Cognitive Ergonomics

By:
Almaden, Giles B.
Acaso, Kyla Shenna M.

Introduction

Although ergonomic interventions have shown a great success to improve safety

and productivity in the industry ergonomists and safety researchers have faced a new
challenge to move one step further. The industry’s recent requests from ergonomists and
cognitive psychologists are and solutions for workers who have cognitive disorders and
failures such as reductions in visual and hearing functions at least to some extents. A
large part of occupational accidents and injuries is caused by human errors due to
cognitive breakdowns. The human errors have different causes, but cognitive abilities and
limitations of workers play an important role.

Cognitive failures are described as cognitively-based errors arising in a simple

task that persons or workers can do without any error. These events differ in their natures
and rates amongst workers or individuals. Cognitive failures occur in job-related and
non-job-related activities. Specifically, work-related cognitive failures are cognitively
based human errors and clusters of breakdowns that appear in working environments. For
this reason, it needs to examine relationships between occupational cognitive failures and
safety consequences.

The associations between general cognitive failures and workplace accidents have
been extensively assessed by researchers. For example, Arthur et al. showed a positive
correlation between cognitive failures and occupational safety and concluded that
workplace accidents were caused by inattention, distraction, and mental errors. The
similar outcome was obtained in a study of the traffic domain. Other studies also
conducted to and the connotation between cognitive failures and minor injuries and found
a positive correlation between cognitive failures and fall injuries.

Why do I need to know this as an engineer?

Cognitive aspects of a workplace concern the sensory signals that give our brains
the clues and cues to understand a task or to solve a problem. Your task as an engineer is
to create the best possible conditions for workers to correctly interpret the task and task
status, in order to avoid danger, errors, confusion, irritation, and mental overload. This is
obviously a very powerful design area, which can make or break a worker’s ability to
understand what to do in the workplace. In other words, we are moving the focus from
the physical to the mental in this chapter. Many cognitive aspects have to do with our
interpretation of sensory stimuli (vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste), our capability
to recognize patterns, our understanding of instructions, and our ability to associate
symbols with meaning. The brain is constantly handling cognitive processes (even during
sleep!) and often needs to be well-rested and nourished to work optimally. However, it is
not uncommon that work is performed in a state of fatigue, which adds limitations to our
cognition, attention, perception, memory, and mental models.

With some basic knowledge of good cognitive design principles, a production

engineer can minimize unnecessary mental workload and help an operator perform their
work tasks more efficiently and with fewer errors and misinterpretations. This theoretical
knowledge can contribute to the design of workplaces, instructions, machines, tools, and
activities that communicate better to the worker how to achieve their goals. This chapter
also brings up some examples of currently existing cognitive support solutions used in
modern production.

Which roles Benefit from this knowledge?

The system performance improver who understands human cognitive abilities and
limitations will be able to specify requirements for appropriate equipment, instructions,
and human-machine interfaces that can aid workers in doing tasks efficiently and
correctly.

The purchaser will be able to better understand the value of investing in human-
machine systems that transmit information and instructions as quickly and intuitively as
possible. For both these roles, there is an economic argument that workers with good
cognitive support commit fewer errors, leading to better product quality and less waste
and scrap – but this may need to be proven with a business case and translated into a
prospect of higher quality and/or productivity to convince a purchaser.

The work environment/safety specialist can use this knowledge to pinpoint safety
hazards and risks for error that can be traced to signals and information being missed or
misinterpreted due to sensory distraction or insufficient cognitive support.

What is Cognitive Ergonomics?

Cognitive ergonomics is the field of study that focuses on how well the use of a
product matches the cognitive capabilities of users. It draws on knowledge of human
perception, mental processing, and memory. Rather than being a design discipline, it is a
source of knowledge for designers to use as guidelines for ensuring good usability.

According to the International Ergonomics Association, cognitive ergonomics is

concerned with mental processes such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor
response, as they affect interactions amongst humans and other elements of a system. It is
the discipline and practices for making human-system interaction compatible with human
cognitive abilities and limitations, particularly at work. It aims to ensure appropriate
communication amongst human needs, works, products, environments, capabilities, and
limitations.

The relevant research topics in cognitive ergonomics include mental workload,

decision-making, skilled performance, human-computer interaction, human reliability,
work stress, and training, as these may relate to human-system design. Hence, cognitive
ergonomics mainly studies cognition in work and operational settings in order to optimize
human well-being and system performance. It is a subset of the larger disciplinary fields
of ergonomics and human factors.

In the human-system interaction, cognitive ergonomics employ the knowledge

emerging from cognitive sciences on mental processes such as perception, attention,
memory, decision-making, and learning. The methods of these research areas are applied
to gain a better understanding of the factors that affect cognitive function.
 The practical purpose of cognitive ergonomics is to elucidate the nature of human
abilities and limitations in information processing. This means that the specific goal is to
improve work conditions and human performance, as well as safety and health, and to
avoid human errors and unnecessary load and stress. These aspects need to be
comprehensively studied in the context of work and other systems. In recent years, there
has also been a trend to exploit the methods of neuroscience in the field of cognitive
ergonomics.

History of Cognitive Ergonomics

The field of cognitive ergonomics emerged predominantly in the 70s with the
advent of the personal computer and new developments in the fields of cognitive
psychology and artificial intelligence. CE contrasts the tradition of physical ergonomics
because "cognitive ergonomics is the application of psychology to work to achieve the
optimization between people and their work." Viewed as an applied science, the methods
involved with creating cognitive ergonomic design have changed with the rapid
development of technological advances over the last 27 years.

In the 80s, there was a worldwide transition in the methodological approach to

design. According to van der Veer, Enid Mumford was one of the pioneers of interactive
systems engineering and advocated the notion of user-centered design, wherein the user
is considered "included in all phases of the design". There are several different models
which describe the criteria for designing user-friendly technology. A number of models
focus on a systematic process for design, using task analysis to evaluate the cognitive
processes involved with a given task and develop adequate interface capabilities. Task
analysis in past research has focused on the evaluation of cognitive task demands
concerning motor control and cognition during visual tasks such as operating machinery
or the evaluation of attention and focus via the analysis of eye saccades of pilots when
flying.

Neuroergonomics, a subfield of cognitive ergonomics, aims to enhance human-

computer interaction by using neural correlates to better understand situational task
demands. Neuroergonomic research at the university of Iowa is currently involved with
assessing safe-driving protocol, enhancing elderly mobility, and analyzing cognitive
abilities involved with the navigation of abstract virtual environments.

Physical Ergonomics Vs. Cognitive Ergonomics

Physical Ergonomics focuses on our bodies.

Cognitive Ergonomics is interested in what goes in our brains:

 the way our senses perceive information;

 the way in which we understand and interpret it; and
 what determines the decision we make.

Models and Methods of Cognitive Ergonomics

 Cognitive ergonomics has developed methods to design and evaluate new
devices, particularly computer-supported ones, that have been the main focus of interest
in cognitive ergonomics for the last twenty years.

Recent cognitive ergonomics models involve three dimensions: usefulness,

usability, and acceptance.

The methods used in cognitive ergonomics can be distinguished according to the

phases of the design process to which they refer.

1. Design phase

Cognitive ergonomics promotes "user-centered design" in the sense that

users are integrated into the design process as early as possible.

“User-centered design addresses early and continuous focus on users,

empirical measurements, iterative design, and multidisciplinary design teams.”
(Turkka Keinonen, 2005)

Examples of methods:
 focus groups: a group discussion about a topic under the guidance of a
trained group moderator.
 socio-cognitive analysis: Interviews and observations aiming at
defining representations, attitudes, and practices.
 task analysis: the set of methods used to identify the mental demands
and cognitive skills needed to complete a task.

2. Evaluation phase

User-centered design involves iterative design so that evaluation is

conducted at every stage of development. Most evaluation methods aim at
evaluating usability.

Task Analysis

“Study of what an operator (or team or operators) is required to do, in terms of

actions and/or cognitive processes, to achieve a system goal” (Kirwan & Ainsworth,
1992)

“Identify the mapping from tasks to human components and thereby to define the
scope of human factors for any particular application” (Wickens, Gordon, & Liu, 1999)

 Describes the task

 How and why it is undertaken
 What skills and equipments are needed
 What actions are required and their complexity
 The time necessary for the task
 Feedback mechanisms
 Helps identify likely errors and hazards associated with the task

Aims of Task Analysis

 Undestand the individual components of work
 Understand the order and sequence of work
  Evaluate in isolation or interactively the separate fuctions of a job
 Evaluate the information or decision-making requirements of the work

The criteria and sub-criteria of the taxonomy of microworlds proposed by Brehmer

(1999)

Types of Task Information Requirements

Task Information Description

Identification of A listing of the activities involved with a task.

subtasks
Grouping of An organized, often hierarchical listing of the activities involved
subtasks in a task.
Commonalities and An indication of the extent to which subtasks have features in
interrelationships common and are linked to each other.
between subtasks
Importance or Assessment of the criticality of subtasks.
priorities of
subtasks
Frequency of Information on the relative frequency of occurrence of subtasks
subtasks under different conditions.
Sequencing of Information on the order of occurrence of subtasks under
subtasks different conditions.
Decisions made in Part of the sequencing may be based on a decision needed to
the execution of choose the branch of activity and thus a given set of subtasks.
subtasks
'Trigger' conditions Execution of a subtask may depend upon the occurrence of a
for subtask particular event or a decision made in during a previous task or
execution subtask.
Objectives or goals A key feature of an analysis is the recording of the objectives of
of each subtask each subtask.
Performance Recording of objectives may include statements about
criteria for each performance criteria.
subtask
Information The items of information needed and their sources.
required by each
subtask
Information Information that the user inputs into the system.
generated by each
subtask
Knowledge Information that the user utilizes in decision making.
employed in
making decisions
Knowledge of Understanding that the user has of how the system functions.
system employed
in performing
subtasks

Potential Data Collection Methods

Data Description
Collection
Method
Observation Observe and record information about the worker performing job.
May first observe the worker and subsequently ask the worker to
provide verbal explanation while walking through the steps.

Interview Ask the operator questions about job. Questions can be open-ended to
learn more about the job. May conduct while worker is performing
job or may do away from job site. Worker must know that the
information collected will remain confidential and anonymous.
Focus group Discussion with a group of typically 8 to 12 people, away from work
site. A moderator is used to focus the discussion on a series of topics
or issues. Useful for collecting exploratory or preliminary information
that can be used to determine the questions needed for a subsequent
structured survey or interview.
Existing Review any existing operating manuals, training manuals, safety
documentation reports, and previous analyses.
Checklist Use a structured checklist to identify particular components or issues
associated with the job. Available for a range of ergonomic issues,
including workplace concerns, human-machine interfaces,
environmental concerns.
Questionnaire Use to collect systematically individual's views of a system or task.
Questions should be structured, although can be open-ended.

Videotape Tape the worker performing the job or specific tasks. Provides record
of the job and ability to repeatedly study the tasks.
Cognitive analysis of the task: general anaesthesia
Suggested Task Analysis Techniques for Equipment Design

Analysis Description
Technique
Hierarchical A broad approach to task analysis used to represent relationship between
Task tasks and subtasks. Documents system requirements and order in which
Analysis tasks must take place. Useful to determine how the work should be
organized to meet the systems goals. Applications range from taking a
global look at a system to looking at specific details of a system, such as
interface design.
Interface A group of methods used for task and interface design to identify
Surveys specific human factors problems or deficiencies, such as labeling of
controls and displays. These methods require an analyst to
systematically conduct an evaluation of the operator-machine interface
and record specific features. Examples of these methods include
control/display analysis, labeling surveys, and coding consistency
surveys.
Link Used to identify relationships between components of a system.
analysis Provides a means to represent the nature, frequency, and/or importance
of links between components within a system.

Operations Used to illustrate relations between personnel, equipment, and time.

sequence Identifies operations in the order in which they are carried out using
diagrams standard symbols. Flowchart represents information flow and behavior
rather than the observable process.
Timeline Set of principles rather than a precisely defined technique. Used to map
analysis operator's tasks along time to take into account task frequency, duration,
and interactions with other tasks and personnel.

Name of organisation completing the Job name:

work:
Task: Job
number:
Principal contractor: Job
location:
Date the JSA was Number of pages in this
prepared: JSA:
This JSA has been This JSA has been
reviewed by: discussed with:
Principal Contractor or Representative Employee/subcontractor
(signature) (signature)
Position Date Position Date

Item Work Hazard Risk Persons Completion

activity control responsible
Number Break the job What could What can Who will Date and
down into harm someone? be done to make sure it signoff
steps make
the job happens?
safe?
Cognitive Processes

Cognition covers processing and handling information in the human mind and
brain. Cognition processes involve in encoding, maintaining, rehearsing, recalling, and
transforming information. Human cognition can be alienated into several functions that
stimulate optimal human performance. It is imperative to understand cognitive functions
that are pertinent to a specific work or task and to safeguard that the working
environment is suitable for these job conditions. The basic cognitive follows the
following processes:

1. Sensation and perception:

Signifies perception of stimuli gathered through the senses such as sight,

hearing, taste, smell, and/or touch. For example, in the medical care environment,
health care workers need to be able to recognize the symbols on the monitor. In
the construction industry, workers should hear the warning signal,s and read the
safety hazard symbols.

2. Attention:

A stage where the processing is focused on certain aspects of perceived

information or processing may be divided into two or several aspects. For
example, in a control room, workers should notice if there has been a significant
change in the situation. In a nursery, nurses and/or nursery caregivers may need to
concentrate their supervision on several children at one time.

3. A short-term memory:

Information storage is available for up to 30 seconds. It suggests to the

processes with which information is actively rehearsed and manipulated in mind.
For example, a telephone operator has to practice the name of the desired person
until she/he has connected the call. A laboratory assistant needs to keep track of
the order of locations when working with several samples.

Short-Term Sensory Store (STSS)

 Each sense has a mechanism for prolonging the representation of
the physical stimulus for a short period.
 Characteristics of the STSS
o Pre-attentive: information is stored whether you attend it or
not.
o Veridical: does not change or process the stimulus
appreciably
o Decays rapidly
 Examples
o Vision: iconic memory (duration 200-300 ms)
o Audition: echoic memory (duration 2-8 s)

4. Long-term memory:

This is a permanent store for different kinds of information, such as

semantic memory, episodic memory, autobiographical memory, and procedural
knowledge. Semantic memory concerns the storage of knowledge in the world,
symbols, and concepts. Episodic memory covers information on events and
episodes, whereas events in an individual´s personal life are referred to as
 autobiographical memories. Procedural knowledge concerns ‘knowing how’ and
‘skills’. For example, all work requires specific knowledge of the field and
specific skills, such as how to use a machine in a safe way or how to organize a
meeting.

Need for Cognitive Ergonomics

The way people perceive and act has a direct implication on the design of the
object and environment that they use. The mind is as comfortable at work as the body. If
physical surroundings reflect and support their natural cognitive tendencies, it will result
in fewer errors, good performance, and a positive boost in productivity.

Categorizing Human Failure

Unintentional Errors:
 Errors (slips/lapses) are “actions that were not as planned” (unintended actions).
These can occur during a familiar task, e.g., omissions like forgetting to do
something, which are particularly relevant to repair, maintenance, calibration, or
testing. These are unlikely to be eliminated by training and need to be designed
out.
 Mistakes are also errors, but errors of judgment of decision-making (“intended
actions are wrong”) – where we do the wrong thing believing it to be right. These
can appear in situations where behavior is based on remembered rules or familiar
procedures or unfamiliar situations where decisions are formed from first
prnciples and lead to misdiagnosis or miscalculations. Training is the key to
avoiding mistakes.
Intentional Errors:
 Violations differ from the above in that they are intentional (but usually well-
meaning) failures, such as taking a shortcut or non-compliance with procedures,
e.g., deliberate deviations from the rules and procedures. They are rarely
wwillful(e.g., sabotage) and usually result from an intention to get the job done
despite the consequences. Violations may be situational, routine, exceptional, or
malicious ,as outlined below.
o Routine violations: a behavior in opposition to a rule, procedure, or
instruction that has become the normal way of behaving within the
person’s peer/work group.
o Exceptional violations: these violations are rare and happen only in
unusual and particular circumstances, often when something goes wrong
in unpredicted circumstances, e.g., during an emergency situations.
o Situational violations: these violations occur as a result of factors dictated
by the worker’s immediate work space or environment (physical or
organizational).
o Acts of sabotage: there are self explanatory although the cause are
complex-ranging from vandalism by a de-motivated employee to
terrorism.
How Cognitive Ergonomics Affects Worker Safety

Research and application of cognitive ergonomics has traditionally focused on

human interaction with large, complex machinery such as nuclear power plants and
airplane cockpit design. There is a good reason for this. Human error has been cited as a
contributing factor in many high-profile accidents such as Three Mile Island and the
Challenger explosion, along with numerous airline accidents.

Human error is also a major factor in accidents in every industry from aviation to
healthcare to construction. Human cognition-related errors are also largely responsible
for the data breaches and finance issues that have plagued several companies.

Numerous studies have found a direct correlation between workplace accidents

and injuries and worker distraction, inattention, and mental errors. In critical situations,
researchers have observed a phenomenon known as cognitive lockup, where workers
focus on an initial failure and ignore any subsequent failures, causing the situation to
quickly get out of control. Security experts also say that the majority of data breaches and
data loss are caused by human error.

Cognitive Ergonomics for Work Safety Improvement

Cognitive ergonomics aims to design work conditions and environments that enhance
cognitive functioning and human performance at work, and as a consequence, improve
productivity, safety, and health at work. With cognitive ergonomics in the industry, main
purposes are largely focused on improving work functioning and reducing human errors.
 Safety and product quality improvements are the key concerns because
workplaces with mechanization can result in increased operator decision-making and
monitoring requirements, which can increase the likelihood of human errors and
accidents. Therefore, practicing cognitive ergonomics can provide the following benefits
to improving safety and productivity and reducing accidents and injuries at workplaces:

1. User-centered design of a software interface.

2. The design of a sign to convey the message so that people will understand and act
in an intended manner.
3. The design of safer tools and machinery so that operators will not make
catastrophic errors.
4. The design of information technology systems that support cognitive tasks.
Work redesign to manage cognitive workload and increase human reliability.

How Can Cognitive Ergonomics Help?

Cognitive ergonomics can enhance safety programs and worker safety at

numerous levels including:

 Diagnosis of issues and problems

 Workload efficiency and maximization
 Situation awareness
 Decision-making — both long-term, short-term and critical
 Planning for tasks, assignments, layout and design.
 Training of workers and supervisors

The Interaction of Man And Machine

While automation has certainly helped mitigate human error in tasks, humans are
still largely responsible for ensuring the reliability, accuracy, and proper functioning of
the machinery and workplace systems themselves. Their ability to interact efficiently,
productively, and safely with machines and systems is critical.

Here are a few tips for creating a safety program that accounts for cognitive
ergonomics.

 Consider the domain of the workplace or the constraints and opportunities of the
environment you work in.
 Ensure your safety program considers the demands of the specific work your
employees are doing and considers user strategies in performing cognitive tasks.
 Consider the competencies and cognitive limitations of your workers in their
interactions with the system. Include attention, perception errors, strategies and
cognitive workload, or the effort used by working memory in the completion of
tasks.
 Examine the limitations and constraints of the tools or artifacts used in the
workplace and how these might affect the user and the user’s interactions with
both the workplace and the tools.
 Design both tools and human-machine interfaces that will allow humans to
perform at peak capacity, even when information is unreliable, unexpected events
occur, goals conflict or time constraints are in effect.
  Consider human over-reliance on machines or a potential lack of trust in
machines, as both can have an impact on safety. This will become increasingly
critical as workplace machines and systems become increasingly sophisticated.
 Put into place hiring and screening practices which emphasize cognitive abilities.
For example, some people exhibit a higher working memory capacity or attention
spans, qualities which help you avoid errors that result from inattention or
cognitive lockdown.

Putting Cognitive Ergonomics Into Practice

From a practical standpoint, cognitive ergonomics can help you avoid critical
errors and ensure safety. Here are a few of the more practical applications for cognitive
ergonomics that could potentially be included in your workplace safety program:

 Signage with designs and colors that maximize comprehension and compliance
(certain color combinations and fonts are easier to read)
 Work environments that make catastrophic errors difficult (or impossible) — for
example, by creating two-step processes or placing critical controls in safe places
 Work and task planning that considers both cognitive workload and human
reliability — repetitive tasks can, for example, decrease attentiveness, which can
lead to error
 Adjustment of lighting or glare to ensure better readability
 Consistency in the design of system controls to ensure employees react
consistently to emergencies
 Training programs that consider the limitations of human memory and the way in
which people learn, process, and apply information
 Alarm systems that suppress minor alarms in order to allow critical alarms to be
heard

Application of Cognitive Ergonomics

 Design a software interface to be “easy to use”.

 Designing an icons and visual cues so that the majority of the people will
understand and act the indended manner.
 Designing an airplane cockpit or nuclear power plant control system so that the
operations will not make catastrophic errors.

According to the Interaction Design Foundation, “The first domains investigated

by cognitive ergonomics were nuclear power plants, air traffic control systems, and
medical anesthetics. Those situations feature complex environments (e.g., where there are
many controls and switches—or many factors—coming into play) and where exceptional
focus is needed so as to make decisions in potentially life-threatening situations. In the
years following, many studies were conducted in “softer” domains such as banking,
office work and leisure activities. The principles proved transferable between such
environments.”

So, the primary focus of cognitive ergonomics is on work activities which:

 Have an emphasized cognitive component
 Are in safety critical environments
 Are in complex, changeable environments
 See the two studies linked below for a taste of research and practical applications
of cognitive ergonomics:

Cognitive Ergonomics Principles for Re-Designing Function Allocation and

Interfaces of a Fire Fighting Control Room of a Large City

The objective of this paper is to describe and discuss, firstly, how

cognitive ergonomics principles have been applied for the evaluation of the
activities carried out in the main control room of a fire fighting system of a large
city. The same principles, coupled with engineering creativity, have then been
applied for re-designing the allocation of functions and interfaces in order to
improve efficiency of communication, decision making and working context.

Applied Cognitive Ergonomics Design Principles for Fighter Aircraft

The objective of the reported work was to study the use and applicability
of applied cognitive ergonomics design principles for fighter aircraft, with
examples from the modern Swedish swing-role aircraft Gripen. Methods used
were a literature review of relevant design principles together with an analysis of
their applicability to the fighter aircraft domain as well as interviews of
developers and scrutinized system documentation of ongoing fighter aircraft
development at Saab. As a result of those activities, we can here present a brief
description of cognitive ergonomics design principles applied in the Gripen
fighter aircraft, and the development process for human-machine interaction for
fighter aircraft. Finally, considerations for the design process for fighter aircraft
are discussed in the context of that description.

Summary

Cognitive functions are critical to safe and effective operations in industries and
workplaces. Although large variations are found amongst individuals, they are mainly
caused by cognitive disorders and failures. However, even though their immense
importance, cognitive issues have not been systematically highlighted in workplace
ergonomic programs. Activities that involve this branch of the field have mainly focused
on complex equipment such as nuclear power plants and aircraft manufacturing
industries. There are profound safety issues involved in the poor cognitive designs of
equipment such as lack of standardized controls and unclear directions.

Making things understandable and user-friendly designs would significantly

facilitate to avoid mistakes, increase reaction times, and lessen learning curves. In this
sense, cognitive ergonomics is an emerging branch of ergonomics and is a subset of the
larger field of human factors and ergonomic disciplines. However, cognitive ergonomics
is still an unexploited area for improving the design of machine controls, sets of
instructions, and so forth. Therefore, it can be expected that cognitive ergonomics would
provide significant contributions to improving work performance, lean operations,
productivities, and eventually creating safer and healthier work environments in the
industry.
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