’s earthing terminal and earth c conductor.
 The return path, either metallic or earth.
 The earthed neutral of the supply transformer
 The transformer winding
 The line conductor from the transformer.
Purpose of the earth fault loop impedance.
 The purpose of the earth loop impedance is to test the
efficiency of the earth path so that in the event of the fault, it
is able to complete the circuit to ensure the protective device
will be able to operate.
134
PROTECTIVE MULTIPLE EARTHING (PME)
This is the system of earthing where the neutral conductor is
connected to the earthing conductor.
With this method, all line to earth faults are converted to line
neutral faults, the intention being to ensure that sufficient current
flows under fault conditions to operate devices which protect the
faulty circuit as shown below.
The figure above shows a PME system
DISADVANTAGES OF PME
 Due to the increased earth fault currents which are
encouraged to flow, there is an enhanced fire risk during the
time it takes for the protective device to operate.
 In case of any broken part of the in system, the whole
installation becomes live.
135
RESIDUAL CURRENT DEVICES (RCD)
Figure above shows the circuit diagram of a residual current

earth leakage circuit breaker
CONSRUCTION
This is also known as the current operated earth leakage circuit
breaker (COELCB).
It consists of a transformer with opposite windings carrying the
incoming and outgoing currents.
OPERATION
Under normal conditions when the values of current in the
windings are equal, the magnetic effect will council each. However,
a fault will cause an out balance condition and create the magnetic
effects in the transformer core which links with the turns of a small
secondary winding where by an e.m.f is induced in this winding.
The secondary winding is permanently connected to the operating
coil of the circuit breaker. The induced e.m.f will cause a current to
flow in the trip coil.
If this current is of sufficient value, the coil will become energised to
trip the breaker contacts.
136
EARTHING SYSTEMS
The systems of earthing in the IEE regulations are designated by
using the letters T, N, C and S. These letters stand for;
T Terre (French for earth) and meaning a direct connection to
earth.
N Neutral
C Combined
S Separate.
When these letters are grouped they form the classification of type
of system.
 The first letter in such a classification denotes how the supply
source is earthed.
 The second denotes how the metalwork of an installation is
earthed.
 The third and fourth indicate the functions of neutral and
protective conductors.
137
TT-SYSYTEM
This system has a direct connection of the supply source to earth
and a direct connection of the installation metalwork to earth.
An example is an overhead line with earth electrodes, and the mass
of earth as are turn path.
The figure above shows a TT-system
138
TN-S SYSYTEM
This system has the supply source directly connected to earth. The
installation metalwork connected to the earthed neutral of the
supply source via the metal sheath of the supply cable, the neutral
and the protective conductors throughout the whole system

performing separate functions.
The figure above shows a TN-S system
139
TN-C-S SYSTEM
This system forms a combined earth and neutral conductor known
as a PEN (protective earthed neutral) conductor. The installation
earth and neutral are separate conductors. This system is also
known as PME (protective multiple earthing).
The figure above shows a TN-C-S system
140

Supply PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Supply PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TCES 104

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION SUPPLY

TREATMENT FOR ELECTRIC SHOCK

B. MOUTH-TO-MOUTH METHOD (KISS OF LIFE)

Treatment for burns

Foot protective wears i.e. safety shoes, leggings and foot

Earplugs or earmuffs. These can help prevent

These are as follows

BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS (BSS)

SECOND FIX TOOLS

Files These are used for removing sharp

Electrician knife This is used for cutting insulation

Soldering iron It is used for soldering electrical

Phase tester Used for testing live circuits

Scriber Used for marking metal

Used for marking metal prior to

Advantages of hydroelectric power

A. GEOTHERMAL DRY STEAM POWER PLANTS

Fig. above shows a schematic diagram of a dry geothermal

Fig. above shows a schematic diagram of a geothermal wet

Advantages of tidal energy

Advantages of nuclear fuels

Disadvantages of nuclear fuels

Essential features of a switch gear

(a) Complete reliability: It should be reliable to isolate

(b) Absolutely certain discrimination: It should be able

(c) Quick operation: Should operate quickly in case of a

SUB MODULE IV: TRANSMISSION OF POWER

The purpose of the grid system

Advantages of the grid system

COMPONENTS OF A TRANSMISSION OVERHEAD LINE

An overhead line may be used to transmit or distribute electric

Fig. above shows across-arm fixed onto an electric

Fig. above shows a jumper crossing power from end to end

Fig. above shows a stay wire

Pin type insulator

Fig. above shows a pin type insulator

Fig. above shows a suspension type insulator

Fig. above shows a strain insulator

Fig. above shows a shackle insulator

If the power is to be supplied to various consumers locally is said to

DC TWO WIRE SYSTEM

This consists of a generator generating 500V, the positive outer and

In this case, supply is normally from the secondary of a transformer

AC SINGLE PHASE THREE WIRE

With this system of distribution, supply is from the secondary of a

The figure above shows the system of distribution transformer with

The above voltages are either between conductors (phase or

T.R.S CABLES PVC CABLES

A flexible cord is defined as a flexible cable in which the cross

CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF A PVC ARMOURED CABLE

JOINTING AND TERMINATING PVC ARMOURED CABLE

Applications of PVC armoured cable

JOINTING AND TERMINATION OF A PILCSWA CABLE

Construction of MIMS cable

JOINTING AND TERMINATING MIMS CABLE

Advantages of MIMIS cable

Disadvantages of MIMS cable

IEE Regulations governing installation of MIMS cable

Advantages of lead alloy sheathed cable

Reasons for fitting protective devices in an installation.

(a) Protection against electric shock

SHORT CIRCUIT AND EARTH FAULT CURRENTS

Figure above shows a Rewirable fuse to BS 3036