KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

MOMBASA CAMPUS

UNIT TITLE: PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

UNIT CODE: EPS 201

NAME: RUTH MWANGANGI

REGISTRATION NUMBER: E37S/MSA/15384/2018

SUBMITTED TO: DR. NJOROGE

QUESTION: Discuss the following theoretical approaches to motivation. Support your

discussion with relevant educational examples.

Discuss 10 strategies for self-regulation in a classroom

Discuss the following theoretical approaches to motivation. Support your discussion with
relevant educational examples

Behavioristic approaches;

Sometimes it is useful to think of motivation not as something “inside” a student driving the
student’s behavior, but as equivalent to the student’s outward behaviors. This is the perspective
of behaviorism, which is a way to think about the learning process. In its most thorough-going
form, behaviorism focuses almost completely on what can be directly seen or heard about a
person’s behavior, and has relatively few comments about what may lie behind (or “underneath”
or “inside”) the behavior. When it comes to motivation, this perspective means minimizing or
even ignoring the distinction between the inner drive or energy of students, and the outward
behaviors that express the drive or energy. The two are considered the same, or nearly so.
Equating the inner and the outward might seem to violate common sense. How can a student do
something without some sort of feeling or thought to make the action happen? As we will
explain, this very question has led to alternative models of motivation that are based on cognitive
rather than behaviorist theories of learning. We will explain some of these later in this chapter.
Before getting to them, however, we encourage you to consider the advantages of a behaviorist
perspective on motivation.

Sometimes the circumstances of teaching limit teachers’ opportunities to distinguish between

inner motivation and outward behavior. Certainly teachers see plenty of student behaviors—
signs of motivation of some sort. But the multiple demands of teaching can limit the time needed
to determine what the behaviors mean. If a student asks a lot of questions during discussions, for
example, is he or she curious about the material itself, or just wanting to look intelligent in front
of classmates and the teacher? In a class with many students and a busy agenda, there may not be
a lot of time for a teacher to decide between these possibilities. In other cases, the problem may
not be limited time as much as communication difficulties with a student. Consider a student
who is still learning English, or who belongs to a cultural community that uses patterns of
conversation that are unfamiliar to the teacher, or who has a disability that limits the student’s
general language skill. In these cases discerning the student’s inner motivations may take more
time and effort. It is important to invest the extra time and effort for such students, but while a
teacher is doing so, it is also important for her to guide and influence the students’ behavior in
constructive directions.

The most common version of the behavioral perspective on motivation is the theory of operant
conditioning associated with B. F. Skinner (1938, 1957). The description in that chapter focused
on behavioral learning, but the same operant model can be transformed into an account of
motivation. In the operant model, you may recall, a behavior being learned (the “operant”)
increases in frequency or likelihood because performing it makes a reinforcement available. To
understand this model in terms of motivation, think of the likelihood of response as the
motivation and the reinforcement as the motivator. Imagine, for example, that a student learns by
operant conditioning to answer questions during class discussions: each time the student answers
a question (the operant), the teacher praises (reinforces) this behavior. In addition to thinking of
this situation as behavioral learning, however, you can also think of it in terms of motivation: the
likelihood of the student answering questions (the motivation) is increasing because of the
teacher’s praise (the motivator).

Humanistic approaches

Abraham Maslow’s perspective on motivation, deficiency-growth needs theory, has both

similarities to, and differences from, instinct and drive theory. Like the originators of those
theories, Maslow proposes that people are born with innate needs that they strive to satisfy.
However, in contrast to Freud and Hull, Maslow (1943, 1970) believes that the ultimate direction
of this energy is not simply the satisfaction of biological needs or tension reduction but a striving
for self-actualization. Consequently, his theory accentuates the positive, intellectual, uplifting
(not simply hedonistic) side of human beings. For Maslow, innate forces and an innate hierarchy
of needs (both deficiency needs and growth needs) give human behavior its distinctive energy
and direction. According to him;

Basic needs are those of physiological and safety needs. These needs are our more primitive and
instinctual needs for survival. Physiological needs include our needs for food, water, shelter,
breathing, and sleep; those functions and requirements to keep us alive.
Our psychological needs include belongingness and love needs, and esteem needs. These needs
relate to having meaning and purpose to our lives, making life worth living. Belongingness and
love needs relate to our need to feel like we are an accepted member of social groups. These
groups might include family, friends, work, or other social connections. Esteem needs include
our needs for achievement, learning, industry, and status. These things contribute to the
development of self-esteem.

The pinnacle of the hierarchy is self-actualization. Self-actualization is a brief time in which all

needs have been fulfilled and we are able to reach our potential. Not all individuals are able to
reach self-actualization due to lower-level needs all needing to be fulfilled first. Those that do
reach self-actualization will not remain there long as, eventually, lower level needs will arise. To
motivate learners’ the lower levels of the hierarchy must be achieved.

Cognitive approaches

Cognitive behavior represents another approach to understanding the effects of learning on the
instigation of behavior. In the process of learning that particular behaviors can lead to particular
goals, expectations about the goals are established and the goals acquire values.
One cognitive approach to motivation, called expectancy‐value theory, stresses that the
probability of occurrence of behavior depends upon individuals' perception of the value of a goal
as well as their expectation of reaching it. Variations of the theory have been used to study such
motives as the need for achievement (Henry Murray) and the need for success (John Atkinson).

Other cognitive motivational theories focus on individual characteristics and how those
characteristics relate to motivation. Carl Rogers, for example, proposed that an individual strives
to become self‐actualized, a process important in the development of a mature personality.
Cognitive theorists believe that behavior is determined by our thinking not by rewards or
punishments we anticipate or receive. In their view behavior is initiated and regulated by inner
plans not by external events or physical conditions like hunger. Cognitive theorists tend to see
people as Active, Curious and always searching for information to solve personally relevant
problems. Therefore; people work hard because they enjoy work and because they want to
understand. Cognitive theory emphasizes intrinsic motivation whereby behavior is engaged in for
its own sake or for the satisfaction of doing it.

Achievement motivation theory

The motivation achievement theory was developed by David McClelland, and it states that
human beings are motivated by three main factors that include achievement, power, and
affiliation (Aswathappa, 2005). The need for achievement is the strongest and has greater
significance in the achievement of success. McClelland believed that the need for achievement
was a human intention that was critical to living a meaningful life. He maintained that people
who are driven by achievement pursue excellence for the sake of succeeding.

In that regard, they value personal achievement more than the rewards that come with success
(Aswathappa, 2005). The satisfaction of attaining a goal is more important than any reward that
could accompany it. An individual’s intention to pursue success is determined by three main
factors namely the need to achieve, one’s estimate of the likelihood of success, and how strongly
the individual wants to succeed (Fyans, 2013).

The theory suggests that achievement motivation is an innate human need that drives people to
pursue excellence in their activities (Aswathappa, 2005). The need for achievement is based on
two major factors namely, intention and the force of intention on behavior. In an organization,
the personal motive of an employee is usually shaped by the hierarchy that the employee wishes
to occupy in the organization (Shah & Gardner, 2008). The motive shapes the behavior of the
employee in the process of achieving goals.

The theory postulates several characteristics that McClelland considered evident in achievement-
oriented individuals. First, they value achievement more than the material or financial reward for
achieving their goals (Fyans, 2013). In that regard, they get more satisfaction achieving a goal
than from getting recognition for achieving a goal. Second, they view financial rewards as a tool
to measure success and not as a goal to be pursued (Shah & Gardner, 2008). Therefore, they are
neither motivated by the security nor the economic status that money brings.

Attribution theory

Attributions are perceptions about the causes of success and failure. Suppose that you get a low
mark on a test and are wondering what caused the low mark. You can construct various
explanations for make various attributions about this failure. Maybe you did not study very hard;
maybe the test itself was difficult; maybe you were unlucky; maybe you just are not smart
enough. Each explanation attributes the failure to a different factor. The explanations that you
settle upon may reflect the truth accurately or then again, they may not. What is important about
attributions is that they reflect personal beliefs about the sources or causes of success and failure.
As such, they tend to affect motivation in various ways, depending on the nature of the
attribution (Weiner, 2005).

Attributions vary in three underlying ways: locus, stability, and controllability. Locus of

attribution is the location (figuratively speaking) of the source of success or failure. If you
attribute a top mark on a test to your ability, then the locus is internal; if you attribute the mark to
the test’s having easy questions, then the locus is external. The stability of an attribution is its
relative permanence. If you attribute the mark to your ability, then the source of success is
relatively stable by definition, ability is a relatively lasting quality. If you attribute a top mark to
the effort you put into studying, then the source of success is unstable effort can vary and has to
be renewed on each occasion or else it disappears. The controllability of attribution is the extent
to which the individual can influence it. If you attribute a top mark to your effort at studying,
then the source of success is relatively controllable you can influence effort simply by deciding
how much to study. But if you attribute the mark to simple luck, then the source of the success
is uncontrollable there is nothing that can influence random chance.

Discuss 10 strategies for self-regulation in a classroom

Introduction

Self-regulation is the capacity to accept unfulfilled desires or needs, deal with setbacks and
failures, and strive towards achievement. Children should be taught self-regulation at an early
age because it will be how they handle stress for the rest of their lives. Self-control is crucial for
success in learning, working, and living. Children learn the basic skills for self-regulation
between birth and age five, which is the crucial window for self-regulation. Good self-regulation
includes focused attention, the capacity to avoid distractions, the ability to stay on target, inhibits
impulsivity, plans one's actions, is able to reflect on one's thinking, cooperates with peers, and
demonstrates empathy to them as they begin kindergarten. Turn-taking, following instructions
the first time they are given, and communicating are further abilities.
Modelling; Explain to students how you are feeling and what you plan to do about it. For
example, you may say, "I am feeling furious right now, so I'm going to walk away and talk about
this later," or "I am feeling upset right now, so I'll take a big breath."

Develop courses on self-awareness. Teach children how to detect bodily reactions to stressors,
how to define their own sensations, and how to comprehend what happens when they feel
nervous, angry, sad, bored, or excited. Talk about and role-play appropriate ways for people to
handle and express their emotions.

Use circle time exercises to formally instruct children on self-control. Ask students to think
about strategies for controlling their emotions, such as deep breathing, walking away, counting to
10, getting some fresh air, or drinking. Practice applying the techniques in role-playing and
simulations.

Educate kids on self-monitoring. Give students who have a lot of difficulty controlling their
behavior the chance to self-monitor by keeping track of the times they apply the techniques they
have learned.

Utilize time out for good. Instruct children on how to use a time-out area when they're unhappy
or need a moment to collect themselves. By assisting them in recognizing when their bodies start
to exhibit indications of stress, you may motivate kids to use the area as a preventative measure.
See here for suggestions on how to make the most of your time off.

Extra guidance should be given. Smaller group lessons concentrating on the aforementioned
techniques should be given to kids who struggle with self-regulation.

Give students who employ the tactics positive reinforcement by providing them with detailed
feedback on their behavior, such as "Tommy, I notice you utilized the coping mechanism of
leaving when you felt furious. You are developing emotional control.

Together, you should establish goals for the kid who struggles with self-control, such as, "When
I'm furious, I'll go away and take deep breaths." Ensure that the learner has the chance to practice
the skill when they are not irritated. Learn how to handle a student who is not interested in class.
Practice mindfulness as a class. You may download The Smiling Mind for free via YouTube or
through an app. Encourage specific pupils to apply the techniques when they need to concentrate
on their work or relax.

Conclusion

To succeed in life and accomplish our most significant objectives, we need the abilities
associated with self-regulation. These abilities can also have a significant influence on general
welfare. Self-regulation is a subject that should be taken into consideration by everyone. Given
that it is a critical ability for kids to develop, learning about it may, in fact, be even more crucial
for parents and educators.

References

Di Fabio, A., & Kenny, M. E. (2016). Promoting well-being: The contribution of emotional
intelligence. Frontiers in Psychology, 7.

Hagger, M. S., & Orbell, S. (2003). A meta-analytic review of the common-sense model of
illness representations. Psychology & Health, 18, 141-184.

Kuypers, L. (n.d.). Learn more about the zones. Zones of Regulation. Retrieved from
https://www.zonesofregulation.com/learn-more-about-the-zones.html

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter
(Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications (pp. 3-31).
New York, NY, US: Basic Books.