NEPAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

CHANGUNARAYAN, BHAKTAPUR

A COURSE MANUAL ON
CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

PREPARED BY:
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: RAKSHAK DHUNGEL
JUNIOR PROFESSOR: NIRMALA BOKATI
JUNIOR PROFESSOR: PRATIBHA PARAJU
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 0
1.1 Introduction and scope of civil engineering materials ................................................ 1
1.2 Types of civil engineering materials ........................................................................... 2
1.3 Properties of civil engineering materials ..................................................................... 5
1.4 Material Environment Interaction ............................................................................... 7
2 CLAY PRODUCTS ........................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Constituents of good brick earth ................................................................................. 9
2.2 Manufacturing of bricks ............................................................................................ 11
2.3 Qualities of Good bricks ........................................................................................... 15
2.4 Classification of bricks .............................................................................................. 16
2.5 Different Tests for brick ............................................................................................ 17
2.6 Stabilized earth bricks, Sand- lime bricks and refractory bricks............................... 18
2.6.1 Stabilized earth bricks(Interlocking Bricks) ...................................................... 18
2.6.2 Sand lime bricks ................................................................................................. 18
2.6.3 Refractory Bricks ............................................................................................... 18
2.7 Miscellaneous clay products ..................................................................................... 19
2.7.1 Tiles.................................................................................................................... 19
2.7.2 Terracotta ........................................................................................................... 22
2.7.3 Earthenware ....................................................................................................... 23
2.7.4 Stoneware ........................................................................................................... 23
2.7.5 Concrete Blocks ................................................................................................. 23
2.8 Glazing ...................................................................................................................... 27
3 STONES AND AGGREGATES ..................................................................................... 29
3.1 Physical classification of stones ................................................................................ 29
3.2 Quarrying, dressing and seasoning of stone .............................................................. 29
3.2.1 Quarrying of stone ............................................................................................. 29
3.2.2 Methods of Quarrying ........................................................................................ 30
3.2.3 Dressing of Stone ............................................................................................... 30
3.2.4 Seasoning of stone ............................................................................................. 32
3.3 Artificial Stone .......................................................................................................... 32
3.4 Classification of aggregate ........................................................................................ 34
3.5 Gradation of aggregate .............................................................................................. 34
3.6 Fineness Modulus of Aggregate ................................................................................ 34
 3.7 Bulking of Sand ......................................................................................................... 36
3.8 Testing of coarse aggregate ....................................................................................... 37
3.8.1 Water absorption Test ........................................................................................ 37
3.8.2 Shape Test .......................................................................................................... 37
3.8.3 Abrasion Test (Aggregate Abrasion value) ....................................................... 37
3.8.4 Aggregate impact value (Impact test) ................................................................ 38
3.8.5 Soundness Test: ................................................................................................. 38
3.8.6 Reactivity test: ................................................................................................... 38
3.9 Testing of Sand.......................................................................................................... 38
4 CEMENTING MATERIALS .......................................................................................... 40
4.1 Clay as cementing material ....................................................................................... 40
4.2 Lime .......................................................................................................................... 40
4.3 Indian Classification of Lime .................................................................................... 43
4.4 Cement, its composition (Bouge compounds) and Properties .................................. 44
4.5 Hydration, heat of hydration and gain of strength of cement.................................... 47
4.6 Cement Manufacturing Process ................................................................................ 47
4.7 Types of cement ........................................................................................................ 51
4.8 Testing of Cement ..................................................................................................... 53
4.9 Mortar ........................................................................................................................ 56
4.9.1 Functions of Mortar ........................................................................................... 56
4.9.2 Types of Mortar ................................................................................................. 56
5 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR ...................................................................................... 58
5.1 Types of stress/strains ............................................................................................... 58
5.2 Stress-Strain Curve of ductile and brittle materials .................................................. 62
5.3 Fracture of Metal ....................................................................................................... 62
5.4 Mechanism of brittle fracture. (Griffith’s theory) ..................................................... 65
5.5 Hardness .................................................................................................................... 66
5.6 Impact Strength and its test ....................................................................................... 71
6 METALS AND ALLOYS ............................................................................................... 74
6.1 Iron: Types, manufacturing process, properties and uses ......................................... 74
6.2 Steel: composition and types (carbon steel and alloy steel) ...................................... 79
6.3 Types of Carbon Steel and their uses ........................................................................ 81
6.4 Basic Introduction of heat treatment of steel ............................................................ 82
6.5 Different forms of rolled steel sections ..................................................................... 83
6.6 Reinforcing steels (TOR and TMT) .......................................................................... 85
 6.7 Properties, advantages and uses of stainless steel, tool steel, brass, aluminium and
duraluminum ........................................................................................................................ 86
6.8 Corrosion of metals and its prevention ..................................................................... 86
7 TIMBER .......................................................................................................................... 92
7.1 Timber: source, types, classification, characteristics, advantages and uses .............. 92
7.2 Growth of a tree......................................................................................................... 95
7.3 Defects in timber ....................................................................................................... 97
7.4 Seasoning of timber ................................................................................................. 100
7.5 Preservation of timber ............................................................................................. 101
7.6 Properties and uses of bamboo ................................................................................ 103
7.7 Wood based products .............................................................................................. 104
8 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS .............................................................................. 106
8.1 Types Properties and Uses of Asphalt, Bitumen and Tar ....................................... 106
8.2 Types Properties and Uses of Glass, Plastics and Rubber ...................................... 111
8.3 Gypsum Products and Composite materials............................................................ 120
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction and scope of civil engineering materials
The civil engineering materials are composed of materials. The materials that are widely used
in civil engineering practice are known as civil engineering materials. It is necessary for the
civil engineers to become familiar with civil engineering material. The service conditions of
civil engineering construction demand a wide range of materials and various properties such
as water resistance, strength, durability, temperature resistance, appearance, permeability, etc.
are to be properly studied before making final selection of any construction material for a
particular use.
The purpose of this course is to provide civil engineers with a broad knowledge of the
engineering properties of construction materials. This knowledge will assist them in selecting
the appropriate materials for a wide variety of structural, environmental and architectural
applications. The strength, durability and maintenance of engineering materials are important
factors in the design of any structure or facility. With the selection of materials, it is essential
that engineers ensure that the materials meet technical standards.
The subject of engineering materials deals with the study of materials in respect of the
following.
Sources, composition and properties
Manufacturing methods and testing
Utility in the various fields of engineering and technology
Modern techniques for handling and using materials economically and design safely.
Objective of civil engineering materials
 To know the behavior of materials
 To be familiar with the various engineering materials , their properties
 To know the suitability of the materials in engineering fields, performance of the
materials.
 To know the criteria for the selection of construction materials.
 Provides information that will help to improve efficiency, productivity of materials.
Criteria (Factors affecting) for Selection of construction materials –
1) Functional Requirements – The material should have sufficient strength to carry the
prescribed load for building material. It should satisfy functional requirements such as
strength, toughness, creep, thermal conductivity, weld ability, malleability, mach
inability, casting properties, maintainability etc as needed.
2) Availability: The materials must be available easily and abundantly.
3) Material Reliability: The material must be reliable. It should function satisfactorily up
to the projected life of the product without failure.
4) Material Stability: The material should exhibit stability for the expected lifetime of
the unit without any stoppage and failure. The selected material must safely perform its
allocated function without any stoppage, breakdown ad failure as per requirements.
5) Serviceability – Serviceability refers to the conditions under which the building is still
considered for the use. It should be cost effective, serviceable materials used, maintain
store houses, warehouses, solid materials without developing cracks, defects, tested
materials.
6) Aesthetically pleasing – The materials to be used for the construction purposes should
have pleasing appearance. These materials are pleasurable, aesthetics involves

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 all our senses like vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell that are pleasurable for our
emotions, commodity, firmness, delight building abilities.
7) Economy – The construction materials should be economical for the transport cost,
heavier materials greater is the transport cost, purchase cost, life long, without
maintenance etc.
8) Environmental friendly – The construction materials should be eco-friendly. It should
not have the leakages, chemicals, gas emissions, volatile organic compounds, toxic,
irritating, hazardous compounds. The material should satisfy operating environment
and parameters such as chemical environment, pressure, temperature, protection from
fire weathering etc. Finally they give better environmental performance.
9) Physical attributes: The selected material should satisfy physical attributes such as
configuration, size, weight, aesthetic look etc.
10) Properties of the material: The properties of material should satisfy as per functional
specification defined for particular task.

1.2 Types of civil engineering materials

Broad classification of materials –
1) Natural materials - The materials which are obtained from natural sources like earth, plants,
and animals are called natural materials. Eg. Stone, timber, bitumen, lime, soil etc
2) Artificial materials – The materials which are produced in the industries by chemical or
mechanical processes are called artificial materials. Eg. Bricks, tiles, cement, precast concrete,
plywood, glass, plastic etc
3) Special materials – The materials which are produced for special purposes like
waterproofing, sound proofing, damp proofing, thermal insulating are called special materials.
Eg. Fibers, ferroconcrete, artificial timber, adhesives, epoxy, geo-synthetic, ceramic materials
4) Finishing materials – The materials which are produces for the use of finishing purposes of
building constructions are called finishing materials. Eg. Lime mortar, cement mortar, special
mortar, Plaster Of Paris, paint, distemper, varnishes, cladding materials, linoleum etc
5) Recycled construction materials – The materials which are recycled from the waste
construction or destruction are called recycled materials. Eg. Rich husk, baggage, coir fiber,
straw, coconut tree trunk, plastic waste, polymer waste, rubber waste, coconut leaves, fly-ash,
blast furnace, slag, granite, marbles.
Civil engineering materials may be classified as follows:
1. Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) and alloys
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
4. Composites
1. Metals and alloys
Metals are inorganic materials composed of one or more metallic elements. They may also
contain a small number of non-metallic elements. All the elements are broadly divided into
metals and non-metals according to their properties. Metals are element substances which
readily give up electrons to form metallic bonds and conduct electricity. Some of the important
basic properties of metals are:
a) Metals are usually good electrical and thermal conductors,
b) At ordinary temperature metals are usually solid,

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c) To some extent metals are malleable and ductile,
d) The freshly cut surfaces of metals are lustrous,
e) When struck metal produce typical sound, and
f) Most of the metals form alloys - When two or more pure metals are melted together to form
a new metal whose properties are quite different from those of original metals, it is called an
alloy.
Metals usually have a crystalline structure and are good thermal and electrical conductors.
Many metals are strong and ductile at room temperature and maintain good strength at high
and low temperatures. Metallic materials possess specific properties like plasticity and strength.
Few favorable characteristics of metallic materials are high luster, hardness, resistance to
corrosion, good thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability, stiffness, the property of
magnetism, etc. Metals may be magnetic, non-magnetic in nature.
Metallic materials are typically classified according to their use in engineering as under:
A) Pure Metals: They are obtained by refining the ore. Mostly, pure metals are not of any use
to the engineers. However, by specialized and very expensive techniques, one can obtain pure
metals (purity ~ 99.99 %), e.g. aluminum, copper, etc.
B) Alloyed Metals: Alloys can be formed by blending two or more metals or at least one being
metal. The properties of an alloy can be totally different from its constituent substances, e.g.
18-8 stainless steel, which contains 18 %, chromium and 8 % nickel, in low carbon steel, carbon
is less than 0.15 % and this is extremely tough, exceedingly ductile and highly resistant to
corrosion.
C) Ferrous Metals: Iron is the principal constituent of these ferrous metals. Ferrous alloys
contain significant amount of non-ferrous metals. Ferrous alloys are extremely important for
engineering purposes. On the basis of the percentage of carbon and their alloying elements
present, these can be classified into following groups:
(a) Mild Steels: The percentage of carbon in these materials range from 0.15 % to 0.25 %.
These are moderately strong and have good weld ability. The production cost of these materials
is also low.
(b) Medium Carbon Steels: These contains carbon between 0.3 % to 0.6 %. The strength of
these materials is high but their weld ability is comparatively less.
(c) High Carbon Steels: These contains carbon varying from 0.65 % to 1.5 %. These materials
get hard and tough by heat treatment and their weld ability is poor. The steel formed in which
carbon content is up to 1.5 %, silica up to 0.5%, and manganese up to 1.5 % along with traces
of other elements is called plain carbon steel.
(d) Cast Irons: The carbon content in these substances varies between 2 % to 4%. The cost of
production of these substances is quite low and these are used as ferrous casting alloys.
D) Non-Ferrous Metals: Out of several non-ferrous metals only seven are available in
sufficient quantity reasonably at low cost and used as common engineering metals. These are
aluminum, tin, copper, nickel, zinc and magnesium. Some other non-ferrous metals, about
fourteen in number, are produced in relatively small quantities but these are of vital importance
in modern industry. These include chromium, mercury, cobalt, tungsten, vanadium,
molybdenum, antimony, cadmium, zirconium, and beryllium.
2. Ceramics
Ceramic comes from the Greek word meaning ‘pottery’. The clay-based domestic wares, art
objects and building products are examples of ceramics, but pottery is just one part of the
ceramic world. Ceramics are inorganic materials consisting of both metallic and non-metallic

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elements bonded together chemically. These materials are non-metallic solids made of
inorganic compounds such as oxides, nitrides, borides, silicates and carbides. They are
fabricated by first shaping the powder with or without the application of pressure into a
compact, which is subsequently subjected to a high temperature treatment known as sintering.
Ceramics can be crystalline, non-crystalline or a mixture of both. Generally, they have high
melting points and high chemical stabilities. They also have high hardness and high
temperature strength but tend to be brittle. Ceramics are usually poor electrical conductors.
Ceramics are of two types.
a) Traditional ceramics
b) Advanced ceramics
Traditional ceramics
Traditional ceramics are clay based products like pottery, porcelain, earthenware, stoneware
cement and silicate glass. The composition of the clays used, type of additives and firing
temperatures determine the nature of the end product.
Advanced ceramics
Advanced ceramics are not generally clay-based. Instead, they are either based on oxides or
non-oxides or combinations of the two:
 Typical oxides used are alumina (Al2O3) and zirconia (ZrO2).
 Non-oxides are often carbides, borides, nitrides and silicides, for example, boron
carbide (B4C), silicon carbide (SiC) and molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2).
Advanced ceramics possess exceptional electrical, magnetic, chemical, structural and thermal
properties. Such ceramics are now extensively used in the electronic control device, computers,
nuclear engineering and aerospace fields.
Example: Silica, soda lime glass, concrete, cement, ferrite, garnets etc.
Polymers
Polymers are organic materials which consist of long molecular chains or networks containing
carbon. Most polymers are non-crystalline, but some consist of mixtures of both crystalline and
non-crystalline regions. They are formed by polymerization reaction in which relatively simple
molecule is chemically combine into massive long-chain molecules or three dimensional
structures. They typically have low densities and are mechanically flexible. Their mechanical
properties may vary considerably. Most polymers are poor electric conductors due to the nature
of the atomic bonding.
Examples: Plastics, PVC, Polythene; natural and synthetic rubbers.
Composites
A composite is composed of two or more individual materials. The design goal of a composite
is to achieve overall advantage of their properties that is not possesses in any single material.
When two types of materials combine with each other may constitute a third material with
some different properties as that of the parent materials. These materials are known as
composites. These combinations may be metal and ceramics or ceramics with polymer.
Composite materials have high compressive and tensile strength, non-corrosive behavior.
Example: Reinforced cement concrete, fiberglass, wire glass etc.

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1.3 Properties of civil engineering materials
The properties of engineering materials can be classified as follows
(A) Physical properties
(B) Mechanical properties
(C) Thermal properties
(D) Chemical properties
(E) Electrical properties
(F) Magnetic properties
A. Physical Properties
Physical properties are measurable whose value describe a state of physical system. They are
based on observation.
a) Density (ρ): It is the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material denoted by ρ. Density
is defined as mass per unit volume for a material. The unit usually used by engineers is the
kg/m3.
ρ=M/V
Where, M= Mass of material (Kg, g etc)
V=Volume of material (m3, cm3 etc)
b) Specific Gravity (G): It is the density of the material compared with the density of the water
at 4˚C.
G=ρs/ρw
Where, ρs= Solid Density of material
ρw= Density of water at 4°C
c) Opacity: The quality or property of material that does not allow light to pass through it.
d) Porosity (ƞ): It is the ratio of the volume of the spaces (voids) in the material to the overall
volume of material.

Ƞ=Vv/V
Where, Vv=Volume of voids in the material
V= Total volume of material
e) Water absorption capacity (Ww): It denotes the ability of the material to absorb and retain
water. It is expressed as percentage in weight or of the volume of dry material:
Ww =M1- M2/ M2× 100
Where, M1 = mass of saturated material (g)
M2 = mass of dry material (g)

f) Water Permeability: It is the capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate under pressure.
materials like glass, steel and bitumen are impervious.
g) Fire Resistivity: It is the ability of a material to resist the action of high temperature without
any appreciable deformation and substantial loss of strength.

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B. Mechanical Properties
The properties which relate to material behavior under applied forces define as mechanical
properties. The common mechanical properties are as follows:
a) Strength: The strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load or various
forces without fracture or plastic deformation. The most common strength are compressive,
shear, tension, bending and impact.
Compressive Strength: Tendency of material or structure to withstand loads tending to
compress the material (compressive force).
Tensile Strength: Tendency of material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate the
material (tensile force).
Impact Strength: Tendency of material to withstand suddenly applied load which is expressed
in terms of energy. It is the energy required per unit cross-sectional area to fracture a specimen,
i.e., it is a measure of the response of a material to shock loading.
Shear Strength: Tendency of material to withstand shear force. Shear force act parallel to the
surface of the material.
Flexural Strength: Tendency of a material to withstand bending stress.
b) Hardness: It is the degree of resistance to indentation (penetration) or scratching, abrasion
and wear. Hard materials resist scratches or being worn out by friction with another body.
c) Elasticity: The property of materials returning back to their original position after removal
of external force.
d) Ductility: This is the property of a metal by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires or
elongated before rupture takes place.
e) Resilience: It is the property of material to store the energy to resist the effect of impact or
shock. It is important in the manufacture of shock absorbers, springs etc.
f) Toughness: It is the property of material which enables it to absorb energy at high stress
without fracture. The resistance of material to fracture by bending, twisting, fatigue or impact
of load is known as toughness.
g) Stiffness: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation.
h) Fatigue: Fatigue is the phenomenon that leads to fracture when subjected to fluctuating or
repeating loads.
i) Creep: It is the property of a material by virtue of which a material continues to deform with
time under sustained or constant loading.
j) Abrasive resistance: The ability of a material to resist abrasive action, friction wears under
particular conditions.
C. Thermal Properties:
A measurement of a material’s tendency to expand when heated and contract when cooled.
This property is important for the material used in the structures where there is frequent change
in temperature. Thermal properties are as follows:
a) Specific Heat: It is the heat capacity of a unit mass of a homogeneous substance. For a
homogeneous body, c = C/M, where C is the heat capacity and M is the mass of the body. One
can also define it as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the
substance through 1°C. Its units are cal/g/°C.
b) Thermal Conductivity (K): This represents the amount of heat conducted per unit time
through a unit area perpendicular to the direction of heat conduction when the temperature

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gradient across the heat conducting element is one unit. Truly speaking the capability of the
material to transmit heat through it is termed as the thermal conductivity. The higher the value
of thermal conductivity, the greater is the rate at which heat will be transferred through a piece
of given size. Copper and aluminum are good conductors of heat and therefore, extensively
used whenever transfer of heat is desired. Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and hence used
as heat insulator.
c) Thermal Expansion: All solids expand on heating and contract on cooling. Thermal
expansion may take place as linear, circumferential or cubical. A solid which expands equally
in three mutually orthogonal directions is termed as thermally isotropic. The increase in any
linear dimension of a solid, e.g. length, width, height on heating is termed as linear expansion.
The coefficient of linear expansion is the increase in length per unit length per degree rise in
temperature. The increase in volume of a solid on heating is called cubical expansion. The
thermal expansion of solids has its origin in the lattice vibration and lattice vibrations increases
with the rise in temperature. Obviously, the thermal conductivity (K) and electrical
conductivity (σ) vary in the same fashion from one material to another.
D. Electrical Properties
Ability to permit or resist the flow of electricity
a) Resistivity: It is the electrical property of a material due to which it resists the flow of
electricity through it.
b) Conductivity: It is that electrical property of a material due to which the electric current
flows easily through the material. The material provides an easy path for the flow of electricity
through it.
c) Di electric strength: It means the insulating capacity of a material against high voltages. A
material having high dielectric strength can withstand sufficiently high voltage field across it
before it will break down and conduct.
E. Magnetic Properties
It demonstrates the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field. Materials in
which a state of magnetism can be induced are termed magnetic materials.
a) Magnetic Permeability: It is the measure of the resistance of a material against the formation
of magnetic field.
b) Magnetic Retentively: The magnetic field remaining in the material even after removing the
external source is known as retentively. It tell us about magnetic strength of material.

1.4 Material Environment Interaction

Materials interact with the environment. Material–environment interactions are relevant for all
types of materials, whether they are inorganic or organic in origin. Environmental factors like
temperature, humidity rain and fire hugely affects the selection of materials for a particular
scheme. Interaction with environment can cause damage to materials but also might lead to
improvement of material properties such as oxidative passivation of aluminum or patina
formation on copper surfaces. The factor that affects the material is climatic background of the
environment.
Interactions with environment might also occur prior to the usage of materials. Different
materials in the form of construction have developed in different part of the world as a result
of climatic differences. Most often the construction materials are directly exposed to the natural
environment. So it is necessary for us to select the construction materials in such a way that
they can overcome the environmental factors i.e. heating effect, rain, wind, weathering etc. in
areas like terai which have high and low temperature, proper insulating materials like roof tiles,

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hollow brick, mud etc. should be provided. Likewise in humid areas, materials with strong
resistance in moisture like stone masonry, plastics etc. can be used. And in rainy area materials
to prevent water leakage i.e. water proofing materials can be used. Fire resistance materials
like concrete, brick, stone etc. can be used in areas with high risk of fire. In such place metallic
objects and timber should not be used.

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 2 CLAY PRODUCTS
2.1 Constituents of good brick earth

Bricks are the most commonly used construction material. Bricks are prepared by moulding
clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning these blocks. In order
to get a good quality brick, the brick earth should contain the following constituents.

 Silica
 Alumina
 Lime
 Iron oxide
 Magnesia
Silica
o Brick earth should contain about 50 -60 to % of silica.
o It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.
o It also affects the durability of bricks.
o If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick becomes
brittle.
Alumina
o Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
o It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in moulding
operation.
o If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.

Lime
o The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good brick earth.
o It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
o It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
o Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick looses its shape.

Iron oxide
o A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.
o It gives red colour to the bricks.
o It improves impermeability and durability.
o It gives strength and hardness.
o If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blakish.
o If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish in color.

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Magnesia
o Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia about1%)
o Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.
o It is responsible for reducing shrinkage
o Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
Harmful Ingredients in Brick:
Below mentioned are some of the ingredients which are undesired in brick earth.
Lime
o A small quantity of lime is required in brick earth. But if present in excess, it causes the brick
to melt and hence brick looses its shape.
o If lime is present in the form of lumps, then it is converted into quick lime after burning. This
quick lime slakes and expands in presence of moisture, causing splitting of bricks into
pieces.

Iron pyrites
o The presence of iron pyrites in brick earth causes the brick to get crystallized and
disintegrated during burning, because of the oxidation of the iron pyrits.
o Pyrites discolourise the bricks.

Alkalis
o These are exist in the brick earth in the form of soda and potash. It acts as a flux in the kiln
during burning and it causes bricks to fuse, twist and warp. Because of this, bricks are
melted and they loose their shape.
o The alkalis remaining in bricks will absorb moisture from the atmosphere, when bricks are
used in masonry. With the passage of time, the moisture gets evaporated leaving grey
or white deposits on the wall surface (known asefflorescence). This white patch affects
the appearance of the building structure.

Pebbles
o Pebbles in brick earth create problem during mixing operation of earth. It prevents uniform
and through mixing of clay, which results in weak and porous bricks
o Bricks containing pebbles will not break into shapes as per requirements.

Vegetation and Organic Matter

o The presence of vegetation and organic matter in brick earth assists in burning. But if such
matter is not completely burnt, the bricks become porous. This is due to the fact that
the gasses will be evolved during the burning of the carbonaceous matter and it will
result in the formation of small pores.

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2.2 Manufacturing of bricks
In the process of manufacturing bricks, the following distinct operations are involved.
• Preparation of clay
• Moulding
• Drying
• Burning
Preparation of clay
The clay for brick is prepared in the following order.
• Unsoiling
• Digging
• Cleaning
• Weathering
• Blending
• Tempering

Unsoiling: The top layer of the soil, about 200mm in depth, is taken out and thrown away. The
clay in top soil is full of impurities and hence it is to be rejected for the purpose of preparing
bricks.
Digging: The clay is then dug out from the ground. It is spread on the leveled ground, just a
little deeper than the general level. The height of heaps of clay is about 600mm to 1200mm.
Cleaning: The clay as obtained in the process of digging should be cleaned of stones, pebbles,
vegetable matters. If these particles are in excess, the clay is to be washed and screened. Such
a process naturally will prove to be troublesome and expensive.
Weathering: The clay is then exposed to atmosphere for softening and mellowing. The period
varies from few weeks to full season.
Blending: The clay is made loose and any ingredient to be added to it , is spread out at its top.
The blending indicates intimate or harmonious mixing. It is carried out by taking a small
amount of clay every time and turning it up and down in vertical direction. The blending makes
clay fit for the next stage of tempering.
Tempering: In the process of tempering, the clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness and
it is made fit for the next operation of molding. Kneaded or pressed under the feet of man or
cattle .The tempering should be done exhaustively to obtain homogeneous mass of clay of
uniform character. For manufacturing good bricks on a large scale, tempering is done in pug
mill. A typical pug mill capable of tempering sufficient earth for a daily output of about 15000
to 20000 bricks.
Moulding:
The clay which is prepared as above is then sent for the text operation of moulding. Following
are two types of moulding:
i. Hand Moulding
ii. Machine Moulding

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Hand moulding:
In hand moulding , the bricks are moulded by hand i.e.; manually. It is adopted where
manpower is cheap and is readily available for the manufacturing process of bricks ona small
scale. The moulds are rectangular boxes which are open at top and bottom. They may be of
wood or steel. It should be prepared from well-seasoned wood. The longer sides are kept
slightly projecting to serve as handles. The strips of brass or steel are sometimes fixed on the
edges of wooden moulds to make them more durable. It is prepared from the combination of
steel plate and channel. It may even be prepared from steel angles and plates. The thickness of
steel mould is 6mm.They is used for manufacturing bricks on a large scale. The steel moulds
are more durable than wooden one and turn out bricks of uniform size. The bricks shrink during
drying and burning .Hence the moulds are therefore made larger than burnt bricks (8-12%).
The bricks prepared by hand moulding are of two types: Ground moulded and Table moulded
Ground moulded bricks: The ground is first made level and fine sand is sprinkled over it. The
mould is dipped in water and placed over the ground. The lump of tempered clay is taken and
is dashed is the mould. The clay is pressed in the mould in such a way that it fills all the corners
of mould. The surplus clay is removed by wooden strike or framed with wire. A strike is a
piece of wood or metal with a sharp edge. It is to be dipped in water every time. The mould is
then lifted up and raw brick ids left on the ground. The mould is dipped in water and it is placed
just near the previous brick to prepare another brick. The process is repeated till the ground is
covered with raw bricks. The lower faces of ground moulded bricks are rough and it is not
possible to place frog on such bricks. A frog is mark of depth about 10mm to 20mm which is
placed on raw brick during moulding. It serves two purposes.
1. It indicates the trade name of the manufacturer
2. In brick work, the bricks are laid with frog uppermost. It thus affords a key for mortar when
the next brick is placed over it.
The ground moulded bricks of better quality and with frogs on their surface are made by using
a pair of pallet boards and a wooden block. A pallet is a piece of thin wood. The block is bigger
than the mould and it has projection of about 6mm height on its surface. The dimensions of
projection correspond to internal dimensions of mould. The design of impression or frog is
made on this block. The wooden block is also known as the moulding block or stock board.
The mould is placed to fit in the projection of wooden block and clay is then dashed inside the
mould. A pallet is placed on the top and the whole thing is then turn upside down. The mould
is taken out and placed over the raw brick and it is conveyed to the drying sheds. The bricks
are placed to stand on their longer sides in drying sheds and pallet boards are brought back for
using them again. As the bricks are laid on edge, they occupy less space and they dry quicker
and better.
Table Moulded Bricks:
i) The process of moulding of bricks is just similar as above. But in this case, the mould stands
near a table size 2m x 1m. The bricks are moulded on the table and send for further process of
drying.
ii) However the efficiency of the moulder gradually decreases because of standing at some
place for a longer duration. The cost of brick is also increases when table moulding is adopted.
Machine Moulding:
This type of moulding is carried out by two processes:
i) Plastic clay machine
ii) Dry clay machine

12
Plastic Clay Moulding
i) Such machine consists of a rectangular opening having length and width is equal to an
ordinary bricks. The pugged clay is placed in the machine and it comes out through the
rectangular opening.
ii) These are cut into strips by the wire fixed at the frame. The arrangement is made in such a
way that the strips thickness is equal to that of the bricks are obtained. So it is also called as
WIRE CUT BRICKS.
Dry Clay Machinemoulding:
In these machines, the strong clay is finally converted in to powered form.A small quantity of
water is then added to form a stiff plastic paste.
ii) Such paste is placed in mould and pressed by machine to form dry and well-shaped bricks.
They do not require the process of drying.
Drying
The damp bricks, if brunt, are likely to be cracked and distorted. Hence the moulded bricks are
dried before they are taken for the next operation of burning. For the drying the bricks are laid
longitudinally in the stacks of width equal to two bricks, A stack consists of ten or eight tiers.
The bricks are laid along and across the stock in alternate layers. All the bricks are placed on
edges. The bricks are allowed to dry until the bricks are become leather hard of moisture
content about 2%.
Burning
Dehydration(400-650°C):This is also known as water smoking stage. During dehydration,
(1) The water which has been retained in the pores of the clay after drying is driven off and the
clay loses its plasticity,
(2) Some of the carbonaceous matter is burnt,
(3) A portion of sulphur is distilled from pyrites.
(4) Hydrous minerals like ferric hydroxide are dehydrated, and
(5) The carbonate minerals are more or less decarbonated. Too rapid heating causes cracking
or bursting of the bricks. On the other hand, if alkali is contained in the clay or sulphur is
present in large amount in the coal, too slow heating of clay produces a scum on the surface of
the bricks.
Oxidation Period (650-900°C) :During the oxidation period,
(1) Remainder of carbon is eliminated and,
(2) The ferrous iron is oxidized to the ferric form. The removal of sulphur is completed only
after the carbon has been eliminated.
Sulphur on account of its affinity for oxygen, also holds back the oxidation of iron.
Consequently, in order to avoid black or spongy cores, oxidation must proceed at such a rate
which will allow these changes to occur before the heat becomes sufficient to soften the clay
and close its pore. Sand is often added to the raw clay to produce a more open structure and
thus provide escape of gases generated in burning.
Vitrification : To convert the mass into glass like substance — the temperature ranges from
900–1100°C for low melting clay and 1000–1250°C for high melting clay. Great care is
required in cooling the bricks below the cherry red heat in order to avoid checking and cracking.
Vitrification period may further be divided into (a) incipient vitrification, at which the clay has
softened sufficiently to cause adherence but not enough to close the pores or cause loss of

13
space—on cooling the material cannot be scratched by the knife; (b) complete vitrification,
more or less well-marked by maximum shrinkage; (c) viscous vitrification, produced by further
increase in temperature which results in a soft molten mass, a gradual loss in shape, and a
glassy structure after cooling. Generally, clay products are vitrified to the point of viscosity.
However, paving bricks are burnt to the stage of complete vitrification to achieve maximum
hardness as well as toughness.
Burning of bricks is done in a clamp
Bricks are burned at high temperature to gain the strength, durability, density and red color
appearance. All the water is removed at the temperature of 650 degrees but they are burnt at an
temperature of about 1100 degrees because the fusing of sand and lime takes place at this
temperature and chemical bonding takes between these materials after the temperature is
cooled down resulting in the hard and dense mass.
Bricks are not burnt above this temperature because it will result in the melting of the bricks
and will result in a distorted shape and a very hard mass when cooled which will not be
workable while brickwork. Bricks can be burnt using the following methods:
(a) Clamp Burning
(b) Kiln Burning
Clamp Burning:
Clamp is a temporary structure generally constructed over the ground with a height of about 4
to 6 m. It is employed when the demand of the bricks is lower scale and when it is not a
monsoon season. This is generally trapezoidal in plan whose shorter edge among the parallel
sides is below the ground and then the surface raising constantly at about 15 degrees to reach
the other parallel edge over the ground. A vertical brick and mud wall is constructed at the
lower edge to support the stack of the brick. First layer of fuel is laid as the bottom most layer
with the coal, wood and other locally available material like cow dung and husk. Another layer
of about 4 to 5 rows of bricks is laid and then again a fuel layer is laid over it. The thickness of
the fuel layer goes on with the height of the clamp.
After these alternate layers of the bricks and fuel the top surface is covered with the mud so as
to preserve the heat. Fire is ignited at the bottom, once fire is started it is kept under fire by
itself for one or two months and same time period is needed for the cooling of the bricks.
Disadvantages of Clamp burning:
1. Bricks at the bottom are over-burnt while at the top are under-burnt.
2. Bricks loose their shape, and reason may be their descending downward once the fuel layer
is burnt.
3. This method cannot employ for the manufacturing of large number of bricks and it is costly
in terms of fuel because large amount of heat is wasted.
4. It cannot be employed in monsoon season.

Kiln Burning:
Kiln is a large oven used for the burning of bricks. Generally coal and other locally available
materials like wood, cow dung etc can be used as fuel. They are of two types:
• Intermittent Kilns.
• Continuous Kilns.

14
Intermittent Kilns: these are also the periodic kind of kilns, because in such kilns only one
process can take place at one time. Various major processes which takes place in the kilns are:
Loading, unloading, Cooling, and Burning of bricks.
Continuous Kilns:
These kilns are called continuous because all the processes of loading, unloading, cooling,
heating, pre-heating take place simultaneously. They are used when the bricks are demanded
in larger scale and in short time. Bricks burning are completed in one day, so it is a fast method
of burning. There are two well-known continuous kilns:
Bull's Trench Kiln: Bull's trench kiln consists of a rectangular, circular or oval plan shape. They
are constructed below the ground level by excavating a trench of the required width for the
given capacity of brick manufacturing. This Trench is divided generally in 12 chambers so that
2 numbers of cycles of brick burning can take place at the same time for the larger production
of the bricks. Or it may happen that one cycle is carried out at one time in all the 12 chambers
by using a single process in the 2-3 chambers at the same time. The structure is under-ground
so the heat is conserved to a large extent so it is more efficient. Once fire is started it constantly
travels from one chamber to the other chamber, while other operations like loading, unloading,
cooling, burning and preheating taking place simultaneously.
Such kilns are generally constructed to have a manufacturing capacity of about 20,000 bricks
per day. The drawback of this kiln is that there is not a permanent roof, so it is not easy to
manufacture the bricks in the monsoon seasons.
Hoffman's Kiln: The main difference between the Bull's trench kiln and the Hoffman kilns are:
1. Hoffman's kiln is an over the ground structure while Bull's Trench Kiln is an underground
structure.
2.Hoffman's kiln have a permanent roof while Bull's trench Kiln do not have so it former can
be used in 12 months a year to manufacture bricks but later is stopped in the monsoon season.

Hoffman's kiln is generally circular in plan, and is constructed over the ground. The whole
structure is divided into the 12 chambers and the entire processes takes place simultaneously
like in Bull's trench Kiln.

2.3 Qualities of Good bricks

 It should have a rectangular shape, regular surface and red coloured appearance.
 It should confirm in size to the specified dimensions. (224*108*57 mm –Nepal standard
) (190*90*90 mm-Indian Standard)
 It should be properly burnt. This can be ascertained by holding two bricks freely, one
each hand and striking them. A sharp metallic sound indicates good burning whereas a
dull thud would indicate incomplete burning )
 A good building brick should not absorb water more than 20% of its dry weight.
Absorption should not exceed 25% in any case.
 A good building brick should possess compressive strength which in no case should be
less than 35kg/cm2. A rough test for the strength of the brick is to let it fall freely from
a height of about one meter on to a hard floor. It should not break.
 Brick should be hard enough so that it is not scratched by fingernail.
 A good brick has a uniform colour and structure throughout its body.

15
2.4 Classification of bricks
S.n Class Characteristics Use
o
1. First Class a) Well burnt having even surface and a) Excellent for
Bricks perfectly rectangular shape. all types of
b) When two bricks are struck against each construction
other a ringing sound is produced in the
c) Its compressive strength shall not be exterior walls
less than 140kg/cm2 and its water when the
absorption after 24hours, immersion plastering is
shall not exceed 20% not required.
d) It should show a uniform appearance, Also suitable
texture and structure when seen on for flooring.
fracturing
2. Second a) Well burnt, even slight over burning is a) For exterior
Class Bricks accepted. work when
b) Metallic ringing sound is also a must in plastering is
this case as well. to be done
c) In shape, rectangular, but slight b) For interior
irregularity is permitted. Surface may walls. These
slightly even. bricks may
d) Compressive strength shall not be less not be used
than 70kg/cm2 and absorption value for flooring.
between 20-22%
e) Slight difference in structure on
fractured surface is admissible

3. Third Class a) Poorly and unevenly burnt, that is may Used mostly in
Bricks be over burnt or under burnt. ordinary type of
b) On striking a dull thud (rather than construction and in
metallic sound) is produced. dry situations.
c) Appearance, shape and size are also
non-uniform and irregular.
d) Compressive strength lies between 35-
70kg/cm2 and absorption between 22-
25%
4 Jhama or a) Irregular in shape and dark in colour, They are unfit for use
overburnt this is due to over burning. building construction
bricks b) Quite strong in compressive strength, because of the
generally above 150kg/cm2 and low in distorted shape and
porosity and absorption. irregular size. They
are very commonly
used in broken form
in road construction,
foundations and
floors as a coarse
aggregate material.

16
2.5 Different Tests for brick
To know the quality of bricks following tests can be performed.
 Shape and size test
 Compressive strength test
 Water Absorption test
 Efflorescence test
Shape and size test
In this test randomly collected 20 bricks are staked along lengthwise, width wise and height
wise and then those are measured to know the variation of sizes as per standard. Bricks are
closely viewed to check if its edges are sharp and straight and uniform in shape. A good quality
brick should have bright and uniform colour throughout.
Compressive strength test
This test is done to know the compressive strength of brick. It is also called crushing strength
of brick.
 Generally 5 specimens of bricks are taken to laboratory for testing and they are
immersed in water for 24 hours at room temperature after 24 hours they are clean.
 Frogs of the brick should fill by a layer of standard cement mortar of 1:1 (1 part cement
and 1 part sand). Bricks are stored under damp sacks for 24 hours to allow setting of
mortar.
 Bricks are placed in water for seven days to allow the mortar to harden.
 Bricks are taken out of the water kept it dry and each brick is tested individually.
 In this test a brick specimen is put on crushing machine and applied pressure at a
uniform rate of 140kg/cm2 per minute till it breaks. The ultimate pressure at which brick
is crushed is taken into account. All five brick specimens are tested one by one and
average result is taken as brick’s compressive/crushing strength.
 Compressive Strength =P/A
Where P is the load applied at which all the edges of bricks cracked. A is the surface
area of the brick.

Water Absorption Test

In this test bricks are weighed in dry condition and let them immersed in fresh water for 24
hours. After 24 hours of immersion those are taken out from water and wipe out with cloth.
Then brick is weighed in wet condition. The difference between weights is the water absorbed
by brick. The percentage of water absorption is then calculated. The less water absorbed by
brick the greater its quality. Good quality brick doesn’t absorb more than 20% water of its own
weight.
𝑊1−𝑊2
Water absorption capacity = *100
𝑊2
Where w1 =wet weight of brick, w2 =dry weight of brick
Efflorescence test
The presence of alkalies in bricks is harmful and they form a grey or white layer on brick
surface by absorbing moisture. To find out the presence of alkalis in bricks this test is
performed. In this test a brick is immersed in fresh water for 24 hours and then it’s taken out
from water and allowed to dry in shade. If the whitish layer is not visible on surface it proofs
that absence of alkalis in brick. If the whitish layer visible about 10% of brick surface then the
presence of alkalis is inacceptable range. If that is about 50% of surface then it is moderate. If
the alkalies’ presence is over 50% then the brick is severely affected by alkalies.
17
2.6 Stabilized earth bricks, Sand- lime bricks and refractory bricks

2.6.1 Stabilized earth bricks(Interlocking Bricks)

These are the compressed stabilized earth bricks are made of soil and sand and cement. First
the soil is tested then mixed with additional sand and 10% cement and made moist by adding
water. Then mixture is poured and compressed in a machine and brick is formed by
compression. The bricks are cured for 21 days. Cement sets and bonds with sand which
stabilizes the brick. By compressing density and strength of the bricks increased.
Interlock Brick Technology consists of specially designed unburnt bricks with tongue and
groove features that allow bricks to interlock each other in masonry and there by reduces mortar
usage. Construction with interlocking brick is economical, quick and environment friendly.
Advantages of stabilized earth bricks
 Affordable reconstruction in rural areas
 Increasing earthquake resistance and resilience
 Sustainable reconstruction

Fig: Stabilized earth bricks

2.6.2 Sand lime bricks

Sand lime bricks are made by mixing sand, fly ash and lime followed by a chemical process
during wet mixing. The mix is then moulded under pressure forming the brick. These bricks
can offer advantages over clay bricks such as: their colour appearance is grey instead of the
regular reddish colour. Their shape is uniform and presents a smoother finish that doesn’t
require plastering. These bricks offer excellent strength as a load-bearing member.

2.6.3 Refractory Bricks

These bricks are capable of withstanding very high temperatures without undergoing any
deformation in shape or size and without reacting with the material of a particular composition
at these temperatures. Their use is restricted to making of inner walls of furnaces for
manufacture of metals and for similar high temperature applications.
Classification: The fire bricks are classified on the basis of their reactivity towards melts at
high temperatures.

18
Acidic Bricks : They are resistant to the melts of acidic composition but will react with the
melts of basic composition. Eg. Fire-clay bricks, Silica bricks.
Basic Bricks : They are resistant to the melts of basic composition . They are not suitable for
use in those furnaces where acidic melts are being heated Eg. Magnesia bricks, bauxite bricks
etc.
Neutral Bricks : They are non-reactive to both acidic and basic melts. Eg. Chromite bricks,
Chromite-magnsite bricks.

2.7 Miscellaneous clay products

2.7.1 Tiles
These are structural units moulded from clays in suitable shapes and burnt to
vitrification temperatures. They differ from ordinary building brick in
(i) Dimensions
(ii) Shape
(iii) Degree of burning.

They have been extensively used throughout the world in a number of situations in
building as drains, for flooring, for partition walls and for roofing. They are invariably
thinner than bricks used for similar purposes.

2.7.1.1 Manufacture of tiles

Tiles are manufactured by following methods.
Preparation of Clay
Only those clays which are sufficiently plastic are suitable for making tiles. These clays
generally occur in the lower layers of the brick clays.
The tile clays are extracted and cleared from fragments, pebbles and organic matter if any.
These are then ground or crushed to a fine powder, using even mills for crushing. It is a
common practice to add a mixture of finely ground glass and broken pottery at the crushing
stage. These materials add to the imperviousness and strength of the tile.
For ordinary type of tiles, the powdered clay is rendered into a homogeneous mix using a Pug
Mill in a manner similar for brick making. For superior type of tiles, however, the crushed and
powdered clays are thoroughly stirred in a tank. Some time is allowed for the coarse clay
particles to settle in the tank. The water consists of fine-clay particles in suspension. It is
separated and fine clay particles allowed settling at a very slow rate. This is the finest clay
suitable for manufacture of delicate type of decorative tiles.
Moulding
There are three different methods by which tiles are moulded. Selection of method would
depend on the shape and size of the tile to the moulded.
(a) Wooden pattern method It is similar to ground moulding of bricks. A wooden pattern
(of the required shape and size) is made from a seasoned wood. Lumps of pugged clay
are thrown into it by the moulder after he has thrown some ash on the inner side of the
mould. Any surplus clay is removed by a wire string. The tile is removed from the
pattern by applying pressure with fingers and thumb. Flat tiles are easily and commonly
moulded by this process. Similarly, tiles which have non-uniform dimensions and non-
circular shapes arc best moulded using wooden patterns. It is basically a manual method
and requires skilled moulders.

19
(b) Potter's wheel method. This is also a manual method and is best suited for moulding circular
tiles with uniform or varying diameter. In his method, the use is made of potter’s wheel on
which a skilled labourer moulds tiles of required shape (other than flat) from the pugged clays
using the same techniques as for moulding pitchers and other earthenware. The moulder makes
deep cuts one on either side on the finally moulded pipe of clay before removing from the
wheel. This helps splitting of two halves easily after burning.
(c) Moulding by machines. For large-scale manufacture of tiles having uniform sections,
machines moulding is adopted. Clay that has been pugged to suitable consistency is fed into
such a machine and pressed forward.
Drying
Tiles require greater care in drying them for two reasons
(i) Being thinner, they are easily deformed when handled carelessly;
(ii) Non—uniform drying may result in warping and cracking.
To overcome these difficulties, tiles are collected and arranged in heaps (placing one tile above
another) in the case of flat tiles and in rows, in the case of circular tiles, near the place of
moulding till they are hand-hard. Small deformations that may result in the tiles during this
period either due to careless handling or due to drying are generally corrected by using a Flat
wooden pallet. Thereafter the tiles are placed for full drying under a shed, which protects them
From direct sun and rain. It is also essential that position of a tile is changed during drying
period so that all areas get uniform exposure. Further, any pebbles and small grit that may stick
to the under surface of the tile should be cleaned when the tile is still semi- dry. Once it becomes
hard, such material will disfigure the tile on burning.
Burning
When required in small number, tiles can he burnt in brick kilns. In that case, they are placed
on edge in the upper part of the kiln over and above the last row of the bricks. Generally two
to three rows of tiles are burnt in a brick kiln. Very often it may he only a tile-making unit. In
that case tiles are burnt commonly in specially designed intermittent type kilns called Sialkot
kilns. These are circular in outline and have roots over them.
A typical Sialkot kiln for tile burning consists of
(a) Outer wall, made up of bricks, of a suitable thickness. The wall has two types of openings:
one, doors for loading and unloading of tiles and second, doors through which fuel has to be
filled for burning.
(b) The floor, which is divided into longitudinal, narrow channels at regular intervals, which
are called the flues. The roof, which is supported on posts covering the entire area of the kiln.
Burning Process
The burning of a batch of 30,000 to 50,000 tiles are carried out in the following manner.
First step. The flues are filled with fuel and covered by a layer of burnt bricks that are laid flat
wise. Sufficient space is left between any two bricks as to allow heat to pass upwards.
Second step: Tiles are stacked over the brick layer edge wise with space in between them, to
the full height of the kiln. On the top course of dried tiles, a layer of ash and old broken tiles is
laid to conserve maximum heat during burning.
Third step: Once the kiln is loaded as above, doors are closed by bricks laid in mud mortar.
Fourth step: Kiln is fired by igniting the fuel in the flues. The firing is continued for about 72
hours during which time temperature is increased and decreased in accordance with the
following scheme:

20
(i) Very gentle fire is burnt to begin with. This is meant only to dehydrate or remove any
moisture from the tiles.
(ii) Fire is increased to achieve temperature of red—heat around (800°C). This results in initial
baking of tiles. It is continued for 4 hours.
(iii) Fire is slackened for a period of 6 hours. This is to allow the baked tiles a time to adjust to
a temperature shock.
(iv) Now, fire is increased once again, this time to white—heat temperature of 1300°C. This
high temperature is maintained for at least 3 hours. It is during this stage that baked tiles get
converted to vitrified tile products.

2.7.1.2 Types of Tiles

There is a different type of tiles used in building construction which are unique to the type of
surface where it must be applied. Following are the types of tiles based on surface of
application:

Roofing tiles,

Flooring tiles,

Wall tiles, and

Partition tiles.
Roofing tiles: They are earthenware that is baked products. Its manufacture is similar to that of
brick the wall tiles as well as the floor tiles, are employed in the interior as well as the exterior
of the building. This is mainly employed based on the requirement of decoration or aesthetics.
These belong to the class of ceramics and are called as white wares.
Tiles that are used on walls and floor are available in both glazed and in the unglazed forms.
Mostly the wall tiles are glazed by a thin layer of glazing when it is available in the market.
Floor tiles/Wall tiles: They are too designed to bring the beauty of flooring and movement. But
it is subjected to higher load, pressure and other undesirable material action. So, these tiles are
made more durable, abrasion resistant, water impervious and easy clean form. Floor tiles along
with the mentioned properties should also provide good aesthetics. The degree of burning is
the parameter that differentiates the wall and the floor tiles.When compared to floor tiles, the
wall tiles burned at a lower temperature. After this, it is glazed and re-fired at a lower
temperature.
Based on material and manufacture Following are the types of tiles used in building
construction:

o Ceramic tiles or non-porcelain tiles, and

o Porcelain tiles.

Ceramic Tiles
Ceramic tiles are made from a mixture of clay and other materials. They are fired in a kiln.
Ceramic tiles are used for the interior floors, swimming pools, exterior floors, walls and for
special installation both in interior and exterior cases. Most types of tiles come under the
category of ceramic tiles. Different types of ceramic tiles are as follows.

21
a) Earthenware tiles

b) Terracotta tiles

c) Fully vitrified tiles

d) Glazed tiles

e) Stoneware Tiles

Porcelain Tiles
The manufacture, absorbing capacity and the breaking strength of porcelain tiles differ from
the ceramic tiles. The porcelain tiles are also made from clay. But compared with the ceramic
tiles, they make use of heavy or denser clay.

Porcelain tiles during manufacture are subjected to heavy temperature for a longer time. This
baking is carried out until all the water present in the element is evaporated. This unique method
of manufacture makes these tiles harder and denser compared to ceramic tiles.

This is the reason porcelain tile is regarded as a superior product when factors of durability,
design, color and value factors are considered. Porcelain tiles are highly impervious to water.
It has a water absorption rate lesser than 0.5%.
(Note: For different types of tiles Refer book)

2.7.2 Terracotta
It is an Italian word; Terra means clay and Cotta means burnt. Terracotta is refractory clay
product and is used in ornamental parts of buildings. The clay used for its manufacture should
be of superior quality and should have sufficient iron and alkaline matters. By varying iron
oxide in clay, desired colour can be obtained. The clay is mixed with powdered glasses, pottery
and sand ground to fine powder and pugged several times till it gets uniform and soft for
moulding. Terracotta is impervious, hard and cheap. When properly made the material
weathers well and because of its glazed surface can be cleaned easily. The product is burnt in
special kilns known as Muffle furnance.
Preparation of clay: The clay is mixed thoroughly with water in a tub. Powdered pottery, glass
and white sand are added to it in sufficient proportions. It is then intimately mixed with spades.
The intimate mix is then placed in wooden boxes with joints. This allows the surplus water to
drain off. Thereafter the mix is passed several times through pug mills.
Moulding and drying: Special porous moulds are made of Plaster of Paris or of zinc. The
pugged clay is pressed into moulds. The dried articles are taken out of the moulds after a
fewdays and then dried slowly.

Burning: Terracotta is burned with care to get uniform colour in muffle furnance between
1100–1200°C.

Composition
Dry clay 50–60%
Ground glass 8–10%

22
Crushed pottery 20%
Clean white sand 10–20%

Uses
1. Hollow blocks of terracotta are used for masonry.
2. Cornices and arches.
3. Statuettes.
4. Ornamental works.
5. Being fire proof, terracotta is most suitable as casing for steel columns and beams.
6. Porous terracotta is used for sound insulation.

2.7.3 Earthenware
These are made by burning the ordinary clay at low temperature and cooling slowly. To check
shrinkage, sand and crushed pottery is mixed with clay. This also increases the toughness,
hardness and strength of the ware.

Characteristics
1. Soft, porous and weak.
2. Glazed earthenware becomes resistant to weathering action.
Uses : Earthenware is used for manufacturing drain pipes, lavatory fittings and light weight
Partition walls.

2.7.4 Stoneware
A hard ceramic material resembling porcelain with a different colour, usually grey or
brownish is made from refractory clay mixed with crushed pottery, stones and sand burned at
high temperatures and cooled slowly. The clay used for making stoneware consists of about
75 percent silica and 25 per cent alumina. Iron oxide is added to give colour.
Characteristics
1. Hard, compact, strong and durable material.
2. Gives ringing sound when struck.
3. Glazed stoneware becomes resistant to chemical and weathering action.
4. Gives good finish and appearance.
Uses
1. Light sanitary wares, e.g. wash basins, water closets, etc.
2. Drain pipes and fittings.
3. Road paving materials.
4. Flooring tiles and wall tiles in toilets and kitchens.

2.7.5 Concrete Blocks

Concrete block masonry which is also known as concrete masonry unit (CMU) have
advantages over brick and stone masonry. Concrete blocks are manufactured in required shape
and sizes and these may be solid or hollow blocks. The common size of concrete blocks is
39cm x 19cm x (30cm or 20 cm or 10cm) or 2 inch, 4 inch, 6 inch, 8 inch, 10 inch and 12-inch

23
unit configurations. Cement, aggregate, water is used to prepare concrete blocks. The cement-
aggregate ratio in concrete blocks is 1:6. Aggregate used is of 60% fine aggregate and 40%
coarse aggregate. Their Minimum strength is about 3N/mm2. ASTM C-90-91 specifies the
compressive strength requirements of concrete masonry units.

Types of Concrete Blocks or Concrete Masonry Units

Depending upon the structure, shape, size and manufacturing processes concrete blocks are
mainly classified into 2 types and they are:

 Solid concrete blocks

 Hollow concrete Blocks

2.7.5.1 Solid Concrete Blocks

Solid concrete blocks are commonly used, which are heavy in weight and manufactured from
dense aggregate. They are very strong and provides good stability to the structures. So for large
work of masonry like for load bearing walls these solid blocks are preferable. They are
available in large sizes compared to bricks. So, it takes less time to construct concrete masonry
than brick masonry.

2.7.5.2 Hollow Concrete Blocks

A hollow concrete block contains void area greater than 25% of gross area. Solid area of hollow
bricks should be more than 50%. The hollow part may be divided into several components
based on our requirement. They are manufactured from lightweight aggregates. They are light
weight blocks and easy to install.

Types of Hollow Concrete Blocks:

 Stretcher block
 Corner block
 Pillar block
 Jamb block
 Partition block
 Lintel block
 Frogged brick block
 Bull nose block

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Concrete Stretcher Blocks
Concrete stretcher blocks are used to join the corner in the masonry. Stretcher blocks are widely
used concrete hollow blocks in construction. They are laid with their length parallel to the face
of the wall.

Concrete Corner Blocks

Corner blocks are used at the ends or corners of masonry. The ends may be window or door
openings etc. they are arranged in a manner that their plane end visible to the outside and other
end is locked with the stretcher block.

Concrete Pillar Blocks

Pillar block is also called as double corner block. Generally these are used when two ends of
the corner are visible. In case of piers or pillars these blocks are widely used.

Jamb Concrete Blocks

Jamb blocks are used when there is an elaborated window opening in the wall. They are
connected to stretcher and corner blocks. For the provision of double hung windows, jamb
blocks are very useful to provide space for the casing members of window.

25
Partition Concrete Block
Partition concrete blocks are generally used to build partition walls. Partition blocks have larger
height than its breadth. Hollow part is divided into two to three components in case of partition
blocks.

Lintel Blocks
Lintel block or beam block is used for the purpose of provision of beam or lintel beam. Lintel
beam is generally provided on the top portion of doors and windows, which bears the load
coming from top. Concrete lintel blocks have deep groove along the length of block as shown
in figure. After placing the blocks, this groove is filled with concrete along with reinforcement.

Frogged Brick Blocks

Frogged brick block contains a frog on its top along with header and stretcher like frogged
brick. This frog will helps the block to hold mortar and to develop the strong bond with top
laying block.

26
Bullnose Concrete Block

Bullnose blocks are similar to corner blocks. Their duties also same but when we want rounded
edges at corner bullnose bricks is preferred.

2.8 Glazing
The protective treatment given to certain class of clay products with a view of improving their
resistance against water and chemicals is known as glazing. Bricks, tiles, earthen wares and
stone wares are glazed by an impervious film to protect the surface from chemical attack and
other weathering agencies
The different types of glazing in use are as to follow.
Transparent Glazing
There are many methods for imparting transparent glazing, but salt glazing is most commonly
used, since this makes the items impermeable. It consists of throwing sodium chloride in the
Kiln when burning is at peak (1200°–1300°C).The heat of the kiln volatizes the salt, which
enters into the pores of the burning item and combines with the silica in clay to make soda
silicate. The soda silicate so formed combines with alumina, lime and iron in the clay to form
a permanent thin, transparent surface coating.
Lead Glazing
Clay items are burned thoroughly and then dipped in a solution of lead oxide and tin oxide.
The particles of lead and tin adhere to the surface of clay items. After this, the articles are
returned in potter’s kiln where these adhered particles melt and form a thin transparent layer
on the outer surface. This method of glazing is used for items of inferior clay which cannot
withstand high temperature required for salt glazing.
Opaque Glazing
This is also known as enameling. Borax, kaolin, chalk and colouring matter is fired with total
or a part of feldspar, flint, and lead oxide. The resulting molten glass is poured into water to

27
give shattered frit. The frit is then ground with remaining materials and water and is made of
the consistency of cream known as slip. Fully burnt earthen wares known as biscuits are dipped
in the slip. The biscuits absorb water and form thin layer of glaze on the surfaces. After drying
the products, these are once again fired to a lower temperature so as to fuse the glaze.

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 3 STONES AND AGGREGATES
3.1 Physical classification of stones
Physical classification of stone (rock) is based on general structure of rocks. According to this
classification, the rocks can be stratified, unstratified and foliated
Stratified Rocks
Stratified rocks are composed of layered structures that are connected as a result of stratification
and possess plane of cleavage or cleavage planes or bedding planes. These layers and stratum
can be easily detached from one another along that plane. The layers of the stratified rocks can
be as thin as 1 cm and can be as thick as 1 meter or above. The color, size and composition of
the layers can be similar or different in nature.
Most sedimentary rocks occur in distinct layers of same of different color and composition.
Their different layers are also called beds and are separated by planes of weakness called
bedding planes. Sandstone, limestone, slate etc are the examples of stratified rocks.
Unstratified Rocks
Unstratified rocks never shows distinct layers in their structure beside have a compact massive
crystalline structure that’s why un-stratified rocks are usually called as massive rocks. As they
are intact in massive units they can’t be separated easily in layers or slabs. Unstratified rocks
are commonly found along with stratified rocks and are abundantly found in nature. The
structure of the unstratified rocks is same along their depth and area. Granite, basalt, quartzite
and trap are the examples of unstratified rocks.
Foliated Rocks
Foliated rocks are formed in a layered structure that has been induced under lateral pressure.
This classification of rocks is very common in case of metamorphic grout of rocks. These rocks
have a tendency of splitting along a plane of definite direction only which is not necessarily be
in parallel direction to each other, which was the case of stratified rocks. Well defined bands
of different composition. Gneisses, schists are the examples of foliated rocks.

3.2 Quarrying, dressing and seasoning of stone

3.2.1 Quarrying of stone

The process of taking out stones from natural rock beds is known as the quarrying. The site
from where stones are excavated is known as quarry or quarry site. The term quarry is used to
indicate the exposed surface of natural rocks. The stones, thus obtained, are used for various
engineering purposes. The difference a mine and quarry should be noted. In case of a mine, the
operations are carried out under the ground at great depth. In case of quarry, the operations are
carried out at ground level in an exposed condition.
Selection for Quarry Site: The selection of site for a quarry of stones should be done after
studying carefully the following aspects:
1. Availability of tools, equipment, power, materials and labor for the efficient working of
quarry.
2. Easy availability of clean water in sufficient quantity all the year round.
3. Economy in quarrying.
4. Drainage from quarry should be easy
5. Facility of carrying and conveying stones from quarry should be available.
6. Quality of stone available from quarry.

29
7. Distance of quarry from road, railways, etc. should not be very large.
8. Sufficient stone should be assured from the site.
9. Quality of stone available from quarry should be good.
10. Geological formation of the site should be properly studied.
11. The site should be away from built up areas, in case blasting has to be resorted to.
12. Site for the dumping of refuse should be easily available nearby.

3.2.2 Methods of Quarrying

Quarrying methods are classified as
1. Quarrying without blasting
2. Quarrying by blasting
1. Quarrying without blasting: In these methods blocks of rock are removed by skilled persons
by using hand tools and light channeling machines called channellizers. No explosive material
is used for breaking the stones.
The wedge method
The wedging is adopted for costly stratified rocks which are soft . In this method, first of all few
holes are digged carefully on the selected places of rock surface using chisels and hammers or
hammer drills. After digging holes a steel wedge, w is inserted in each hole between two steel
strips called feathers. Wedging is done in all the holes drilled in a sequence. Inserted wedges
are then struck with hammers simultaneously. Cracks appear along the lines of holes in the
rock mass due to the blows of hammer. Long iron bars are inserted in the holes of rock and the
cracks so caused, the block of the rocks bound by rocks are pushed out and forward from quarry
slope.
The channeling method
This method of excavation or rocks is adopted when stone in definite large sizes is required,
and stone involved is of softer variety. Marble, lime stone, and soft sand stones can be
quarried by this method. In this method a special machine channeling machine is used. It is
such a machine which can make vertical as well as oblique grooves in the stone. This
machine can cut out 5 to 8 cm wide and 2 to 4 m deep grooves. A groove is cut around the
stone block to be excavated with the help of this machine. The stone block is then detached
from the bottom by drilling horizontal holes and then by wedging.
2. Quarrying by blasting
In this method, the explosives are used to convert into small pieces of stones. The main purpose
of quarrying stones by is to loosen large masses of rocks and not to violently blow up the whole
mass so as to convert it into very small pieces of practically no use.
This method is adopted for quarrying hard stones, having no fissures or cracks. The stones
obtained by blasting are usually of small size and they are used as ballast in railways, aggregate
for concrete, road metal, etc. The process of blasting is important with respect to the stone
quarrying.

3.2.3 Dressing of Stone

Stone blocks, obtained from quarry, are in irregular size and shapes and cannot be used as
such in masonry work, without dressing. Dressing of stones is a process, carried out with the
help of hand tools, to give proper shape and surface to the stone, before its use in masonry or
in any other work.

30
The dressing of the stones is done for the following purposes:
(i) To get the good appearance of stone masonry.
(ii) To give the proper shape of stone masonry.
(iii) To make transportation of stone easy and economical from the quarry.
(iv)To take the advantage of softness in dressing due to presence of quarry sap in freshly
Quarried stones.

3.2.3.1 Method of Dressing

Dressing of stones can be done manually and mechanically.
Manually dressing can be done by using chisels, hammers and abrasives.
Mechanically dressing can be done by using rock cutters- special saw-fitted machines which
can cut slabs, blocks and any other shape from rough rocks. Polishing machines and grinding
machines are use for polishing and fine finish.

Fig: Tools for cutting and dressing stones

a) Mash hammer
b) Face hammer
c) Mason’s hammer
d) Mallet
e) Spalling hammer
f) Scabbling hammer
g) Drafting chisel
h) Point chisel
i) Punch chisel
j) crow chisel
k)soft stone chisel
l) Plane chisel

31
Traditional Dressing Methods
a) Pitched Dressing :
In this method, only the edges of a block of stone are made level with the skillful use of
hammers. The surface is left in original cut.
b) Hammer Dressing
It is that of dressing in which edges as well as faces are reduce to an even regular surfaces. It
has a pitted appearance on the surface.
c) Chisel Drafting
In this method straight grooves are made with the help of a chisel at all the four edges. Chisel
drafted stones are specially used in plinths and corners of the building.
d) Rough tooling
The edges are first made square by using chisel and hammer. Then a series of grooves of
variable width are developed over the surface of the stone.
e) Punched Dressing
It is done on the stones that have already been rough-tooled. A series of parallel ridges are
made on the stone surface using hammer and chisel. It is also called furrowed finish.
f) Close Picked fine tooling
This is an extreme type of dressing in which almost every type of projecting irregularities
removed from all the four sides of stone. It is surface given fine finish and an appealing look.
g) Boasted finish
It is very common type of finish in which the surface of the stone is covered with parallel marks
that may run in a particular direction on a particular face. A boaster, which is actually a wide-
edged chisel is used for this purpose and hence the name.

3.2.4 Seasoning of stone

Seasoning of stone is the process of making the quarried stone dry by exposing in the air.
Seasoning gives a chance for the quarry water to evaporate and in nearly all cases renders the
stone harder, and prevents the stone from splitting from the action of the frost.
Many stones, such as sandstone and limestone, which are quite soft and weak when first
quarried acquire considerable hardness and strength after they have been exposed to the air for
several months. This hardness is due to the fact that the quarry water contained in the stone
holds in solution a certain amount of cementing material, which, as the water evaporates, is
deposited between the particles of sand, binding them more firmly together and forming
a hard outer crust to the stone, although the inside remains soft, as at first. On this account the
stone should be cut soon after it is taken from the quarry and if any carving is to be done it
should be done before the stone becomes dry, otherwise the hard crust will be broken off and
the carving will be from the soft interior, and hence its durability much lessened.

3.3 Artificial Stone

Where durable natural stone is not available at reasonable cost, artificial stone, also known as
cast stone becomes the choice. Artificial stone is made with cement and natural aggregates of
the crushed stone and sand with desired surface finish. Suitable coloring pigments may be
added. However, coloring should not exceed 15 per cent by volume. Cement and aggregates
are mixed in proportion of 1:3.

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Artificial stone can be moulded into the most intricate forms, cast into any size, reinforced to
have higher strength, are most suitable for face work, since grooves, rebates, etc., can be cast
easily and are economical. Some of the artificial stones available are as follows:
Concrete blocks : They are cast at site in the construction of piers or cast in moulds for steps,
window sills, etc.
Ransom Stone: They are prepared by mixing soda silicate with cement to provide decorative
flooring. These are also known as chemical stones. These have compressive strength of about
32 N/mm2.
Victoria Stones: They are granite pieces with the surfaces hardened by keeping immersed in
soda silicate for about two months.
Bituminous stones : Granite and diorite are impregnated with prepared or refined tar to form
bituminous stone. These are used for providing noise, wear and dust resistant stone surfaces.
Imperial stones: Finely crushed granite is washed carefully and mixed with Portland cement.
The mix is moulded in desired shape and then steam cured for 24 hours. The cured blocks are
immersed in silicate tanks for three days. These stones are similar to Victoria stones.
Artificial marble: They can be either pre-cast or cast-in-situ. These are made from portland
gypsum cement and sand. In the precast variety, the cast-stone is removed after three days. On
the fifth day of casting these are treated with a solution, liquid fluorite of magnesia. It is then
washed and wrapped in paper for 24 hours and then once again treated with the liquid. After
one month the stone is polished by rubbing emery over the surface with a linen rag ball dipped
in mixture of lime water and silicate of potash and then the process is repeated without emery.
It is used for external works. Cast-in-situ variety is made by laying the mix on canvas, in
thickness about 1.5 mm more than the required thickness of the stone. The surface is rubbed
over and the air holes are filled with mix. Grinding is done by hand or machine. The surface is
then rubbed with a polishing stone. Final rubbing is done with a ball of wool moistened with
alum water dipped into a 1:3 mix of hart shorn powder and diatomite.
Garlic stone : It is produced by moulding a mixture of iron slag and portland cement. These are
used as flag stones, surface drains, etc.
Characteristics
 This stone has a fine homogeneous structure, so that it can, if necessary, be worked and
carved like the best building stones.
 The great advantage that it possesses is the facility with which it may be moulded into
any form required.
 Several experiments have been made upon this material.
 It absorbs about 6.5 per cent of water.
 Its tensile strength is about 360 lbs. per inch.
 Its resistance to crushing about 2 tons per inch.
 It weighs about 120 lbs. per cubic foot.
These figures vary according to the nature of the material used in making the stone, the age of
the specimen, etc.
Uses
This artificial stone is used chiefly for paving, which is said to be more durable, to be cheaper,
and to stand a greater crushing force.
 It is used also for window sills, caps for piers, stairs, landings, tanks, sinks, etc.
 Silicated Stone is used for paving slabs and drainpipes.

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3.4 Classification of aggregate

Aggregates are very important ingredients of concrete due to the following reasons:
(a) They provide body and strength to the concrete (role of aggregates is similar to that of bones
in human body).
(b)They occupy about 75% volume of concrete and being comparatively cheaper as compared
to the other ingredients, they govern economy of concrete.
(c) Not only the strength of concrete but also other properties are governed by aggregates such
as durability, workability, shrinkage. volume, stability, etc.
Earlier it was believed that aggregates are inert material but later on it was established that
some of the aggregates (depending upon their chemical composition) are chemically active.
Therefore, it s necessary to study each and every property of aggregates namely, size, shape,
grading, surface texture, specific gravity, density, impact and crushing strength, abrasion value,
soundness and chemical composition.
Aggregates, used in concrete, can be natural or artificial type and are broadly classified as:
Coarse aggregates: (size > 4.75 mm). Those aggregate that are retained on the sieve of mesh
size 4.75mm. The upper size is generally around 80mm.
Fine aggregates (size < 4.75 mm). The grain size lies between 4.75mm and 0.15mm. These
pass through sieve with mesh size of 4.75 mm are retained on as sieve of 0.15mm mesh size.
Sand is the universally available and commonly used natural fine aggregate.

3.5 Gradation of aggregate

Grading of aggregates is determining the average grain size of the aggregates before they are
used in construction. Packing equal size of material voids or open spaces are always left within
the pack. Percentage of voids may be as high 45 percent of the total volume of stones. To avoid
the formation of voids different sizes of materials are packed together.
When the coarse aggregates are packed to make the concrete, the voids formed within the mass
must be filled by some finer material. Sand is used for this purpose. But, there will be voids
left between the sand grains too. These are filled with the cement particles. In this way, the
resulting concrete mass is a void-less or dense mass. The binding property of cement is made
use of to give this dense mass a cohesive stone-like character.

3.6 Fineness Modulus of Aggregate

Grading of aggregates is aimed at determining the mean size of the particle in a given batch of
aggregates. This is commonly found by the Method of Fineness Modulus. The method can be
used to determine fineness modulus of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, and all-in
aggregates, i.e., mixed aggregates.
In this method, a convenient weight of the sample is taken and sieved through a set of sieves
one after another. The number of sieves is five for the coarse aggregates and ten for all-in-
aggregates.It is only six in the case of fine aggregates.
Sieve Size for Grading of Aggregates.
Coarse Aggregates: 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm,4.75mm
Fine Aggregates: 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 0.6mm, 0.3mm, 0.15mm
All in aggregates: 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, .75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 0.6mm, 0.3mm,
0.15mm

34
The aggregate sample is sieved through a set of sieves and weights retained on each sieve in
percentage terms are summed up. On dividing this sum by 100, The Fineness Modulus of that
aggregate is determined. This helps in deciding about the quantity of aggregates of known
fineness modulus to be mixed for obtaining a concrete of desired density.
The value of fineness modulus is higher for coarser aggregates and lower for finer aggregates.
For the aggregates commonly used, the range of fineness modulus is as below:
Fine Aggregate - 2.0 to 3.5
Coarse Aggregate - 5.5 to 8.0
All-in-aggregate - 3.5 to 6.5
Further, the range of fineness modulus for various categories of sand is as below:
Fine Sand - 2.0 to 2.6
Medium Sand - 2.6 to 2.9
Coarse Sand - 2.9 to 3.5
Generally, the sand with fineness modulus ranging between 2.2 to 3.2 is considered suitable
for making concrete. The fineness modulus is useful in grading the given aggregate for
designing the mix economically for the given strength and workability with the minimum
amount of cement paste. Aggregates with higher fineness modulus produce harsh concrete and
with the lower fineness modulus will give uneconomical mix.

In the above example (Table 3.2), the fineness modulus (277)/100 = 2.77. Average size of a
particle can be thus determined by ranking the lowest sieve size as 1.So, fineness modulus of
2.77 indicates that average size of particles is between 300-600 μm sieves and more precisely,
close to 600 μm. Ranking lowest sieve size of 150 μm as 1.

35
3.7 Bulking of Sand

The volume increase of fine aggregate due to presence of moisture content is known as bulking.
Fine sand bulks more as compared to coarse sand. Extremely fine sand particularly the
manufactured fine aggregate bulks as much as about 40%.Fine aggregate do not show any
bulking when it is absolutely dry or completely saturated.

The moisture present in aggregate forms a film around each particle. These films of moisture
exert a force, known as surface tension, on each particle. Due to this surface tension each
particles gets away from each other. Because of this no direct contact is possible among
individual particles and this causes bulking of the volume.
Bulking of aggregate is dependent upon two factors,

1. Percentage of moisture content

2. Particle size of fine aggregate

Bulking increases with increase in moisture content up to a certain limit and beyond that the
further increase in moisture content results in decrease in volume. When the fine aggregate is
completely saturated it does not show any bulking. Fine sand bulks more as compared to coarse
sand, i.e. percentage of bulking in indirectly proportional to the size of particle.

Due to bulking, fine aggregate shows completely unrealistic volume. Therefore, it is absolutely
necessary that consideration must be given to the effect of bulking in proportioning the concrete
by volume. If care is not given to the effect of bulking, in the case of volume batching, the
resulting concrete is likely to be under sanded and harsh. It will also affect the yield of concrete
for given cement content.

36
3.8 Testing of coarse aggregate

3.8.1 Water absorption Test

Stones having higher water absorption value are porous and thus weak. They are generally
unsuitable unless found acceptable based on crushing and hardness test.
About 2kg of sample of dry aggregate is placed in a wire basket and immersed in water for 24
hours. The sample is weighed in water and the aggregate are taken out and then weighed after
drying the surface then the aggregates are dried in an oven for 24 hours at a temperature of
100-110°C and then the dry weight is determined. The water absorption is expressed as the
percent water absorbed in terms of over dried weight of aggregates.

3.8.2 Shape Test

The particle shape of aggregate mass is determine by the percentages of flaky and elongated
particles contained in it and by its angularity. The evaluation of shape of the particles made in
terms of flakiness index and elongation index.
The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose least
dimension/thickness is less than three fifths or 0.6 of their mean dimension.
The Elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest
dimension (length) is greater than nine-fifths (1.8times) their mean dimension. This test is not
applicable for sizes smaller than 6.3mm.

3.8.3 Abrasion Test (Aggregate Abrasion value)

 The resistance of aggregate to wear is known as hardness of aggregate.
 This property is particularly more important for the concrete used for wearing surfaces
such as, road, runway, etc.
 It is measured in terms of aggregate abrasion value and determined by Los Angeles
Abrasion Test Machine. The latter is more commonly used as it gives better
representation of hardness.
 The test method combines the attrition and abrasion affects both.
 The test sample of clean aggregate is taken in standard manner as specified in IS 2386
(PartIV) : 1963 and dried in oven at 105-110°C. It is placed in Los Angeles Abrasion
Test Machine along with the specified abrasive charge. The abrasive charge is in the
form of cast iron spheres or steel spheres.
 Each sphere is of approximately 48 mm in diameter and of 390-445 gm in weight. The
aggregates together with the abrasive charge are rotated in the machine @ 20-33
revolutions per minute for 500-1000 revolutions (depending upon the grading of the
aggregates).
 After completing the specified revolutions the aggregate is taken out and sieved through
1.7mm sieve. The weight of the aggregate, coarser than 1.7 mm, is taken after washing
and drying in standard manner, which is known as final weight.

37
3.8.4 Aggregate impact value (Impact test)

 Resistance of aggregate to sudden shock or impact is known as toughness of

aggregate.Aggregate impact value (AIV) is a relative measure of toughness of
aggregate.
 To determine the aggregate crushing value, a sample of aggregate passing through 12.5
mm and retained on 10 mm is taken.
 This sample of aggregate is dried for 4 hrs. in oven at 100-110°C. After getting the
dried sample cooled, it is filled in the cylindrical container in three layers by tamping
each layer 25 times with tamping rod in standard manner and the weight of sample ‘A’
is taken. This aggregate sample (weighing ‘A’) is placed in the impact load machine in
which the impact load is applied through 15 blows of standard hammers falling from a
height of 380 mm. The aggregate is then taken out and sieved through 2.36 mm sieve.
The weight ‘B’ of the fraction passing through 2.36 mm is taken.
Aggregate impact value is determined in percentage by:

The AIV should not be more than 45% for the concrete used for other than wearing surface,
whereas AIV should be limited to 30% for the concrete used for wearing surface such as roads,
runways and air field pavements.

3.8.5 Soundness Test:

It is defined as resistance of aggregates to disintegration due to weathering agencies. It is tested
by subjecting the aggregate to repeated cycles of freezing and thawing and calculating the loss
of weight due to disintegration. In another method, the aggregate is immersed in solutions of
magnesium or sodium sulphate for 16-18 hours at a time. It is taken out, dried and reweighed.
Such a process may be repeated for 20 or more cycles. Total loss in weight after so many cycles
will give a measure of the resistance of aggregate against deterioration by weathering agencies
or sulphate action.

3.8.6 Reactivity test:

Serious failures of concrete have been attributed to reactions between cement and some mineral
aggregates. Such reactions commonly result in the expansion of the concrete leading to its
partial or complete disintegration. The reactivity in most cases is due to alkali content of the
cement. Aggregates rich in cryptocrystalline silica such a opal, tridymite , chalcedony and some
rhyolites are reactive towards alkalies of the cement.

3.9 Testing of Sand

Harmful materials in sand: Sand shall not contain any harmful impurities such as iron, pyrites,
alkalis, salts, coal or other organic impurities, mica, shale or similar laminated materials, soft
fragments, sea shale in such form or in such quantities as to affect adversely the hardening,
strength or durability of the mortar. The maximum quantities of clay, fine silt, fine dust and
organic impurities in the sand / marble dust shall not exceed the following limits:
(a) Clay, fine silt and fine dust when determined in accordance within not more than 5% by
mass in IS 2386 (Part-II), natural sand or crushed gravel sand and crushed stone sand.

38
(b) Organic impurities when determined in colour of the liquid shall be lighter in lighter in
accordance with IS 2386 (Part –II) than that specified in the code.
Silt Content Test of Sand:
 The maximum quantity of silt in sand shall not exceed 8%.
 Fine aggregate containing more than allowable percentage of silt shall be washed so as
to bring the silt content within allowable limits.
 (SILT - Mud or clay or small rocks deposited by a river or lake)

39
 4 CEMENTING MATERIALS
Cementing materials: Those materials which possess the property of adhesion and cohesion
between different materials to form a strong bond between them are termed as cementing
materials. It is the material which has the capacity of holding structural units like bricks, stones,
and aggregate together with sufficient strength. Clay, lime, cement, gypsum are the examples
of cementing materials.

4.1 Clay as cementing material

Clay is an earthy material that is almost found everywhere on the ground surface. Size of the
clay particles is less than 0.002mm. Plasticity, Shrinkage under firing, Fineness of grain,
cohesion and hardness are the properties of clay. Binding property is very poor as compared to
cement and lime.
Classification of clay
A. According to the mode of formation
a) Residual Clay: It is known as primary clay, which is found near the place of origin or
found overlying the parent rock. E.g. Kaolin or china clay
b) Transported Clay: It is known as secondary clay, which is transported naturally at
relatively great distance from its place of origin.
B. According to the dominant characteristics
a) China Clay: Purest type of clay, It Contains high amount of mineral kaolinite.
And used for manufacture of crockery and other porcelain ware.
b) Fire Clay: It contains silica and alumina in high percentage. It can withstand
very high temperature and it is used for making refractory bricks.
c) Vitrifying Clay: Rich in iron oxide and carbonates of calcium and magnesium.
Used in the manufacture of flooring tiles, facing bricks, sewer pipes, etc.
d) Brick Clay: Considered as low grade clay. Used for the manufacture of the
building bricks, Rich in silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium and magnesium.

4.2 Lime
Lime is very common and important cementing material used in engineering construction. All
buildings constructed before the 20th century almost certainly have been built using lime,
because cement was only invented in 1824. Lime in its simplest form is an oxide of calcium. It
is used in plastering, white washing and even as lime mortar and lime concrete. Lime has been
used as a binder for stones and brick, and as a plaster, for thousands of years. It is also used in
soil stabilizing and water treatment plants.
Lime is produced by heating limestone which is more or less pure calcium carbonate. During
heating, carbon-dioxide is driven off and non-volatile impurities such as oxides of silicon,
magnesium, aluminum, iron and manganese are left behind in the lime.
Sources of lime
The lime is not generally found in nature in the free state but it is obtained by burning one of
the following materials:
 Limestone found in limestone hills.
 Limestone builders found in bed of rivers.
 Kankar found below ground.
 Shells of sea animals.

40
Properties of lime
Following are the properties of good quality lime, which makes it suitable for use as an
engineering material:
1. Easily workable
2. Provides strength to the masonry.
3. Possess good plasticity.
4. Offers good resistance to moisture.
5. Stiffens early
6. It provides durability due to low shrinkage in drying.
Uses of Lime
1. It is used to make concrete
2. It is used as a binding material in mortars for stoneware and also in bedding and jointing
brickwork of low strength.
3. It is used for plastering walls, ceilings, etc
4. It is employed for white washing and as a base coat for distempers.
5. It is used for knotting of timber work before painting.
6. It is used for manufacturing cement
7. It is used for production of artificial stone, lime-sand bricks foam-silicate products
etc.
8. It is used as a flux in the manufacture of steel
9. It is used for manufacture of paints.
10. It is used for stabilizing the soils.

Types of Lime
1. Quick Lime
2. Hydrated Lime
3. Hydraulic Lime
1. Quick Lime
 It is also known as fat lime, rich lime or pure lime.
 CaO content is always greater than 93% by weight remaining being impurities in the
form of clay. (Not exceeding 5%)
 Quicklime is shapeless white material which is highly caustic in character.
 It has high affinity for water and carbon dioxide.
 The lime obtained by calcining pure limestone is called quick lime. Calcinations are the
process of heating limestone to redness in contact with air. Due to calcinations, the
moisture. The chemical reaction is as follows.
CaCO3 = CaO+CO2
(Lime stone) (Lime)
Properties
 Slake vigorously
 Possess high degree of plasticity
 Hardens very slowly
 Possesses perfectly white colour.
 Sets slowly in presence of air.
 Soluble in water which is changed frequently.

41
Uses
 It is used in whitewashing and plastering walls
 Lime mortar, made of lime and sand, is used for thin joints of brickwork and
stonework
 Lime mortar, made of lime and surkhi (powder obtained by grinding of burnt bricks)
may used for thick masonry walls, foundations, etc.

2. Hydraulic Lime
Hydraulic lime contains a (10-30%) amount of clay in addition to CaO which gives the property
of hydraulicity.
Hydraulicity is the capacity to set and harden even under water and in the absence of air as
between very thick walls. The increase in percentage of clay makes the slaking difficult and
increases the hydraulic property of lime.
Hydraulic lime is further classified into three sub-types on the basis of hydraulicity ( on the
basis of clay content) of the lime.
Classification of Hydraulic lime
Class Name Clay content Hydraulicity Setting Time Quality and
% use

A Eminently 21-30 Eminent Sets under Use as

Hydraulic water in 24 mortar in
lime hours structural job
which is
quite sound
B Moderately 11-20 Moderate Sets in water Mortars
Hydraulic in about a made form
lime week this lime are
quite
satisfactory
for strong
masonry
work
C Feeblly 5-10 Feeble May take a It resembles
Hydraulic month or with fat lime
lime more to set in properties.
under water Mortar made
from it can
be used for
ordinary
construction
in dry
conditions

Properties of Hydraulic lime

 It can set under water and in thick walls where there is no free circulation of air.
 It forms a thin paste with water
42
  It is not perfectly white in colour
 The hydraulic lime containing between various types of hydraulic lime.

3. Hydrated lime(Ca(OH)2
It is that lime to which sufficient quantity of water has already been added at the manufacturing
stage to hydrate (slake) it completely. It may be a fine powder. It comes in ready to use form
compared to fat-lime that has to be hydrated or slaked before using.
Slaking: It is the process of chemical combination of quick lime with required quantity of water
for killing the heat and getting into powder form for use.
CaO +H2O=Ca (OH)2

4. Poor lime

 It is also known as lean lime

 It contains more than 30% of clay
 Its colour is muddy white
 It slakes very slowly
 It forms a thin paste with water
 It sets/hardens very slowly
 It has poor binding properties
Uses
Mortar made from this type of lime is of poor quality therefore such mortar is used for
inferior type of work.

4.3 Indian Classification of Lime

According to Indian standard specifications limes are classified as follows:
Class A :It is used for structural purposes because it is eminently hydraulic lime and has the
property of setting even in the absence of air. It has to be supplies in the hydraulic form only.
Its minimum strength with lime sand mortar of proportion (1:3) by weight at the end of 14 days
and 28 days should be respectively 1.75 N/mm2 and 2.80 N/mm2.
Class B :It is the semi-hydraulic lime which is used for mortars for masonry and it can be
supplied either as quick lime or as hydrated lime. Its minimum compressive strength with lime
sand mortar of proportion (1:3) by weight at the end of 14 days and 28 days should be
respectively 1.25 N/mm2 and 1.75 N/mm2.
Class C :It is the fat lime which is used mainly for finishing coat in plastering, whitewashing
and with suitable admixture such as surkhi or any other pozzolanic material to produce artificial
hydraulic mortars. It is to be supplied in hydraulic or quick form.
Class D: It is the magnesium or dolomitic lime which is used for finishing coat in plastering,
whitewashing, etc. It is to be supplied in the hydrated or quick form.
Class E: It is the kankar lime and is used for the masonry works; it is to be supplied in the
hydraulic form only.
Class F :It is also known as siliceous dolomitic lime which is used for undercoat and finishing
coat of plaster. It is to be supplied in the hydrated or quick form.

43
4.4 Cement, its composition (Bouge compounds) and Properties
Cement : It is an extremely finely ground product obtained by burning together at high
temperature specifically proportioned amounts of calcareous and argillaceous raw materials,
adding gypsum to the burnt product in small percentage.
Properties of cement
 Provides strength to masonry
 Stiffens or hardens early
 Possesses good plasticity
 An excellent building material
 Easily workable
 Good moisture-resistant
Uses of cement
 It is used in cement mortar for masonry work, plastering, pointing etc
 It is used for making joints for pipes, drain etc
 It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs,
pillars etc.
 It is employed for manufacturing precast pipes, piles, fencing post etc.
 It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges,
culverts, dams, tunnels, roads, light houses etc.
 It is used in the preparation of foundations, water tight floors, footpaths etc.

Composition of cement (Chemical Constituents of cement)

S.No Ingredient Limits % Average %
1. Lime(CaO) 60-66 62
2. Silica (SiO2) 18-25 22
3. Alumina(Al2O3) 3-8 5
4. Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 1-5 3
5. Magnesia 1-4 2
6. Calcium 3-5 4
sulphate(CaSO4) 1-2 1
7. Sulphar 1-2 1
8. Alkalies

Total 100

Function of constituents (ingredients) of cement

The functions of various constituents of an ordinary Portland cement are given below:
1. Lime (CaO)
 It is the major constituent of cement and it must be kept within the permissible
range. The calcium oxide of cement combines with silica from clay and forms

44
 the tri calcium and di calcium silicate on burning which are responsible for the
setting and hardening properties of cement.
 When present in excessive proportions lime makes cement unsound and causes
cement to expand and disintegrate.
 If lime is in smaller amount, the strength of cement is decreased and cement sets
quickly.
 If lime is in right proportion it makes cement sound and strong

2. Silica(SiO2)
 It is second most important constituents and is responsible for the strength of the
cement.
 Silica in excess provides greater strength to the cement but at the same time take much
time to set and harden.

3. Alumina (Al2O3)
 Imparts quick setting quality of cements
 Lowers the clinkering temperature of cement
 Excess amount reduces the strength of cement

4. Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
 Increases the hardness of cement
 Provides the color to the cement
 Acts as flux and helps to fuse raw materials of cement

5. Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4)

 In the form of gypsum is added to the cement clinker before grinding.
(Gypsum - A common white or colorless mineral (hydrated calcium sulphate)
used to make cements and plasters (especially plaster of Paris)
 Increases the initial setting time of cement. Act as Retarder.

6. Magnesia (MgO)
 This ingredient, if present in small amount, imparts hardness and colour to the
cement
 Magnesium oxide in excess makes the cement unsound.

7. Sulphur trioxide (SO3):

 If present in very small quantity, it makes the cement sound.
 If present in excess, it causes the cement to become unsound.

8. Alkalies:
 They should be present in small quantities.
 Alkalies in excess will cause efflorescence.

The above ingredients of cement undergo complex reactions during the burning stage in the
manufacturing process. The burnt product, as it comes out of the cement kilns is called clinker.
Various compounds identified in this clinker. These compounds are called bouge compounds.

45
Bouge Compounds
1) TriCalcium Silicate
2) DiCalcium Silicate
3) Tri-Calcium Silicate
4) Tetra-Calicium Silicate
Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)
It is the main compound present in all types of Portland cement. Its proportion ranges from
45 to 65 percent. This compound imparts following properties to the cement on setting.
 A very good binding quality
 Medium rate of reaction
 Medium amount of heat liberation during the setting reaction
 The strength of the cement in first 28 days after laying is due mostly to this
compound
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)
It proportion ranges 25-35 %. Its main character is its slow rate of hydration reaction. This
leads to slow hardening of the cement on setting. It starts hardening after 28 days and continues
hardening for many weeks and months after the cement is laid.
 Imparts ultimate strength to the cement.
 Offers more resistance to chemical attack.
 Hardens more slowly.
 Hydrates slowly.
Triclcium aluminate (C3A)
It is the third major compound. Its proportion ranges from 5 to 15%. It is typically fast reacting
with a lot of heat evolution during the reaction.
 Weak against sulphate attack.
 Reacts fastly, generating a large amount of heat.
 Does not contribute to develop strength.
 Causes initial setting of cement.
Tetra calcium aluminium ferrite (C4AF)
It is present from 8-18% but an average of 10% is quite usual in Ordinary Portland Cement.
 It has poor cementing value and a slow rate of reaction during setting.
 Generates small amount of heat
 Comparatively inactive

46
 Compounds in clinker
S.NO Compound Abbreviation Range% Average% Typical
Characteristics
1. Tricalcium Silicate C3 S 45-65 48 Medium
(3CaO.SiO2) reacting:
Medium heat
evolution: early
strength
2. Dicalcium Silicate C2 S 20-35 25 Slow reacting;
(2CaO.SiO2) slow hardening;
gives strength
after 28 days
3. Tricalcium Aluminate C3Al 5-15 10 Fast reacting;
(3CaO.Al2O3) High heat
evolution; Early
hardening
4. Tetra- Calcium C4AlFe 8-18 10 Slow reaction;
Alumino-Ferrite least heat
(4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3) evolution; poor
binding
properties

4.5 Hydration, heat of hydration and gain of strength of cement

The chemical reaction between cement and water is called hydration of cement or simply
cement hydration. The heat of hydration is the heat generated due to hydration of cement i.e.
due to reaction between cement particles and water.
When cement is mixed with water a stiff and sticky paste is formed which remains plastic for
a short period. With the passage of time the plastically gradually disappears and the cement
paste becomes stiff due to initial hydration of cement. This phenomenon by virtue of which the
plastic cement changes into a solid mass is known as setting of cement.
On setting the cement binds the aggregates into a solid mass which gains strength as the time
lapses till hydration of cement is complete. The phenomenon by virtue of which the cement
paste which is finally set develops strength is known as hardening of cement.
Strength of cement is due to the silicates. C3S and C2S constitute about 70% to 80% of all
Portland cements. C3S hydrates more rapidly than C2S and develops strength in concrete for
the first 28 days. It generates more heat. C2S is next to hydrate slowly and it is responsible for
the ultimate strength.C2S takes 2 to 3 years for its complete hydration which contributes toward
ultimate strength of cement mortar on concrete. C3A contributes little to the strength of
concrete. C3AF is comparatively inactive and contributes little to the strength of concrete and
the heat of hydration.

4.6 Cement Manufacturing Process

Manufacture process of cement consist essentially of the grinding of the raw material
(calcareous and argillaceous stone) containing silica, alumina and iron oxide mixing them in a
standard proportion and burning in a large rotary kiln at temperature around 1300- 1900°C.
(Calcareous material such as limestone, chalk, etc. are quarried by blasting)
(Argillaceous material such as clay, slate, etc. are transported to the site)
47
 Then material finally sinters (become coherent {sticking together) mass by heating without
melting) and partially fuses to be called as clinker
The clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder with some gypsum added and then product is
commercial Portland cement.
There are mainly two process of manufacture of cement:
Wet process
Dry process
Wet Process
Raw materials are homogenized by crushing, grinding and blending - about approximately
80% of the raw material.
The mix will be turned into form of slurry by adding 30 - 40% of water.
Natural gas, petroleum or coal is used for burning. High fuel requirement may make it
uneconomical compared to dry process.
Collection of raw material.
 Calcareous material such as limestone, chalk, etc. is quarried by blasting.
 Argillaceous material such as clay, slate, etc. are transported to the site
Crushing, grinding and mixing of raw materials.
 Calcareous materials are crushed in different ways such as if chalk is used it is
broken up and dispersed in water in a wash mill in a circular pit which
disintegrates the lumps, if limestone is used it has first to be blasted and then
crushed in two progressive crushers and fed into mill.
 Argillaceous materials are also crushed and mixed to make the slurry.
 Slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency, with water content between 35-40%.
 Sedimentation of suspended solid is prevented by the mechanical stirrers or
bubbling by compressed air.
 Slurry is then forwarded to silos where the proportioning is finely adjusted to
ensure the correct chemical composition.
 From silos the slurry is fed to kilns.
Burning
The slurry is pumped to upper end of rotary kiln set at a slight gradient
Powered coal is thrown in by an air blast at lower end of the kiln where temperature reaches
1400-1500°C
The slurry in its movement down the kiln, encounters progressively higher temperature.
First, water is driven off and CO2 is liberated and the dry material goes through a chain of
chemical reactions until finally it reaches hottest part of kiln where 20-30% material becomes
liquid, and lime, silica and alumina recombine.
Mass then fuses to balls 0.3cm to 2.5 cm diameter known as clinker .Clinker drops into coolers.
Grinding
Clinker is black in color, glistering and hard
Is inter grind with 3-4% gypsum in order to prevent flash setting of cement (inter grind - to
grind together with : blend in grinding )
Grinding is done in a ball mill consisting of several compartments with progressively smaller
steel balls.

48
Satisfactorily grinded cement is then ready for packing.

Limestone Clay

Crushing Washing

Storage in silos Storage in silos

Mixing

Wet grinding

Slurry (Raw)

Limestone Slurry Clay Slurry

Corrected Slurry

To rotary kiln

Burning rotary kilns

Formation of clinker Gypsum(3-4%)

Clinker coolers

Grinding of clinker

Storage in silos

Weighing and package

|Fig: Flow diagram for cement manufacture by wet process

49
 Limestone Clay

Crushers Dryers

Dryers Grinders

Grinders
Storage in silos

Storage in silos

Blending

Mixed Raw material

To rotary kiln

Burning rotary kilns

Formation of clinker Gypsum(3-4%)

Clinker coolers

Grinding of clinker

Storage in silos

Weighing and package

Fig: Flow diagram for cement manufacture by Dry process

50
Dry process of manufacturing cement
Raw materials are homogenized by crushing, grinding and blending so that approximately 80%
of the raw material passes a No.200 sieve. Mixture is fed into kiln & burned in a dry state
Process provides considerable savings in fuel consumption and water usage but the process is
dustier compared to wet process that is more efficient than grinding.
 Materials are crushed and fed in correct proportions into a grinding mill where they are
dried and reduced in size to fine powder.
 Then pumped to blending silo and final adjustment to proportion is made.
 Raw material is blended by compressed air including upward movement of powder and
decreasing its apparent density.
 The blended material is now sieved and fed to rotating dish called granulator.
 Water about 12% is added. Hard pallets about 1.25cm are formed (pallets are baked
hard in a pre-heating grate by means of hot gases from kiln)
 The pallets are then passed to kiln.
 Other process is similar as in wet process. Since water Content is relatively less, so the
kiln Size is considerably smaller amount of heat required is also very low.
Thus it is economical process but only when raw materials are relatively dry.

4.7 Types of cement

 OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)

 High Alumina Cement
 Portland Slag cement
 Rapid Hardening Cement
 Low heat Cement
 Quick Setting Cement
 White Cement
 Colored Cement
 Portland Pozzolana Cement

OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)

 It is the common type of cement having medium rate of strength development and
medium rate of heat generation.
 Initial Setting time: 30 min ,Final setting time: 10 Hrs
 Higher resistance against dry shrinkage and cracking
 Less resistance to chemical attack
 Widely accepted in all types of general construction
High Alumina cement
 A type of rapid hardening cement
 Manufactured by fusing the limestone and bauxite at high temperature
 Contains 35% of alumina
 It has higher resistance against sulphate attack, fire and acid.
 Final Setting time is higher than that of OPC (2.5 to 3 hrs).
 Setting is quick due to which heat generation is also fast .
 Gains higher strength in short time

51
It is unsuitable for mass concrete and expensive than OPC. It is employed in colder regions
having temperatures 18°C or below and during war time emergency also used in under water
construction

RHC (Rapid Hardening Cement)

 It is also known as High early strength cement
 Gives strength faster than that of OPC
 Initial and final setting time is similar to OPC
 Contains more Carbon trisulfide- C3S
 Finer than OPC
 Used in that place where formworks is to be removed soon
 Lighter than OPC
 Curing period is also shorter than that of OPC
 Having higher early strength than OPC
Low heat Portland Cement
 Lesser heat of hydration
 Decrease in the percentage of Carbon trisulfide- C3S and increase in percentage of
Carbon disulfide -C2S. (5% of C3S ) and (46% of -C2S which hydrates slowly)
 Posses less amount of compressive strength
 Used in mass concrete works such as dams and pillars.
 Initial setting time should not be less than 60 minutes. (1hour). Final setting time should
not be more than 10 hours.
PPC (Pozzolana Portland Cement)
 Contains about 80% clay along with lime, magnesia and iron oxides etc
 Pozzolana itself has no cementing value but when mixed with lime produces cementing
property.
 More resistant to chemical attack and hardens slowly
 About 70% by weight of OPC clinker is mixed with 30% by weight of pozzolana and
grinded first in ball mill and then in tube mill to get the pozzolana cement
 Has lower heat of hydration and requires long period of wet curing for better strength
 It is cheaper than OPC.
 Used for hydraulic structures such as dams, weirs and also in sewage works and for
laying concrete under water.

White Cement
 Same strength as that of OPC
 Greater aesthetic values
 Clear white in color due to absence of Iron oxides and magnesium oxides in cement
 Cement is heated in the kiln where Oil is used as fuel instead of coal to avoid the
contamination by coal ash.
 Care should be taken at grinding stage of clinker
 More expensive than OPC
 Used in finished surfacing works, tile joints, mortar for marble, some aesthetic precast
works.

52
4.8 Testing of Cement
 Fineness test
 Soundness test
 Consistency test
 Setting time test of cement
 Compressive strength test
 Tensile strength test

Fineness Test
 Test is to check the proper grinding of cement as finer cements have quicker action with
water and gain early strength.
 Finer the cement, more surface area of the aggregates covered by it.
 Fineness of grinding does not alter the total quantity of heat liberated but it changes the
rate of heat development due to change in surface areas.
 Excessive fineness undesirable in cement works.
 Fineness of cement is tested by:
Sieve test: maximum residue after sieving through a 90-micron IS sieve should be
limited to 10% by wt. for OPC. And 5% by wt. for rapid hardening cement.

1. Soundness Test
The ability of cement to retain its volume after it gets hardened is known as Soundness of
Cement.That means the cement should be at minimum volume change after it gets hardened.
The test conducted to identify the excess amount of lime in cement is known as soundness test
of cement.

 Test to detect the presence uncombined lime in cement

 Test performed with the help of Le Chatelier.
 Brass mould of 30mm dia. and 30mm height
 There is split in mould and it doesn’t exceed 0.50mm
 On either side of split there are two indicators with pointed ends
 Thickness of mould cylinder is 0.50mm

 Before conducting the test lightly oil the apparatus such as Le-Chatelier mould, Glass
plates.
 Take required amount of cement 200g. Prepare a cement paste by adding 0.78 times the
water required for standard consistency.
 Mix the cement paste well using the trowel. Now place the lightly oiled Le-Chatelier
mould on the glass panel.
 Fill the mould with the prepared cement paste up to the top. While placing the cement
hold the mould edges gently together.
 Now place another glass plate on the top and put weight on it.
 Submerge the whole assembly into the water pot at a room temperature and keep it
undisturbed for 24 hours.
 Now remove the whole assembly from water and measure the distance between the
mould edges. Note that distance as L1. The measuring pointers should indicate to the
nearest 0.5 mm

53
  Submerge the mould again into the water and bring it to the boiling point and cool down
it to room temperature.
 Now again measure the mould edges distance as L2.
 Soundness of Cement = L1 – L2.
 This value must not exceed 10 mm for Ordinary or OPC, Rapid, Low Heat, PPC and
High alumina cement.

Fig: Le- Chatelier apparatus for soundness test

2. Consistency Test of Cement

Consistency test of cement is carried out to determine the quantity of water required to produce
a cement paste of standard consistency. The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined
as that consistency which will permit the vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 5 to 7 mm from
the bottom of the vicat mould. For finding out initial setting time, final setting time, soundness
of cement and compressive strength of cement, it is necessary to fix the quantity of water to be
mixed in cement in each case. This experiment is intended to find out the quantity of water to
be mixed for a given cement to give a cement paste of normal consistency and can be done
with the help of vicat apparatus. Procedure is given below:
1. Prepare a paste of weighed quantity of cement (300 grams) with a weighed quantity of
potable or distilled water, starting with 26% water of 300g of cement.
2. Take care that the time of gauging is not less than 3 minutes, not more than 5 minutes and
the gauging shall be completed before setting occurs.
3. The gauging time shall be counted from the time of adding the water to the dry cement until
commencing to fill the mould.
4. Fill the vicat mould with this paste, the mould resting upon a non porous plate.
5. After completely filling the mould, trim off the surface of the paste, making it in level with
the top of the mould. The mould may slightly be shaken to expel the air.
6. Place the test block with the mould, together with the non-porous resting plate, under the rod
bearing the plunger (10mm diameter), lower the plunger gently to touch the surface of the test
block and quickly release, allowing it to penetrate into the paste.
7. This operation shall be carried out immediately after filling the mould.
8. Prepare trial pastes with varying percentages of water and test as described above until the
amount of water necessary for making the standard consistency as defined above is obtained.
9. Express the amount of water as a percentage by weight of the dry cement.

54
 3. Initial and Final setting time test
In actual construction dealing with cement, mortar or concrete, certain time is required for
mixing, transporting and placing. During this time cement paste, mortar, or concrete should be
in plastic condition. The time interval for which the cement products remain in plastic condition
is known as the setting time. Initial setting time is regarded as the time elapsed between the
moments that the water is added to the cement to the time that the paste starts losing its
plasticity. The final setting time is the time elapsed between the moment the water is added to
the cement, and the time when the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has attained
sufficient firmness to resist certain pressure. The constituents and fineness of cement is
maintained in such a way that the concrete remains in plastic condition for certain minimum
time. Once the concrete is placed in the final position, compacted and finished it should lose
its plasticity in the earliest possible time so that it is least vulnerable to damages from external
destructive agencies. This time should not be more than 10 hours which is referred to as final
setting time. Initial setting time should not be less than 30 minutes.

Initial Setting Time Test

 Take a cement sample of 300gm and mixed with water (quantity from consistency test)
 Filled the Vicat mould with the cement paste
 Using the square needle of 1mm*1mm or 1mm2 X-sectional area try to find the
penetration of about 5 to 7 mm from bottom of the mould.
 The initial setting time is the interval between the addition of water to cement and the
stage when the needle ceases to penetrate completely. This time is to be 30 minutes for
OPC.
Final Setting Time Test
 Cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould as previously done.
 The needle with annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
This needle has a sharp point projecting in the centre with annular collar.
 The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an impression on the
test block and the collar fails to do so is noted.
 The final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to
cement and time as recorded when needle only penetrates the paste. This time should
be about 10 hrs for OPC.

4. Compressive Strength test of cement

 Mortar of 1:3 is taken with 0.4 w/c ratio
 Moulds of either cube size 70.6mm or 76mm
 Cement required 185gm or 235gm
 Cubes are tested in compression testing machine at end of 3 days and 7 days
 Testing of cubes are carried out on their three sides without packing . Average value is
then worked out.
 Load is applied uniformly.
 CS > 115kg/cm2 (3days), CS >175kg/cm2(7 days)

5. Tensile Strength test of cement

 1:3 mortar with 8% water by weight
 12 standard briquettes are prepared
 Quantity of cement may be 600gm for 12 briquettes

55
  Six briquettes are tested after 3 days and 7 days . Rate of loading 35kg/cm2
 X-sectional are of briquette at least section is 6.45cm2
 Ultimate tensile stress = failing load/6.45
 At 3 days TS>20kg/cm2, at 7 days TS>25kg/cm2
4.9 Mortar
 Is a mechanical mixture in varying proportions of a binding material like cement or
lime and an inert material or fine aggregate like sand, Surkhi etc.
 Mortars are usually named according to the binding material used in their preparation
e.g cement-mortar, lime-mortar etc.
 Mortar is used as a binding material in stone or brick masonry, or concrete, as a covering
material to walls in the form of plaster to provide, a smooth, hard and decorative
surface.
 Mortar forms an excellent, even bed for irregular surface of stone and this results in
equal distribution of pressure over it.

4.9.1 Functions of Mortar

 Binds together stones or bricks properly (so as to provide strength to the structure).
 In stone masonry and brick masonry, it fills up empty joints a thin liquid mortar Used
for such purposes is termed as grout.
 In any concrete, it holds coarse aggregates together (so as to form a solid mass).
 Form a homogenous mass of the structure – may resist all loads over it and transfer
uniformly.
 Provides a durable / weather resisting layer between different courses of masonry in
the structure.

4.9.2 Types of Mortar

1. Mud mortar
2. Lime mortar
3. Cement mortar
4. Gauged mortar – (lime-cement)

1. Mud Mortar
 Mud mortar is very cheap and the ingredients are locally available.
 Sticky clay is puddled or pugged with water until it comes to the required consistency.
 life of mud mortar surfaces varies from 5 to 15 years depending on its Water proofing
treatment and weather conditions.

2. Lime Mortar
 prepared by mixing fat lime (well slaked before use) with sand. The usual proportions
of lime and sand are I : 2 or 1 : 3 by volume.
 They have a light colour.

3. Cement Mortar
 Consists of cement as binding material, sand in different proportions and water.
 Sand only can be used to form cement mortar,
 Is the strongest type of mortar and is therefore preferred for use in the construction of
structures subjected to heavy loading.

56
 Rate of cement to sand should normally be 1:3 to 1:6 by weight for the mortar to be
workable and strong.
 Provides a waterproof layer and protects the elements covered from weathering effects.
 Should be immediately used after mixing with water as they set and Harden quickly.

4. Gauged mortar
 Lime-cement mortar is also known as ‘compo’ mortar or gauged mortar.
 Is prepared by mixing cement with lime mortar in suitable proportions.
 Addition of cement increases the hydraulicity and the strength.
 Process of adding cement is known as gauging. It makes the lime mortar economical,
strong and dense.
 Used for thick brick walls.
 also be used for cavity walls, in the masonry to bind stones, bricks or concrete blocks
etc.
 Used efficiently in masonry providing thin joints thus leading the economy.
 Used for plastering wall surfaces and outside weather proof pointing.

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 5 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
5.1 Types of stress/strains
Stress
It is the ratio of the internal force F, produced when the substance is deformed, to the area A
over which this force acts. In equilibrium, this force is equal in magnitude to the externally
applied force.
Stress =F/A
The SI Unit of stress is newton per square meter (N/m2)
Types of Stress
1. Normal stress: When the deforming force per unit area perpendicular to the surface of
the body. It is of two types: tensile and compressive stress.
2. Shear Stress (Tangential stress): When the deforming force acts parallel to the surface
area, the stress is called tangential stress.
Strain
It is the ratio of the change in size or shape to the original size or shape. It is dimensionless.
Types of strain
1. Longitudinal strain
If the deforming force produces a change in length alone, the strain produced in the body is
called longitudinal strain or tensile strain. If the deforming forces produces a change in length
dL of a material having original length L then longitudinal strain is given by
Strain =dL/L
2. Volumetric strain
Volumetric strain: If the deforming force produces a change in volume alone, the strain
produced in the body is called volumetric strain.
3. Shear strain:
The angle tilt caused in the body due to tangential stress expressed is called shear strain.
Stress-Strain Curve
Stress strain curve is the graphical representation of stress and strain of a material. In this the
stress is plotted on y- axis and its corresponding strain on the x-axis. After plotting the stress
and its corresponding strain on the graph, we get a curve, and this curve is called stress strain
curve or stress strain diagram. The stress strain curve for different material is different due to
due to the temperature variation and loading condition of the material.
Engineering Stress: It is the applied load divided by the original cross-section area of a material
which is also known as nominal stress.
Engineering Strain: It is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test. It
is also known as nominal strain. It is the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.
True Stress: Since when a material is subjected to a uniaxial load, some contraction or
expansion always takes place. Thus, dividing the applied force by the corresponding actual
area of the specimen at the same instant gives true stress.
True Strain: A material undergoing deformation continuously changes its dimensions.
The ratio of the change in dimensions to the instantaneous dimension is known as true strain.

58
Fig: Stress-Strain Diagram
Stress strain curve has different regions and points. These regions and points are:

(i)Proportional limit
(ii)Elastic limit
(iii)Yield point
(iv)Ultimate stress point
(v) Fracture or breaking point

OB-Elastic Region
OA-Linear elastic zone
AB-Non-Linear elastic zone
BC-Yielding
CD-Strain Hardening
DE-Necking

i. Proportional limit
It is the region in the strain curve which obeys hooke’s law i.e. within elastic limit the stress
is directly proportional to the strain produced in the material. In this limit the ratio of stress
with strain gives us proportionality constant known as young’s modulus. The point OA in the
graph is called the proportional limit.
ii. Elastic limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the load
acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit the material cannot return to its original
position and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it. The point A is the Elastic limit in the
graph.
iii. Yield point or Yield stress point
Yield point in a stress strain diagram is defined as the point at which the material starts to
deform plastically. (When the load removes the sample does not return to its original position)
After the yield point is passed there is permanent deformation develops in the material and
which is not reversible. There are two yield points and it is upper yield point and lower yield
point. The stress corresponding to the yield point is called yield point stress. The point B is the
upper yield stress point and C is the lower yield stress point.
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Upper yield stress point: It corresponds to the load that is required to initiate yielding.
Lower yield stress point: It corresponds to the minimum load that is required to maintain yield.
Strain Hardening Region: After the yield point, there is a region where increased load is
necessary for increased deformation. This is the strain hardening region.
iv. Ultimate Stress Point
It is the point corresponding to the maximum stress that a material can handle before failure.
It is the maximum strength point of the material that can handle the maximum load. Beyond
this point the failure takes place. Point D in the graph is the ultimate stress point.
Necking: Necking is a phenomenon occurred before the failure of material (especially ductile
material like mild steel). This event represent reduction in the diameter of bar before the
fracture. Necking particular shows that the given material is ductile and won't fail suddenly
rather it will give some indication before failure.
v. Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place. The
fracture or breaking of material takes place at this point. The point E is the breaking point in
the graph. The stress at this point is known as breaking stress or fracture stress.

Fig: True/Engineering Stress Strain curve

Relation between True Strain and Engineering Strain

Engineering Strain: If the original length is considered in calculation of strain, the strain is
called nominal or conventional or engineering strain.
Engineering Strain=dL/L
Where dL is the change in length and L is original length of material

60
True Strain=Deformation is a gradual process. So, for calculation of true strain, for each small
elongation dl, initial length l varies. Hence small instantaneous strain is
dE=dl/l
Hence, total strain during Elongation is calculated dE.
Etrue=∫ dE
=∫ dL/L
=ln(lf)-ln(lo)
=ln (lf/lo)
Where lf=final length
lo = original length
We have,
Etrue=ln(lf/lo)
Etrue=ln[(lo+Δl )/lo]
Etrue=ln[1+(Δl /lo)]
Etrue=ln[1+Eeng]
Relation between True Stress and Engineering Stress
During elongation volume is assumed to be constant.
V=Ao*lo= Af*lf
Af= Ao*lo/lf
Where, Ao=Original Cross-sectional Area
Lo = Original length
Af = final Cross-sectional Area
lf = final length after deformation= (lo+ Δl)
Now, σtrue =F/ Af
Putting the value of Af true stress can be written as
=F/ Af
σtrue =F* lf /Ao*lo
σtrue =F /[Ao*{ (lo+Δl)/lo}]
σtrue=σ eng[1+Eeng]
True Stress = Engineering Stress*[1+Engineering Strain].

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5.2 Stress-Strain Curve of ductile and brittle materials
Each material has its own stress-strain curve, with different characteristics, examples:

Glass (Brittle)
Ductile Material
Materials those are capable of undergoing large strains (at normal temperature) before failure.
An advantage of ductile materials is that visible distortions may occur if the loads be too large.
Ductile materials are also capable of absorbing large amounts of energy prior to failure.
Ductile materials include mild steel, aluminum and some of its alloys, copper, magnesium,
nickel, brass, bronze and many others.
Brittle Material
The Materials that exhibit very little inelastic deformation are known as brittle materials. In
other words, materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain are considered brittle.
Brittle materials include concrete, stone, cast iron, glass and plaster.

5.3 Fracture of Metal

Fracture is a form of failure, and is defined as the separation or fragmentation of a solid body
into two or more parts under the action of stress.
The process of fracture can be considered to be made up of two components, crack initiation
followed by crack propagation.
The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on the ability of a material to undergo plastic
deformation during the fracture. A ductile fracture is characterized by considerable amount of
plastic deformation prior to and during the crack propagation.

62
On the other hand, brittle fracture is characterized by micro-deformation or no gross
deformation during the crack propagation. Plastic deformation that occurs during ductile
fracture, if monitored, can be useful as warning sign to the fracture that may occur in later
stages. Thus brittle fracture shall be avoided as it may occur without warning.
Since deformation of a material depends on many conditions such as stress state, rate of
loading, ambient temperature, crystal structure; ductile and brittle are relative terms. Thus the
boundary between a ductile and brittle fracture is arbitrary and depends on the situation being
considered. A change from the ductile to brittle type of fracture is promoted by a decrease in
temperature, an increase in the rate of loading, and the presence of complex state of stress (for
example, due to a notch). Under the action of tensile stresses, most metallic materials are
ductile, whereas ceramics are mostly brittle, while polymers may exhibit both types of fracture.
figure-8.1(a) is representative of very high ductility represented by close to 100% reduction in
cross-sectional area. This kind of failure is usually called rupture. It is observed in very soft
metals such as pure gold and lead at room temperature and other metals, polymers, glasses at
elevated temperatures. Most ductile metals fracture preceded by a moderate amount of necking,
followed by formation of voids, cracks and finally shear. This gives characteristic cup-and-
cone fracture as shown by figure-8.1(b). In this central interior region has an irregular and
fibrous appearance. Figure-8.1(c) presents the typical profile of brittle fracture which is usually
transgranular. It occurs in most ceramics and glasses at room temperature, long-chain polymers
below their glass transition temperatures, certain metals and alloys below their ductile-to-brittle
transition temperatures.

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Ductile Fracture
Most often ductile fracture in tension occurs after appreciable plastic deformation. It occurs by
a slow tearing of the metal with the expenditure of considerable energy. It can be said that
ductile fracture in tension is usually preceded by a localized reduction in cross-sectional area,
called necking. Further it exhibits three stages –
(1) After on set of necking, cavities form, usually at inclusions at second-phase particles, in
the necked region because the geometrical changes induces hydrostatic tensile stresses,
(2)The cavities grow, and further growth leads to their coalesce resulting in formation of crack
that grows outward in direction perpendicular to the application of stress,
(3) Final failure involves rapid crack propagation at about 45° to the tensile axis. This angle
represents the direction of maximum shear stress that causes shear slip in the final stage. During
the shear slip, crack propagates at a rapid speed around the outer perimeter of neck leaving one
surface in form of cup, and the other in form of cone. Thus it is known as cup-andcone fracture.
In this central interior region has an irregular and fibrous appearance, which signifies plastic
deformation. Different progressive stages of ductile fracture are shown in figure-8.2.

Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture: The other common mode of fracture is known as brittle fracture that takes place
with little or no preceding plastic deformation. It occurs, often at unpredictable levels of stress,
by rapid crack propagation. The direction of crack propagation is very nearly perpendicular to
the direction of applied tensile stress. This crack propagation corresponds to successive and
repeated breaking to atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes, and hence called
cleavage fracture. This fracture is also said to be Trans granular because crack propagates
through grains. Thus it has a grainy or faceted texture. Most brittle fractures occur in a Trans
granular manner. However, brittle fracture can occur in inter granular manner i.e. crack
propagates along grain boundaries. This happens only if grain boundaries contain a brittle film
or if the grain-boundary region has been embrittled by the segregation of detrimental elements.

64
5.4 Mechanism of brittle fracture. (Griffith’s theory)
Griffith Criteria:
Griffith established the following criterion for the propagation of a crack. “A crack will
propagate when the decrease in elastic strain energy is at least equal to create the new Crack.”
Or, the decrease in strain energy results from the formation of a crack.
Consider the crack model as shown in figure.
 The thickness of the plate is negligible so the problem can be treated as one in plane
Stress.
 The cracks are assumed to have an elliptical shape.
 Crack length = interior = 2c = edge = c
 The effect of both types of cracks on the fracture behavior is the same

 According to Griffith’s criterion, the crack will propagate under a constant applied
stress σ if an incremental increase in crack length produces no change in the total energy
of the system; i.e. the increased surface energy is compensated by a decrease in elastic
strain energy.

ΔU = total change in potential energy resulting from the creation of the crack which is equal
to

65
Us = the surface energy due to presence of the crack is

UE = the elastic strain energy per unit of the plate thickness is equal to

Where σ is the tensile stress acting normal to the crack of the length and a negative sign
is used because growth of the crack releases elastic strain energy.

The above equation gives the stress required to propagate a crack in a brittle material as a
Function of the size of the micro-crack.
Note that this equation indicates that the fracture stress is inversely proportional to the square
root of the crack length.

5.5 Hardness
The ability of a material to resist permanent indentation is known as hardness. The term may
also refer to resistance to:
 Scratching
 Abrasion
 Cutting
 Penetration
It's the hardness property of a metal which gives it the ability to resist being permanently
deformed when a load is applied. Therefore, the hardness of materials is important from an
engineering standpoint because resistance to wear by either friction or erosion by various
elements generally increases with hardness. The greater the hardness of materials, the greater
resistance it has to deformation.

66
Hardness of materials is dependent on:
 Ductility
 Elastic stiffness
 Plasticity
 Strain
 Strength
 Toughness
 Visco elasticity
 Viscosity
Hardness of materials measurements are widely used for quality control of materials because
they are quick and considered to be nondestructive tests when the marks or indentations
produced by the test are in low-stress areas.
Important hardness of materials measurements are:
Scratch hardness - This measures how resistant a sample is to fracture or permanent plastic
deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The Mohs scale is used to measure it.
Indentation hardness - This measures the resistance of a sample to material deformation due
to a constant compression load from a sharp object. Indentation hardness scales are Rockwell,
Vickers, Shore and Brinell.
Rebound hardness - This measures the height of the "bounce" of a diamond-tipped hammer
dropped from a fixed height onto a material. The Leeb rebound hardness test and Bennett
hardness scale are used to measure rebound.
Within each of these classes of measurement there are individual measurement scales. For
practical reasons conversion tables are used to convert between one scale and another.

Hardness Tests
 Brinell Hardness Test
 Rockwell Hardness Test
Brinell Hardness Test
The Brinell hardness test method as used to determine Brinell hardness, is defined in ASTM
E10. Most commonly it is used to test materials that have a structure that is too coarse or that
have a surface that is too rough to be tested using another test method, e.g., castings and
forgings. Even so, the surface should still be free of rust, paint, oil or protective coatings.
Brinell testing often use a very high test load (3000 kgf) and a 10mm diameter indenter so that
the resulting indentation averages out most surface and sub-surface inconsistencies.
The Brinell method applies a predetermined test load (F) to a carbide ball of fixed diameter (D)
which is held for a predetermined time period and then removed. The resulting impression is
measured with a specially designed Brinell microscope or optical system across at least two
diameters – usually at right angles to each other and these results are averaged (d). Although
the calculation below can be used to generate the Brinell number, most often a chart is then
used to convert the averaged diameter measurement to a Brinell hardness number.
Common test forces range from 500kgf often used for non-ferrous materials to 3000kgf usually
used for steels and cast iron. There are other Brinell scales with load as low as 1kgf and 1mm
diameter indenters but these are infrequently used.

67
Fig: Brienell Hardness Testing machine

68
Rockwell Test
Rockwell hardness test is a method of measuring the hardness of materials. The Rockwell
hardness scale is typically administered to characterize the hardness of metals, such as thin
steel, cemented carbides, lead, aluminum, zinc, copper alloys, titanium, and iron. But the scale
is also administered to test certain plastics.
Hardness, as measured by the Rockwell scale, refers to resistance to penetration.
The Rockwell hardness test measures hardness in the simplest way possible: by pressing an
indenter into the surface of the material with a specific load and then measuring how far the
indentor was able to penetrate. Most of the time, the indenter is made of either a steel ball or a
diamond. There are 30 different Rockwell scales. Each uses a different combination of test
forces and types of indenters.
While there are a number of Rockwell tests, the most common ones for very hard materials are
Rockwell and Rockwell C. When the material is very thin, lighter loads must be used: the
Rockwell 30T, 1ST, Rockwell 15-N, and 30-N scales. Rockwell hardness numbers feature a
prefix that distinguishes the Rockwell scale used in correlation with the combination of load
and indenter.
There are conversion charts that will allow conversion from one method of hardness to another,
but it must be remembered that these conversion charts cannot precisely convert from one to
another.
 The Rockwell hardness test method, as defined in ASTM E-18, is the most commonly
used hardness test method.
 The Rockwell test is generally easier to perform, and more accurate than other types
of hardness testing methods.
 The Rockwell test method is used on all metals, except in condition where the test
metal structure or surface conditions would introduce too much variations; where the
indentations would be too large for the application; or where the sample size or
sample shape prohibits its use.
 The Rockwell method measures the permanent depth of indentation produced by a
force/load on an indenter. First, a preliminary test force (commonly referred to as
preload or minor load) is applied to a sample using a diamond or ball indenter. This pre
load breaks through the surface to reduce the effects of surface finish. After holding the
preliminary test force for a specified dwell time, the baseline depth of indentation is
measured.
 After the preload, an additional load, call the major load, is added to reach the total
required test load. This force is held for a predetermined amount of time (dwell time)
to allow for elastic recovery.
 This major load is then released, returning to the preliminary load. After holding the
preliminary test force for a specified dwell time, the final depth of indentation is
measured.
 The Rockwell hardness value is derived from the difference in the baseline and final
depth measurements. This distance is converted to a hardness number. The preliminary
test force is removed and the indenter is removed from the test specimen.
 Preliminary test loads (preloads) range from 3 kgf (used in the “Superficial” Rockwell
scale) to 10 kgf (used in the “Regular” Rockwell scale). Total test forces range from
15kgf to 150 kgf (superficial and regular) to 500 to 3000 kgf (macro hardness).

69
Test Method Illustration
A=Depth reached by indenter after application of preload (minor load)
B=Position of indenter during Total load, Minor plus Major loads
C=Final position reached by indenter after elastic recovery of sample material
D=Distance measurement taken representing difference between preload and major load
position. This distance is used to calculate the Rockwell Hardness Number.

A variety of indenters may be used: conical diamond with a round tip for harder metals to
ball indenter’s ranges with a diameter ranging from 1/16” to ½” for softer materials.

Fig: Rockwell Hardness Testing machine

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5.6 Impact Strength and its test
Impact Strength
The impact strength of a material is defined as its capability to resist a sudden applied load or
force. It measures the amount of mechanical energy absorbed in the process of deformation
under the applied impact loading and is expressed as energy lost per unit of thickness.
Impact strength is used to determine whether a material will act in a brittle or ductile manner
when subjected to sudden applied loads. In a loose sense, it gives an idea of a material’s
“toughness”.
Factors that affect the impact strength of a material include its:
 Volume
 Modulus of elasticity
 Yield strength, and
 Distribution of forces through the material section
Impact Strenth Test
1. Charpy Impact Test
2. Izod Impact Test

1. Charpy Impact Test

The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is a standardized high strain-
rate test which determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This
absorbed energy is a measure of a given material's notch toughness . It is widely applied in
industry, since it is easy to prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly and cheaply.
Principle
The Charpy impact test is a dynamic test in which a test piece U-notched or V-notched in the
middle and supported at each end, is broken by a single blow of a freely swinging pendulum
as shown in fig. The energy absorbed is measured. This absorbed energy is a measure of the
impact strength of material.

Fig: Charpy Impact Testing machine

71
The apparatus consists of a pendulum of known mass and length that is dropped from a known
height to impact a notched specimen of material. The energy transferred to the material can
be inferred by comparing the difference in the height of the hammer before and after the
fracture (energy absorbed by the fracture event).
The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test, thus it is necessary for the notch to
be of regular dimensions and geometry. The size of the sample can also affect results.
2. Izod Impact Test
The Izod impact test was named after English engineer Edwin Gilbert Izod. The Izod impact
test is like the Charpy impact test and is used to test materials at low temperature.
Principle
The Izod impact test is a dynamic test in which a test piece V-notched test piece, gripped
vertically, is broken by a single blow of a freely swinging pendulum as shown in fig below.
The blow is struck on the same face as the notch and at the fixed height above it. The energy
absorbed is measured. This absorbed energy is a measure of the impact strength of material.

72
Fig: Configuration of test piece support

Fig: Izod Impact Testing machine

73
 6 METALS AND ALLOYS
6.1 Iron: Types, manufacturing process, properties and uses
PIG IRON
Properties
i. Pig Iron is hard and brittle in nature
ii. It melts easily and its fusion temperature is 1200 degree Celsius
iii. It can be hardened but cannot be tempered
iv. It cannot be magnetized
v. It cannot be welded or riveted
vi. It is neither malleable nor ductile
vii. It is weak in tension and shear but strong in compression
Uses
It is used to produce cast iron and wrought iron. It is also used to produce base plate, door
brackets etc.
Manufacture of pig iron

Key steps of the process are as follows:

• upper part of the furnace - free moisture is driven off from the burden materials and hydrates
and carbonates are disassociated.
• lower part of the blast furnace shaft - indirect reduction of the iron oxides by carbon monoxide
and hydrogen occurs at 700-1,000°C.

74
• Bosh area of the furnace where the burden starts to soften and melt - direct reduction of the
iron [and other] oxides and carbonization by the coke occurs at 1,000-1,600°C. Molten iron
and slag start to drip through to the bottom of the furnace [the hearth].
Between the bosh and the hearth are the tuyeres [water cooled copper nozzles] through which
the blast - combustion air, preheated to 900-1,300°C, often enriched with oxygen - is blown
into the furnace. Immediately in front of the tuyeres is the combustion zone, the hottest part of
the furnace, 1,850-2,200°C, where coke reacts with the oxygen and steam in the blast to form
carbon monoxide and hydrogen [as well as heat] and the iron and slag melt completely.
Molten iron and slag collect in the furnace hearth. Being less dense, the slag floats on top of
the iron. Slag and iron are tapped at regular intervals through separate tap holes. For merchant
pig iron production, the iron is cast into ingots; in integrated steel mills, the molten iron or hot
metal is transferred in torpedo ladle cars to the steel converters. Slag is transferred to slag pits
for further processing into usable materials, for example raw material for cement production,
road construction, etc.

Cast Iron
The product of the blast furnace i.e., pig iron is unsuitable for castings as it contains impurities
in high percentage. To render it suitable for desired purpose it is refined in the furnace known
as cupola. The refined product is termed as cast iron.
Cupola
Refer Fig. 3.4. It is very similar to a blast-furnace in principle i.e., it is a vertical shaft furnace,
into which the raw materials and fuel are charged at the top. Air for combustion of fuel is
introduced through one or more rows of tuyeres a short distance above the bottom. Since the
cupola is only concerned with the melting of the metal and not with the reduction of ores as in
the blast furnace, it is considerably smaller than a blast furnace of the same output. Its diameter
varies from 1 to 2 metres with a height of 4 to 5 times diameter. In a cupola, the first operation
is to lit the fire at the bottom. When the fire is burning strongly, coke is added gradually till the
level above the tuyeres is about 0.6 metres. This coke serves as a bed for the alternate charges
of metal and coke which follow. When the shaft of the cupola is filled level with the charging
door the blast is put on and the combustion of the coke near the tuyeres increases rapidly until
a very intense heat is attained. The gases of combustion move upwards and pass on a portion
of the heat to the metal and coke waiting to descend. In 5 to 10 minutes the first charge of metal
starts melting and trickles down through thecoke and finally collects at the bottom of the
cupola. When an adequate quantity (say 1 or 2 tonnes) has accumulated the plug of clay called
75
'bout' is removed from the tap hole and metal allowed to run into the ladle. The temperature of
tapping metal is 1200-1400°C. After melting a number of charges as per requirements the bed
coke is removed through a drop-bottom door and quenched with water so as to be available for
use the next day. Although it is usual practice to operate a cupola with cold blast (since no
reduction of ores is required) a few cupolas have recently been equipped for hot blast. It may
be noted whereas a blast furnace operates continuously, a cupola works intermittently.

Properties
i. It is neither malleable nor ductile
ii. It is brittle and cannot resist impact of shock
iii. It is strong in compression but weak in tension. So, it cannot be used to make bolts and
machine parts.
iv. It possess high wear resistance
v. It possess low shrinkage and good fluidity and casting ability
vi. It lacks plasticity and hence unsuitable for forging works

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Uses
(i) Manhole covers.
(ii) Machine tool structures, e.g., bed, frame and details.
(iii) Frames for electric motors.
(iv) Rolling mill and general machinery parts.
(v) Cylinder blocks and heads for I.C. engines.
(vi) Gas or water pipes for underground purposes.
(vii) Ingot moulds.
(viii) Sanitary works.
(ix) Household appliances.
(x) Tunnel segment etc.
Wrought Iron
Properties
(a) Its specific gravity is 7.8.
(b) The melting point of wrought iron is about 1500.
(c) The ultimate compressive strength of it is about 200 N/inin2.
(d) The ultimate tensile strength is about 400 N/mm2.
(e) It can resist rust corrosion in much better way.
(f) Its elastic properties is moderate.
(g) It is not affected in saline water.
(h) It is tough and ductile.
(i) It cannot be adopted for castings.
(j) It becomes soft in heating, and therefore, it can be easily welded and forged.

Uses
Wrought is used in:
(a) Roof covering
(b) Rivets
(c) Chains
(d) Ornamental iron works like gates etc.
(e) Railway couplings
(f) Water and steam pipes
(g) As raw materials of steel, bolts and nuts, hand rails straps for timber roof trusses

• Wrought iron is virtually pure iron, containing a large number of minute threads of slag lying
parallel to each other, thereby giving the metal a fibrous appearance when broken.
• It contains practically no carbon and therefore, does not harden when quenched in water (this
property distinguishes it from steels).
• Chemical composition : A representative analysis range of wrought iron would be : C = 0.02-
0.03%, Si = 002-0.10%, S = 0.008-0.02%, Mn = Nil-0.02%, P = 0.05 —0.25%, slag = 0.15-
1.50%, Iron = balance.

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Manufacture of Wrought Iron
The manufacture of wrought iron from pig iron (laborious and expensive process) involves the
following operations :
1. Refining;
2. Puddling;
3. Shingling;
4. Rolling.

1.Refining. This operation consists in passing through the molten pig iron a strong current of
air and keeping it well stirred in order that liquid mass may come in complete contact with air
and get oxidised. The oxygen present in the air eliminates a portion of carbon and some other
impurities. The liquid mass or iron is then cast into moulds and made brittle by sudden cooling.
2. Puddling. Puddling consists in melting the refined pig iron (broken into lumps) in a
reverberatory furnace (Fig. 3.5). The term `reverberatory' is applicable to any furnace in which
the charge does not come in direct contact with fire but receives heat from the roof by reflection.
The molten metal is mixed with oxidising substances such as haematite, oxide of iron etc., and
subject to enormous amount of heat and strong current of air. Major portion of carbon content
remaining in the iron gets converted into carbonic acid gas. The silicon gets oxidised and is
removed in the form of slag. As the iron is purified, it thickens up and removed from the furnace
in the form of balls. These plastic balls are known as 'puddle balls'.
3. Shingling. In this operation, the puddle balls are hammered to remove any particles of cider
associated with them and the iron particles welded together to form a “bloom”.
4. Rolling. The blooms obtained during the previous operation are passed through grooved
rollers as a result of which they get converted into puddle bars.These bars are wrought iron of
lowest quality. Their quality is improved by subsequent processes of piling, reheating and
rolling.

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6.2 Steel: composition and types (carbon steel and alloy steel)
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and sometimes other elements. Because of its high tensile
strength and low cost, it is a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships,
trains, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Iron is the base metal of steel.
The major component of steel is iron, a metal that in its pure state is not much harder than
copper. Omitting very extreme cases, iron in its solid state like all other metals, polycrystalline
that is, it consists of many crystals that join one another on their boundaries. A crystal is a well-
ordered arrangement of atoms that can best be pictured as spheres touching one another. They
are ordered in planes, called lattices, which penetrate one another in specific ways. For iron,
the lattice arrangement can best be visualized by a unit cube with eight iron atoms at its corners.
Important for the uniqueness of steel is the allotropy of iron-that is, its existence in two
crystalline forms. In the body-centered (bcc) arrangement, there is an additional iron atom in
the centre of each cube. In the face-centered cubic (fcc) arrangement, there is one additional
iron atom at the centre of each of the six faces of the unit cube. It is significant that the sides
of the face-centred cube, or the distances between neighbouring lattices in the fcc arrangement,
are about 25 percent larger than in the bcc arrangement; this means that there is more space in
the fcc than in the bcc structure to keep foreign (i.e., alloying) atoms in solid solution.
Iron has its bcc allotropy below 912° C (1,674° F) and from 1,394° C (2,541° F) up to
its melting point of 1,538° C (2,800° F). Referred to as ferrite, Iron in its bcc formation is also
called alpha iron in the lower temperature range and delta iron in the higher temperature zone.
Between 912° and 1,394° C iron is in its fcc order, which is called austenite or gamma iron.
The allotropic behaviour of iron is retained with few exceptions in steel, even when the alloy
contains considerable amounts of other elements.
There is also the term beta iron, which refers not to mechanical properties but rather to the
strong magnetic characteristics of iron. Below 770° C (1,420° F), iron is ferromagnetic; the
temperature above which it loses this property is often called the Curie point.
Steel can be broadly categorized into four groups based on their chemical compositions:
1. Carbon Steels
2. Alloy Steels
3. Stainless Steels
4. Tool Steels

1. Carbon Steels
There are four types of carbon steel based on the amount of carbon present in the alloy. Lower
carbon steels are softer and more easily formed, and steels with a higher carbon content are
harder and stronger, but less ductile, and they become more difficult to machine and weld.
Below are the properties of the grades of carbon steel:

2. Alloy Steel
Carbon steel is iron with carbon added, whereas alloy steel includes other elements as well to
modify the properties of the metal.Alloy steel is a type of steel that has presence of certain
other elements apart from iron and carbon. Commonly added elements in alloy steel are
manganese, silicon, boron, chromium, vanadium and nickel. The quantity of these metals in
alloy steel is primarily dependent upon the use of such steel. Normally alloy steel is made to
get desired physical characteristics in the steel. There are generally two categories of alloy
steel: low alloy and high alloy. Anything with less than an 8% alloying element is labelled as

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low alloy, anything over 8% is high alloy. Alloying different elements changes the properties
of the steel pretty drastically.For example, we can change the strength, hardness, and corrosion
resistance by tweaking these alloying elements.
Alloying Elements
 Manganese
The primary reason for adding this is to fine-tune the heat treating requirements.
Normally, steel will need a fast quench from a high temperature to a very low
temperature in order to harden. The tricky thing is that the faster the quench, the more
of a risk there is of cracking. Manganese allows for a slower cooling rate. Instead of
quenching in water, for example, we can quench in warm oil. With some specialized
steels, we can even quench with room-temperature air.
 Chromium
When chromium content is over 11%, we can get stainless steel. This dramatically
increases corrosion resistance. It also affects the metal’s other properties like strength,
hardness, and heat treatment.It uses a combination of cobalt and chromium to
achieve really high wear resistance.It’s commonly used for applications like forming or
cutting dies, tire shearing blades, and punches.
 Molybdenum
This also increases corrosion resistance to a point. It works along with manganese to
reduce the required quench rate.This also increases the toughness and tensile strength
of steel. You’ll see it in some heavy load applications.
 Vanadium
This really comes into play with heat treating – it helps control the grain size of the
metal. When the metal is heat treated, it changes the crystalline structure and makes the
grain small and even. Vanadium helps keep that grain small and even when heat treated.
It forms carbides that restrict the grain from becoming too large.
 Nickel
When nickel is added to steel as an alloy, the nickel component increases the toughness
of steel. Due to the increase in toughness, the property of steel to resist fracture due to
high impact increases. This property is beneficial in parts made of steel subjected to
shock and impact load.The addition of nickel in steel decreases the value of distortion
(distortion energy) at the time of quenching.

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 3. Stainless Steels
Stainless steels generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying element and
are valued for high corrosion resistance. With over 11% chromium, steel is about 200 times
more resistant to corrosion than mild steel. These steels can be divided into three groups based
on their crystalline structure:
Austenitic: Austenitic steels are non-magnetic and non-heat-treatable, and generally contain
18% chromium, 8% nickel and less than 0.8% carbon. Austenitic steels form the largest portion
of the global stainless steel market and are often used in food processing equipment, kitchen
utensils, and piping.
Ferritic: Ferritic steels contain trace amounts of nickel, 12-17% chromium, less than 0.1%
carbon, along with other alloying elements, such as molybdenum, aluminum or titanium. These
magnetic steels cannot be hardened by heat treatment but can be strengthened by cold working.
Martensitic: Martensitic steels contain 11-17% chromium, less than 0.4% nickel, and up to
1.2% carbon. These magnetic and heat-treatable steels are used in knives, cutting tools, as well
as dental and surgical equipment.
4. Tool Steels
Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying quantities to
increase heat resistance and durability, making them ideal for cutting and drilling equipment.

6.3 Types of Carbon Steel and their uses

 Low Carbon Steel – Composition of 0.05%-0.25% carbon and up to 0.4% manganese.
Also known as mild steel, it is a low-cost material that is easy to shape. While not as
hard as higher-carbon steels, carburizing can increase its surface hardness.Low-carbon
steel is strong and tough but doesn’t temper easily. It’s both malleable and ductile, has
a comparatively low tensile strength, and the hardness of the metal’s surface can be
improved by carburising, a heat treatment process. It’s easier to cold-form and handle
than other grades.

 Medium Carbon Steel – Composition of 0.29%-0.54% carbon, with 0.60%-1.65%

manganese. Medium carbon steel is ductile and strong, with long-wearing

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 properties.Medium carbon steel is a lot easier to machine and adding small amounts of
silicon and manganese improves the quality. Also called mild steel, it’s commonly used
structurally in buildings and bridges, axles, gears, shafts, rails, pipelines and couplings,
cars, fridges and washing machines.

 High Carbon Steel – Composition of 0.55%-0.95% carbon, with 0.30%-0.90%

manganese. It is very strong and holds shape memory well, making it ideal for springs
and wire. High carbon steel has a much better tensile strength, used to make cutting
tools, blades, punches, dies, springs and high-strength wire.

 Very High Carbon Steel - Composition of 0.96% - 2.1% carbon. Its high carbon
content makes it an extremely strong material. Due to its brittleness, this grade requires
special handling. Very high carbon steel is brittle and very hard, and can’t be cold-
worked. It’s used to make extremely hard components like blades, cutting tools and
large machine parts, hot water radiators, industrial castings and metal lamp posts. It’s
also called ‘cast iron’, and it’s the material used to make old fashioned cooking pots.

6.4 Basic Introduction of heat treatment of steel

HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS
The properties of the steel depend not only on its chemical composition but also on the
heattreatment. The heat treatment involves heating and cooling of the steel in its solid state.
The Engineering properties such as ductility, toughness, hardness etc. are modified by heat
treatment processes so that structural components are able to withstand specified operating
conditions and have desired useful life.
The major objectives are as:
To bring desired mechanical properties like strength, hardness, ductility, toughness, etc
To remove voids in the steel and making it sound
Principle of Heat Treatment
During heating first structural change in steel begins when its temperature reaches lower critical
temperature. At this temperature pearlite changes to austenite. As temperature is increased
more and more ferrite and cementite are dissolved in austenite and structure becomes
completely austenitic after reaching upper critical temperature. But some undissolved
cementite are still present and formation of homogeneous austenite occurs after holding the
steel at this temperature. After formation of austenite the steel is allowed to cool. Depending
upon rate of cooling, austenite can be made to transform to different phases. Ferrite, Pearlite
and Cementite are obtained during slow cooling while martensite are formed during rapid
cooling.
The methods of heat treatment are as:
1. Annealing
2. Normalising
3. Quenching (Hardening)
4. Case Hardening
5. Tempering

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1. ANNEALING
Annealing can be defined as a heat treatment process in which the material is taken to a high
temperature, kept there for some time and then cooled. High temperatures allow diffusion
processes to
occur fast. The time at the high temperature (soaking time) must be long enough to allow the
desired transformation to occur. Cooling is done slowly embedding the steel in sand, ash, lime
or some other non conducting materials to avoid the distortion (warping) of the metal piece, or
even cracking, caused by stresses induced by differential contraction due to thermal in
homogeneities. Benefits of annealing are:
 Relieve stresses
 Increase softness, ductility and toughness
 Produce a specific microstructure

2. NORMALISING
Normalizing is used to refine the grains and produce a more uniform and desirable size
distribution. It involves heating the component to attain single phase upto 10000C then cooling
in open air atmosphere. Normalizing is also applied for better machinability of low-carbon
steels. After hot rolling, the structure of steel is usually oriented in the rolling direction. To
remove the oriented structure and obtain the same mechanical properties in all directions, a
normalizing annealing has to be performed.

3. QUENCHING
In Quenching process, steel is heated to red hot and allowed to cool suddenly by dipping in a
bath of cold water or oil. In this process, the steel is known as quenched steel. By this process
the steel becomes hard and brittle. It improves wear and tear resistance of steel. The hardness
depends on the rate of cooling.

4. CASE HARDENING
The process of hardening the surface of the metal upto a depth of about 1.5mm is known as
case hardening. It consists of two operations: (a) converting the outer skin to high carbon steel
(b) hardening the case and refining the core.

5. TEMPERING
In this process, hardened steel is heated to a temperature much below redness and cooled
slowly. It makes the steel neither too hard and nor too brittle. Thus tempering involves first
hardening and then Annealing. It makes the steel ductile and tough.

6.5 Different forms of rolled steel sections

ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS
Structural steel can be rolled into various shapes and sizes in rolling mills. Usually sections
having larger moduli of section In proportion to their cross-sectional areas are preferred. Steel
sections are usually designated by their cross-sectional shapes. The shapes of the rolled steel
sections available today have been developed to meet structural needs. Cross-section and size
are governed by a number of factors: arrangement of material for optimum structural
efficiency: functional requirements (surfaces that are easy to connect to, flat surfaces suitable
for supporting other materials. etc.,) dimensional and weight capacity of rolling mills, and
material properties which. for example, inhibit the hot rolling of wide thin elements because of
excessive warping or cracking that might occur.
IS Hand Book No. 1 published by the Bureau of Indian Standards provides the dimensions,
weights and geometrical properties of various sections. Structural shapes are abbreviated by a
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certain system described in the hand book for use in drawings, specifications and designs. The
types of rolled structural steel sections are as follows:
1. Rolled steel I-sections
2. Rolled steel channel sections
3. Rolled steel T-sections
4. Rolled steel angle-sections
5. Rolled steel tube-sections
6. Rolled steel bars
7. Rolled steel flats
8. Rolled steel plates
9. Rolled steel sheets
10. Rolled steel strip
In the design process one of the objectives and the primary emphasis is the selection of the
appropriate cross-sections for the individual members of the structure being designed. Most
often, this selection will entail choosing a standard cross-sectional shape that is widely
available rather than requiring the fabrication of a shape with unique dimensions and
properties. The largest category of standard shapes includes those produced by hot-rolling.
In the manufacturing process, which takes place in a rolling mill, molten steel is taken from
the furnace and poured into a continuous casting system where the steel solidifies but is
never allowed to cool completely. The hot steel passes through a series of rollers that
squeeze the material into the desired cross-sectional shape. Rolling the steel while it is still
hot allows it to be deformed with no resulting loss in ductility, as would be the case with
cold-working. During the rolling process, the member increases in the length and is cut to
standard lengths, which are subsequently cut (in fabricating shop) to the length required for
particular structure. Structural steel can be rolled into various shapes and sizes. Usually
sections having larger moduli of section in proportion to their cross-sectional areas are
preferred. Steel Sections are usually designated by their cross-sectional shapes. Cross-
section and size are governed by a number of factors: arrangement of material for optimum
structural efficiency, functional requirements (surfaces that are easy to connect to, flat
surfaces suitable for supporting other materials, etc), dimensional and weight capacity of
rolling mills, material properties.

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6.6 Reinforcing steels (TOR and TMT)
High yield strength deformed (HYSD) bars have lugs, ribs, or deformations on the surface
(Fig. 13.6), which inhibit longitudinal movement of the bar relative to the surrounding concrete.
Thus, the deformed surface ensures better bond between reinforcement and concrete. These
bars do not have a definite yield point. HYSD bars result in a considerable increase in yield,
tensile and bond strength when twisted hot or cold. Cold twisted deformed (CTD) bars are most
suitable for building purposes and are widely used in India. CTD bars with trademark TOR are
called TOR-steel. Tor-steel is high strength deformed bars with high yield and bond strength.
These bars result in almost 40% economy.
Thermo-mechanically treated (TMT) bars are extra high strength reinforcing bars, which
eliminate any form of cold twisting. In this process, the steel bars receive a short intensive
cooling as they pass through a water cooling system after the last rolling mill stand. The
reduction in temperature converts the surface layer of the steel bar into a hardened structure.
This phase of intensive cooling is further followed by cooling in atmosphere, so that the
temperature of core (which is still hot) and the temperature of the cooled surface is equalized.
Hence, the surface layer gets tempered by the heat form the core. The resulting structure is a
tempered martensite zone at the periphery and a fine grain ferrite pearlite structure in the centre
zone. Due to the improved properties of high strength combined withtoughness and ductility,
TMT bars score over mild steel plain and CTD steel bars.

TMT steel exhibits a definite yield point. It can resist high temperature up to 500°C with no
loss of strength. These are more ductile compared to CTD bars. TMT bars possess excellent
bendability due to the unique feature of uniform elongation. They can withstand bending and
rebending with internal diameter of 1D and 4D respectively (D = diameter of the bar). TMT
bars have very good weldability. They do not suffer loss of strength at the weld joints. These
bars can also be easily welded with cold twisted bars. No pre-heating or post-heating is required
during welding. The unique feature of these bars is their high fatigue resistance on dynamic
loading on account of the high strength of the surface layer. The thermally hardened reinforcing
steel bars are more suitable for use in places prone to fire hazards, because of the thermal
stability of the heat treated structure of the bars and a total absence of a cold worked structural
zone. TMT bars have high percentage of uniform elongation—thus high formability. These
bars can be used for general concrete reinforcement in buildings, bridges and various other
concrete structures. They are highly recommended for use in high-rise buildings because of the
saving in steel due to the higher strength. A comparison for saving in steel by using TMT bars
is given in Table 13.3.

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The latest development is steel reinforcing bars is thermo-mechanically treated high-strength
corrosion resistant (TMT-HCR) rebars. The TMT-HCR rebars are concrete embedded bars,
which have superior resistance to aggressive weather conditions. TMT-HCR reinforcement
bars exhibit higher thermal resistance even at temperatures up to 600°C. The retention of
significant strength or, in other words, resistance to softening, is attributed to design of steel
chemistry, presence of tempered martensite layer of the rebar surface and absence of any cold
worked structural zone. The chemistry of TMT-HCR rebars is appropriately designed for
substantially reducing atmospheric and marine corrosion. TMT-HCR rebars possess a unique
combination of strength, ductility and bendability which testifies the products toughness and
ease of fabrication. Excellent bendability is exhibited by these rebars as well as superior bend
values. As a matter of fact, TMT-HCR rebars have been found to withstand even close bend
without exhibiting surface cracking. The rib pattern of these rebars ensures excellent bond
strength between the rebar surface and concrete; bond strength attainable with such
reinforcement bars fulfils the requirements of Indian specifications. The thermally hardened
TMT-HCR rebars are ideal for use in places prone to fire hazards. Compared to conventional
CTD bars, TMT-HCR rebars exhibit superior corrosion resistance owing to the absence of
torsional stresses in thermo-mechanically treated rebars and design of suitable alloy chemistry.
These rebars can be easily welded and do not require pre-heating or post-heating treatments.
These bars can also be welded with conventional CTD bars, permitting usage independently or
in combination in reinforcement structures. The advantages of TMT-HCR rebars over
conventional CTD rebars are many and include: saving in steel, reduction in costs, enhanced
strength combined with high ductility, superior atmospheric and marine corrosion resistance,
good weldability and no loss of strength at welded joints, better high temperature thermal
resistance, easy welding at site owing to better ductility and bendability. TMT-HCR rebars find
wide application in different spheres including coastal and marine environments which are
susceptible to corrosion, bridges, flyovers, dams, industrial structures, high rise buildings and
underground platforms.

6.7 Properties, advantages and uses of stainless steel, tool steel, brass, aluminium
and duraluminum
6.8 Corrosion of metals and its prevention
Corrosion
Corrosion is a galvanic process by which metals deteriorate through oxidation usually but not
always to their oxides. For example, when exposed to air, iron rusts, silver tarnishes, and copper
and brass acquire a bluish-green surface called a patina. Due to corrosion metals are converted
into stable form of metals like oxides, salts etc. Corrosion is reverse of extraction process as it
forms compound of pure metal.

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Effects of Corrosion
i. Reduced thickness of metal leading to loss of mechanical strength and structural failure
ii. Hazards or injuries to people arising from structural failure or breakdown
iii. Reduced value of goods due to deterioration of appearance
iv. Contamination of fluids in vessels and pipes
v. Loss of technically important surface properties of metallic component. These include
frictional and bearing properties, ease of fluid flow over a pipe surface, heat transfer
across a surface.
vi. Mechanical damage to valves, pumps etc. or blockage of pipes by solid corrosion
products.
Types of corrosion
I. Dry Corrosion
II. Wet Corrosion
Dry corrosion occurs when there is no water or moisture to aid the corrosive process, and the
metal oxidizes with the atmosphere alone. Wet corrosion of metals occurs through electron
transfer, involving two processes, oxidation and reduction. In oxidation, the metal atoms lose
electrons. The surrounding environment then gains the electrons in reduction. The metal, where
electrons are lost, is called the anode. The other metal, liquid or gas which gains the electrons
is called the cathode.
I. Dry Corrosion
Dry corrosion or oxidation occurs when oxygen in the air reacts with metal without the
presence of a liquid.Typically, dry corrosion is not as detrimental as wet corrosion, but it is
very sensitive to temperature. The difference in oxidation rates depends on the conductivity of
the oxides because the ions have to move through the oxide layer. Oxidation occurs much more
rapidly as temperature increases because the mobility of ions within the oxide layer increases.
In some cases, dry corrosion is actually encouraged. The formation of an oxide layer on the
surface of a metal will, in some instances, lead to a reduction in the rate of corrosion. When a
metal oxidises and forms an outer layer, this layer can remain on the surface of the metal and
limit further corrosion by inhibiting the ability of oxygen or other corrodents to reach the metal
surface. This is known as passivation.

Three types of dry corrosion

i. Oxidation Corrosion
ii. Corrosion by other gases
iii. Liquid Metal Corrosion

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 i. Oxidation corrosion (Reaction with oxygen):
Some of the metals directly react with oxygen in the absence of moisture. Alkali and
alkaline earth metals react with oxygen at room temperature and form corresponding
oxides. During oxidation of a metal, metal oxide is formed as a thin film on the metallic
surface which protects the metal from further corrosion. If diffusion of either oxygen
or metal is across this layer, further corrosion is possible. Thus, the layer of metal oxide
plays an important role in the process of corrosion.
ii. Corrosion by other gases such as Cl2, SO2, H2S, NOx
In dry atmosphere, these gases react with metal and form corrosion products which may
be protective or non-protective. Dry Cl2 reacts with Ag and forms AgCl which is a
protectivelayer, while SnCl4 is volatile.
iii. Liquid metal corrosion
In several industries, molten metalpasses through metallic pipes and causes corrosion
due to dissolution or due to internal penetration. For example, liquid metal mercury
dissolves most metals by forming amalgams, thereby corroding them.
II. Electrochemical Corrosion
This type of corrosion occurs when the metal comes in contact with a conducting liquid or
when two dissimilar metals are immersed or dipped partly in a solution. There is the formation
of a galvanic cell on the surface of metals. Parts of the metal surface act as anode and rest act
as cathode. The chemical in the environment and humidity acts as an electrolyte. Oxidation of
anodic part takes place and it results in corrosion at anode, while reduction takes place at
cathode. The corrosion product is formed on the surface of the metal between anode and
cathode.
As with dry corrosion wet corrosion reactions are only possible if the free energy of the
products of reaction is lower than the free energy of the reactants. This is the case however for
the reaction of nearly all metals with water and oxygen to give metal hydroxides:
M + H2O (l) → M(OH)2 (s) … (1)
This enables reaction 1 above to proceed through the coupling of two primary corrosion
reactions:
A: M→M2+ + 2e‾ … (2)
(Anode reaction: destroys metal, releases electrons, oxidation)
C: 2e‾ + H2 O + ½O2 →2OH- … (3)
(Cathode reaction: consumes electrons; electron sink reaction: reduction).
Electrons liberated in the anode reaction A flow to the site of the cathode reaction C through
the conducting metal. The movement of dissociated ions carries an equal ionic current in the
water. The distances over which these currents flow can vary from microns to many metres.
All wet corrosion processes can be analysed in terms of anodic and cathodic reactions.

.Types of wet corrosion

i. Evolution of H2
ii. Absorption of O2

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 i. Evolution of H2

ii. Absorption of O2
This type of corrosion takes place in neutral or basicmedium in the presence of
oxygen. The oxide of iron covers the surface of the iron. The small scratch on the
surface creates small anodic area and rest of the surface acts as cathodic area.

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 Differences between Dry Corrosion and Wet Corrosion

Factors affecting Corrosion

i. Nature of the metal: Some metals corrode more easily than others. The metals in Group 1
of the periodic table are the most reactive. The least reactive are called the Noble Metals:
Ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, osmium, iridium, platinum, and gold. Corrosion is
an oxidation-reduction reaction, and those metals with the lowest standard reduction
potential are most likely to be oxidized (corroded). Contact between two dissimilar metals
will speed up the corrosion of the more reactive of the two.

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 ii. Nature of the oxide film that forms: Some metals, such as aluminum, form an insoluble
oxide film that adheres and prevents further corrosion. Others, such as iron, form oxides
that crumble away or dissolve and expose the metal below to further oxidation.
iii. Moisture: The rate of corrosion increases in the presence of water, particularly oxygenated
water. Water and its dissolved solutes comprise an electrolyte solution which facilitates the
transfer of electrons between cathodic (-) and anoxic (+) regions of the metal.
iv. Salt: Corrosion occurs faster in a marine environment because salt increases the
electrolytes in the moisture.
v. Acid: Acid anhydrides enter the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels. They combine
with water in the atmosphere to form acids that are corrosive to metals.
vi. Temperature: the rate of corrosion, like that of most chemical reactions, increases as the
temperature increases.
vii. Area effect: Smaller the anodic area, larger the cathodic area faster will be the rate of
corrosion and conversely larger the anodic area, smaller the cathode area slower will be the
rate of corrosion.

Prevention of Corrosion
I. Protection by design and fabrication procedure
Design should be such that maximum uniformity and homogeneity is maintained. The
following points should be ensured to prevent corrosion.
 Avoidance of dissimilar metal contacts
 Avoidance of sharp corners
 Proper fabrication to avoid excessive stress concentration
 Clean surface free from foreign matter like dust, dirt
 When two dissimilar metals are to be in contact the anodic material should have
as large area as possible
 The two dissimilar elements if have to be used in contact they should be as close
as possible to each other in electrochemical series
II. Modifying the corrosive environment
III. Use of inhibitors
IV. Cathodic protection
V. Alloying
VI. Application of protective coating like electroplating, galvanization, tin plating, enamel
painting, sherardizing

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 7 TIMBER
7.1 Timber: source, types, classification, characteristics, advantages and uses
Timber is a material that has many characteristics that make it a good material for construction
of buildings. The material has a very high strength, especially when compared with its low
weight. The material is, however, very anisotropic with different properties in different
directions due to its make-up of oriented fibers. The strength parallel to the fiber direction is
very good while the strength when loaded perpendicular to the fiber direction is very low. This
low strength perpendicular to the fiber direction needs to be addressed when designing timber
structures.
Properties of timber/wood
Physical Properties :
1. Density
- light — very light: density less than 550 kg/m3, eg. bamboo
- moderately heavy: density 550 kg/m3 — 750 kg/m3, eg. deodar
- heavy-very heavy: density greater than 750 kg/m3, eg. Sal
2. Bulk Density (Defined as the mass of many particles of the material divided by the total
volume they occupy)
- Depends on air voids present in wood.
3. Moisture Movement
- Wood is liable to shrink or swell with the movement of moisture.
4. Shrinkage :
- Is a Reduction in linear and volumetric dimension due to drying of moisture.
5. Swelling (Increase in size)
- It is increase in linear and volumetric dimension on absorbing moisture.
6. Sound conductivity
- Has high Sound Conductivity
- Sound velocity in wood is 2-17 times greater than in air.
7. Thermal Conductivity
- Has very low thermal conductivity
Mechanical and thermal properties of timber/wood:
 As wood is natural material there is different mechanical properties for different wood
 Mechanical properties are governed by soil type, climate and other factors
 Properties affected by specific gravity, moisture content, knots and other defects and
slope of grain.
 Wood can’t resist fire and burnt easily
 It will be better to take precautions to save timber structure from thermal action
Characteristics of good timber
 It should be free from sap and be from heart of a sound tree.
 It should have straight and close fibres.
 It should give a clear ringing sound when struck. Dull heavy sound is a sign of internal
decay.

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  It should be of uniform dark colour. Light colour usually indicates timber with low
strength.
 It should have regular annual rings.
 Timbers with narrow annual rings are generally the strongest.
 Freshly cut surface should give sweet smell.
 It should have bright and smooth surface when planed. Dull appearance is a sign of
defective timber.
 Teeth of saw should not get clogged while sawing.
 Out of same variety of timber, darker and heavier pieces are stronger.
 It should be free from dead knots, from too many knots, shakes or other defects.
 It should have firm adhesion of fibers and compact medullary rays.
 A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of resisting the actions of fungi,
insects, chemicals etc.
 A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or seasoning.
It should not bow or warp or split.
 A good timber should be capable of offering resistance to shocks due to vibrations.
Advantages of timber
 availability: source and transportation
 strength: light weight and higher strength
 easy to handle and planed easily
 joining: simple
 Repair and modification: easy
 superior, thermal insulation, sound and electrical resistive
 uses: furniture and decorative purpose
 strong and flexible
 corrosion resistance: excellent
 higher shock and impact strength .
 Quick and easy to build.
 Cheaper than other types of building materials.
 Easy to heat and cool depending on the weather.
 More eco-friendly than other materials
 Can last many years if proper maintenance is carried out
Uses of timber
It is mainly used for following categories of works
 It is used for construction purposes including building construction, houseposts, beams,
rafters, bridges, piles, poles etc.
 It is used for furniture and cabinet making.
 It is used for light packing cases.
 It is also used for heavy packing cases such as machinery and similar stores.
 It is used for manufacturing agricultural implement sand tool handles.
 It is used for manufacturing veneers, plywoods, boards etc.

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Disadvantages of timber:
 Defects in timber can reduce the life of wood.
 Affected by relative humidity, fungi, insects
 Modification of general arrangement drawings if based on masonry construction
 Transportation and carriage access
 Exposure to weather before enclosed
 vulnerability to decay of timber when exposed to excessive moisture.
 If left untreated, timber become water logged and crack or chip.
 Timber is more susceptible to fire than other building materials unless treated and
maintained.
Types of timber/wood
Wood is a product obtained from the tree.
In simple classification of tree, it can be classified as:
a. Standing timber - if a tree is living then the timber is termed as Standing Timber.
b. Rough timber - if a tree is fallen then the timber is termed as Rough timber.
c. Converted timber - If a tree is modified into desired size and shape then the timber is
termed as Converted timber.
On the basis of mode of growth, the types of trees are:
1. Endogenous Tree
2. Exogenous Tree
Endogenous tree
 Trees grow in inward direction with the addition of fibrous (like of jute) layer at tip
portion, i.e the growth is longitudinal.
 Trees are hollow at the core and have flexible stem. e.g-Bambo, coconut, Sugarcane
etc.
 For construction purpose only bamboo can be used.
 Are very flexible due to which they are not generally used for construction material.
Exogenous tree
 Trees increase in bulk by growing outwards and distinct consecutive rings are formed
in the horizontal section of such trees.
 These rings are called annual rings, because one such ring added every year, such trees
grow bigger in diameter as well.
 Life of trees can be find by counting the annual rings.
e.g – Sisham, Sal, Pine etc.
 Timber from these suitable for construction purpose
These are further classified as
1. Deciduous tree
2. Coniferous tree

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Deciduous tree
 Are characterized by flat and broad leaves which fall in autumn season and new one
appear in spring season
 Hard wood is obtained by such tree which can be used for superior structural and
engineering work.
e.g – Sal, Sisham, Teak etc.
Coniferous tree
 Trees are characterized by needle shaped thin leaves which are evergreen
 Trees bear conical shaped fruits and yield resins ( viscous substance )
 Soft variety of woods are obtained
 Used is general constructional purpose
ex Pine, deodar etc
Hard Wood
A hard wood possesses the following characteristics:
(a) The wood is comparatively heavier and is darker in colour.
(b) The annual rings are not distinct.
(c) It contains a large percentage of acid.
(d) It is hard and difficult to work upon.
(e) It resists shearing stresses.
(f) It is close-grained and strong.
(g) It is non resinous.
Shisham, Sal, Teak, Oak, Mahagony and Babul are examples of hard wood.
Soft Wood
A soft wood possesses the following characteristics.
(i) It is light in weight and colour.
(ii) Annual rings are very distinct.
(iii) It is comparatively weaker and splits easily.
(iv) It has straight fibres.
(v) It is resinous, i.e. contains resins and turpentine. It has a peculiar fragrance.
(vi) It is strong for resisting tensile forces.
(vii) It is weak in directions across the grains.
(viii) Its texture is soft and regular.
Spruce, Deodar, Chir, Kail and Walnut etc., are examples of soft wood.

7.2 Growth of a tree

The roots of the tree suck a solution of salts from the soil in spring season. These salts are food
for the tree and roots transmit the same through the trunk of tree to its branches and leaves.
This solution of salts looses some of the moisture because of evaporation and absorbs carbon
dioxide from the air. This action in the presence of sun makes the solution a bit viscous. This
transformed viscous solution is known as sap.
This viscous sap descends below the bark and leaves a thick layer in autumn. Layer of sap left
below the bark gets transformed to wood and is known as cambium layer. A fresh layer is thus

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added on the outside of the tree every year forming a new annual ring. The new ring represents
a year’s growth of tree. Medullary rays carry the sap from below the bark to the interior thereby
nourishing the tree.
Structure of a Exogenous tree
A tree basically consists of three parts, viz, trunk, crown and roots.
From the visibility aspects, the structure of a tree can be divided into two categories:
 Macrostructure
 Microstructure

Macrostructure
The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small magnification is called
macrostructure. Figure 9-1 shows the macrostructure of exogenous tree.



These parts of the cross-section are described below:
Pith or Medulla
It is the first formed portion of the stem of tree and it consists entirely of cellular tissues. The
pith contains a large amount of fluid and nourishes the plant when the plant is young. It dies
up and decays when the plant becomes old and sap is then transmitted by the woody fibres
deposited round the pith.
Annual Rings
The rings of woody fibre arranged in concentric circle around the pith are known as annual
rings because one such ring is added every year.
Heart Wood
Inner most rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood. This wood is darker in colour,
stronger, more compact and durable.
Sap Wood
The outer annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer of the tree constitute the sap
wood which transmits the sap from roots to branches. Compared with heart wood, sap wood is
lighter in colour, weaker and more liable to decay. Sap wood is also known as alburnum.
Cambium Layer
Outermost ring between the bark and sap wood which is not yet converted into wood is known
as the cambium layer.
Inner Bark
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The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as inner bark. It gives protection
to cambium layer from any injury.
Outer Bark
The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark. It is the outermost protective layer
and it sometimes contains cracks and fissures. It consists of cells of woody fibre and is also
known as cortex.
Medullary Rays
These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the bark. They carry sap from
outside to the inner parts of tree and nourish it. They keep the annual rings tightly gripped
together.
Microstructure
The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called microstructure. When
studied under a microscope, it becomes evident that wood consists of living and dead cells of
various sizes and shapes.

7.3 Defects in timber

Defects are either due to growing phases of tree or defect occurring after cutting trees. Defects
reduce the usefulness of wood as aesthetic appearance as well as strength
1. Heart Shake
 This defect usually occurs in over matured trees due to shrinkage of heart wood
 These cracks are mostly confined to heart wood portion and diminishing towards
outward.

2. Star Shake
 It is confined in the outward portionand diminishing towards center.
 It occurs due to frost action and strongheat of sun.
 It is the most serious defect because ittends to separate single log into smallpieces.

3. Radial Shake
 These are radial cracks extending fromcentre towards bark .
 These are similar to star shake but areirregular and numerous.

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  It occurs due to drying of sap or moisture.

4. Cup or Ring Shake

 Is the separation of tissue along annual rings
 If the shake is whole round the annual ring then it is called ring shake and if it is
half way round the ring then it is called cup shake.
 It is due to unequal seasoning and change in humidity.

5. Rind Gall
 Is the curved irregular swelling on surface.
 Due to development of new sap layer on wound left after branches have been
irregularly cut.
 New layer fails to unite with old one and decay starts from that point

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6. Knots
 This defect occurs due to formation of annual rings at right angles to surface and
also due to twisting of fibers.
 The roots of the branches yet embedded(Enclosed firmly) by the tissue and knots
are formed
 Knots reduce the aesthetic value and effects tensile strength
 Knots may be round or oval shaped

7. Twisted fibers
 This defect occurs due to wind velocity constantly turning trees inone direction
only.

8. End Splits
 Occurs only at the ends of log due to exposed conditions duringseasoning.
 May be prevented by painting the ends of log or covering withmetallic cap.

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 9. Druxiness and Foxiness
 Druxiness is a term that is defined as a disease that isfound in timber or wood. It is
caused or brought about bya wound located in the layer known as the cambium
which is attacked by fungus.
 Foxiness is caused due to poor ventilation during storageor due to over maturity of
the tree
These are stains or patches on the surface of timberwhich destroy the appearance and
may cause decay of timber. Stain may be in form of white patches or mottled reddish
colour.

7.4 Seasoning of timber

The art of seasoning is to extract the moisture under controlled conditions as nearly as possible
at a uniform rate from all parts of timber and to leave the remaining moisture that cannot be
extracted, uniformly distributed throughout the mass.
Irregular drying will cause irregular shrinkage resulting in the setting up of internal stresses
between the fibres. When these stresses become strong enough to overcome the cohesion of
the fibres then the timber warps and shakes are formed.
Objectives of Seasoning
(i) Seasoning makes timber resistant to decay.
(ii) Seasoning makes timber lighter.
(iii) It becomes easier to paint and polish seasoned timber.
(iv) It is easier to treat seasoned timber with preservatives.
(v) Seasoned timber becomes stronger and more stable.
(vi) Seasoning stops shrinkage of timber on drying.
(vii) Seasoned timber has better electrical resistance.
Methods of Seasoning
1. Natural seasoning or Air Seasoning
2. Artificial seasoning or Kiln Seasoning
3. Water Seasoning
4. Boiling or Steam Seasoning
5. Chemical or Salt Seasoning
6. Electrical Seasoning
Natural Seasoning or Air Seasoning
The log is converted by sawing it into battens and planks etc. as soon as possible after felling
of tree. These are then stacked on a well drained place in the shade. Care should be taken to
ensure free circulation of fresh air all around each piece while stacking. The stacking should
be done on masonry or concrete supports a few centimeters above the ground.
Care should be taken not to expose the freshly converted timber stacked for seasoning to
severe winds or to sun.
This process of seasoning timber is the best as it gives very strong and durable timber, but it
is extremely slow. It takes more than six months for timber to season in moderate climates.
Kiln Seasoning or Artificial Seasoning
This method of seasoning speeds up the seasoning process. This method of seasoning is a
must for large scale production of seasoned timber.

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Kiln seasoning is done in a chamber equipped with arrangements for heating and humidifying
the air to required conditions of relative humidity and temperature and for its circulation
across the timber stacked in the chamber for seasoning. Usually, it is steam that is used for
heating and humidifying the air in the kiln. The seasoning of the timber is started at a
comparatively lower temperature and high humidity. As the timber dries, these conditions are
gradually altered until at the end of the seasoning. The temperature of the air inside the
chamber is fairly high and the humidity is low. The kiln charge is allowed to cool inside the
kiln to within 15 to 20o C of the outside temperature before removal. Seasoning of timber by
this method takes about four to five days under normal conditions.


Water Seasoning
Log of wood is kept completely immerged in running stream of water. Sap, sugar etc are
leached out of wood and replaced by water. Then log is kept out of water after 2 to 4 weeks
and placed in air. Quick process and also remove organic matters materials. Elasticity may
reduce and make timber brittle. Boiling of timber in water is another rather quick process. It
takes long time to be dried but less than air seasoning.
Boiling or Steam seasoning
Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam speed the drying of wood. This method
is said to cause less shrinkage but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity
of the timber.
Chemical or salt seasoning
Salt seasoning is the submersion of wood in a solution of urea, sodium nitrate or sodium
chloride, all of which act as dehydrating agents. Then the wood is air dried.
Electrical seasoning
Electrical seasoning involves running an electrical current through the timber causing heat to
build up drying the wood. This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality.

7.5 Preservation of timber

Timber has to be protected from the attack of insects, e.g. white ants etc., and from internal
decay due to dry and wet rots.
Perfect seasoning is the most effective means of preservation. Timber should be so used that
either it is wholly dry and well ventilated or is wholly under water. It will not decay when kept
under water but it will become soft and weak.

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Proper damp proofing of the building and providing free circulation of air around the built in
portions of timber are essential for the preservation of the timber used. However, when these
conditions cannot be obtained then preservatives have to be applied for preservation.
Timber should be well seasoned before the application of preservatives as otherwise the
preservatives would block the pores of timber thereby causing its decay due to the entrapped
moisture. Direct contact with lime mortar should be avoided while using preservative with
masonry.
Methods of Preservation of Timber
Following are some of the common methods of preservation adopted
(i) Charring
(ii) Tarring
(iii) Painting
(iv) Creosoting
(v) Wolman salt
(vi) Ascu treatment
(vii) Fire proofing of timber
Charring
Lower ends of the posts that are to be embedded in ground are generally charred with a view
to prevent dry rot and attack of worms. It is done by quenching the ends of posts in water after
they are charred on wood fire to a depth of 1.5 cm.
Tarring
It consists in coating with tar or tar mixed with pitch. Embedded portions of timber fence posts,
ends of door and window frames, battens and beams built in wall are usually tarred. Tarring is
not done in case of those portions of structural members that are open to view, because of
unsightly black colour.
Painting
A paint when applied to timber acts not only as a good preservative but also it enhances the
appearance of the surface so treated. Only well seasoned timber should be painted as otherwise
the moisture entrapped in the timber, because of the closing of timber bores by paint, would
cause decay. Paints however, protect seasoned timber against moisture thereby prolonging its
life, e.g. soligum paints have excellent preservative properties and protect timber against the
attack of white ants.
Creosoting
Creosote oil is a dark brown thick oily liquid. Thoroughly seasoned timber dried for 24 hrs
before its treatment is placed in an airtight chamber. After the air has been exhausted from this
chamber, the creosote oil is then pumped in at a pressure of 9 kg/ cm2 at a temperature of 50o
Cso long as the timber is not fully saturated with oil. The oil preserves the timber from rot and
from the attacks of white ant.

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Uses
• It is used in case of railway sleepers, piles and transmission poles.
Limitations
• Undesirable colour and smell, inability to take paint well and the tendency to stainplaster
limit its use.
Wolman Salt
This salt consists of creosote and sodium fluoride and is soluble in water.
It is odour less and leaves no stain on wood. After treatment, timber could be painted or
varnished. These salts destroy many kinds of fungi that cause timber to rot. This renders the
timber extremely fire resistant too.
Treatment of timber with zinc chloride, sodium fluoride, magnesium, silico fluoride or copper
sulphate renders the timber immune from the attacks of fungi. The timber so treated is capable
of being painted on drying.
Ascu Treatment
Ascu is available in the form of powder and is made up of three chemicals mixed in the ratios
given below :
(i) 1 part by weight of hydrated arsenic pentaoxide (As2 O5.2H2 O)
(ii) 3 parts by weight of blue vitriol (CuSO4 .5H2 O)
(iii) 4 parts by weight of potassium dichromate (K2 Cr2 O7 .2H2O)
Six parts of this powder are mixed with 100 parts by weight of water. Ascu solution can be
applied or sprayed in two coats.
To achieve better results, timber may be soaked in the solution and impregnated with it under
pressure. The timber should be allowed to dry for three to six weeks. This treatment renders
timber immune to the attacks of white ant.
Ascu treated timber may be painted, varnished, polished or waxed. The solution is odourless.
Fire Proofing of Timber
Timber cannot be made completely fireproof, however, by treating as below it can be made fire
resistant to a sufficient extent.
Soaking timber in ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, ammonia phosphate, sodium
arsenate, zinc chloride etc. or spraying on timber, solution of sodium silicate, potassium silicate
or ammonia phosphate etc. imparts fire resisting properties. Abel’s methods of fire proofing
timber is painting the surface first with a dilute solution of sodium silicate (Na SiO ) then with a
2 3
cream like paste of slaked fat time and in the end with a concentrated solution of silicate of soda.

7.6 Properties and uses of bamboo

 Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight
ratio useful for structures.
 In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by
making cables of split bamboo or twisting of sufficiently pliable(workable) bamboo
together.
 Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China
for buildings over six storeys, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong
Kong.

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  In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative
element in buildings such asfencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to
theready abundance of quality timber.
(Grates - A barrier that has parallel or crossed bars blocks a passage but admitting air.)
(Gutters - A channel along the eaves or on the roof; collects and carries away rain water)
 Can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks (like board, plyboard).
 Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The
most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boricacid.
 Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful,
though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject.
 Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo
will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several
procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.
 Tensile strength: Bamboo has higher tensile strength than steel because its fibers run
axially.
 Fire Resistance: Capability of bamboo to resist fire is very high and it can withstand
temperature up to 4000 C. This is due to the presence of high value of silicate acid and
water.
 Elasticity: Bamboo is widely preferred in earthquake prone regions due to its elastic
features.
 Weight of bamboo: Bamboos due to their low weight are easily displaced or installed
making it very easier for transportation and construction.
 Unlike other building materials like cement and asbestos, bamboo poses no danger to
health.
 They are cost effective and easy to use.
 They are especially in great demand in earthquake prone areas.

7.7 Wood based products

Timber which is prepared scientifically in a factory is termed as industrial timber and such
Timber possesses desired shape, appearance strength.
Veneers:
These are thin sheets or slices of 0.40 to 6mm wood of superior quality. Indian timbers,
which are suitable for veneers, are mahagony, oak, rosewood, sissoo, teak etc. The process of
preparing a sheet of veners is known as veneering. Veneers are used to produce plywoods
batten boards and lamin boards. Veneers used for making plywood are known as plies.
Plywoods:
Plywoods are boards, which are prepared from thin layers of wood or veneers. Three or more
veneers in odd number are pressed using adhesives such that the direction of the grains are at
Right angles to each other. The odd numbers of the veneers are used in order that the shrinkage
is symmetrical about the middle ply. The plywoods are used for various purposes such as
ceilings, doors, furniture, partitions, panelling walls, packing cases, railway coaches,
formwork for concrete etc. Thickness may vary from 6 to 25mm.

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Lamin Board
A lamin board is a board having a core of strips, each not exceeding 7 mm in thickness glued
together face to face to form aslab which in term is glued between two or more veneers, with
the direction of the grain of the core strips running at right angles to that of the adjacent outer
veneers. The lamin boards are light, strong and do not split or crack easily. They are used for
walls, ceilings, partitions and packing cases.
Block Board
A block board is constructed in the same way as lamin board. In this case core consists of
smaller timber block upto 25 mm in width. These blocks are cemented edge to edge and on
each face plies upto 3 mm thickness are glued. These are extensively used for construction of
railway carriages, busbodies, marine and river crafts and for furniture making, partitions,
panelling, prefabricated houses etc.
Batten Boards
The batten board is a board having a core made up of strips of wood usually 80 mm wide, each
laid separately or glued or otherwise joined to form a slat which is glued between two or more
outer veneers with the direction of the core running at right angles to that of the adjacent outer
veneers. These boards are used for door panels, table tops etc.
Fibre boards:
These are rigid boards and they are also known as pressed wood or reconstructed wood. The
thickness varies from 3mm to 12mm. These are available in lengths from 3 to 4.5m and width
varying from 12 to 18m. The weight of fibre boards depends on the pressure applied during
manufacture. These are used for:
(i) For internal finish of rooms such as wall panelling; suspended ceilings.
(ii) To construct form work for cement concrete.
(iii) To construct partitions.
(iv) To prepare flush doors, tops of tables etc.
(v) To provide an insulating material of heat and sound.
(vi) To work as paving or flooring material.
Impreg timber /impregnated timber
Timber which has been made flame-resistant, fungi resistant, or insect-proof by forcing into it
under vacuum or pressure a flame retardant or a fungal or insect poison.
Compreg timber
Compreg timber are processed wood whose cells are impregnated with a resin and compressed,
to reduce shrinking and swelling and to increase density and strength. Compreg is a very special
wood composite material with exquisite mechanical properties. Compreg indicates that it is
both impregnated and compressed. Used in applications where long durability, hardness, and
dimensional stability is required e.g. gears, rolls and wear strips of industrial conveyors,
woodworking machine tables. Regardless of its hardness, it is comparatively easy to machine,
which makes it an excellent choice for manufacturers of exclusive woodworking products.

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 8 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS
8.1 Types Properties and Uses of Asphalt, Bitumen and Tar
Asphalt
The asphalt is a mixture which consists alumina, lime, silica and asphaltic bitumen. At low
temperatures, it is in solid state and at high temperatures it is in liquid state. Natural or
mechanical mixture of bitumen with inert mineral matter(cement, aggregate).Solid or semisolid
sticky product formed by partial evaporation and distillation of certain petroleum product. It is
soluble in varying degrees in carbon disulphide.
Properties:
 Sticky and binds strongly, adheres perfectly to wood, stone, concrete and metals
 Solid or semi-solid, black brownish, water proof
 Elastic, durable, plastic and workable when heated, ductile
 Not seriously affected by adverse weather
 Good conductor of heat, sound and electricity
Uses of Asphalt:
 As DPC, as water repellent layer
 Lining walls of tanks, swimming pool, bathroom
 Used to prepare paints
 As asphalt mortar and asphalt concrete, pavements
 For flooring purpose
 For electrical insulation by mixing with wood tar pitch, rubber, resin and other suitable
compounds
Asphalt is produced in two different ways as follows.
1. Natural asphalt
2. Residual asphalt
Natural Asphalt
Natural asphalt is obtained directly from the nature especially from the two resources lakes and
rocks. The lake asphalt contains 40 to 70 % of pure bitumen which is boiled in tank and water
content evaporates and impurities are separated. The final product is called as asphalt which
can be used for laying roads etc.
Rock asphalt contains 10 to 15% of pure bitumen and calcareous matter. These rocks are
crushed and heated and consolidates by sudden cooling. This asphalt is used for paving tiles
etc.
Residual Asphalt
Residual asphalt is obtained artificially by the fractional distillation of crude petroleum oil with
asphaltic base.
Forms of Asphalt
The available forms of asphalt are:
 Cutback asphalt
 Asphalt emulsion
 Asphalt cement
 Mastic asphalt

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Cutback Asphalt
Cutback asphalt is in liquid state. Asphalt is dissolved in a volatile solvent to get this cutback
asphalt. It is used for manufacturing bituminous paint, repairing roofs etc.
Asphalt Emulsion
Asphaltic emulsion is obtained by adding 50 to 60% water to the asphalt in presence of 1%
emulsifying agent. The emulsifying agent forms water proof film when water evaporates. So,
it can be used in cold conditions.
Asphalt Cement
Natural asphalt is subjected to high pressure air under high temperature to get asphalt cement.
Asphalt cement is plastic in nature and it is used for flooring, roofing, water proofing material
etc.
Mastic Asphalt
Mastic asphalt is obtained by heating natural asphalt with sand and mineral fillers. It is
impermeable matter does not contain any voids. Hardness and melting point of mastic asphalt
can be managed during the process of heating. It is in solid state and by heating it can be brought
to liquid state. It is used for damp proofing course.
Bitumen
 Solid or semi-solid, black, sticky, ductile substance, obtained as an important byproduct
from the distillation of crude petroleum
 That portion of petroleum asphalt and tar products which will dissolve in carbon
disulphide
 Implies a group of hydrocarbons often mixed with some organic matter
 In natural state bitumen is found in combination with finely graded mineral matter in
the form of natural asphalt
 Sp. Gravity is 1.09
 Completely soluble in carbon disulphide
 Higher chemical stability but affected by oil
 High insulation resistance
Forms of Bitumen:
1. Cut-back bitumen:
It is obtained by fluxing asphaltic bitumen in the presence of some suitable liquid
distillates of coal tar or petroleum. Used as coat of paints
2. Plastic bitumen:
It comprises bitumen thinner and suitable inert filler (40-45%). Used for blocking
leakages, filling cracks in masonry
3. Blown bitumen:
Obtained by passing air under pressure at high temperature, can be used as heat
insulating materials, as roofing and damp-proofing felts
4. Straight run bitumen:
Distilled to a definite viscosity or penetration without further treatment
5. Bitumen emulsion:

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 Liquid product containing bitumen in a very finely divided state to a great extent in an
aqueous medium. The bitumen is suspended in aqueous medium with the help of some
suitable stabilizing agent
Properties of Bitumen
1. Adhesion
2. Resistance to Water
3. Hardness
4. Viscosity and Flow
5. Softening Point
6. Ductility
7. Specific Gravity
8. Durability
9. Versatility
10. Economical
11. Strength

 Adhesion:
The adhesive property of bitumen binds together all the components without bringing
about any positive or negative changes in their properties. Bitumen has the ability to
adhere to a solid surface in a fluid state depending on the nature of the surface. The
presence of water on the surface will prevent adhesion.

 Resistance to Water:
Bitumen is insoluble in water and can serve as an effective sealant Bitumen is water
resistant. Under some conditions water may be absorbed by minute quantities of
inorganic salts in the bitumen or filler in it.

 Hardness:
To measure the hardness of bitumen, the penetration test is conducted, which measures
the depth of penetration in tenths of mm. of a weighted needle in bitumen after a given
time, at a known temperature. Commonly a weight of 100 gm is applied for 5 sec at a
temperature of 77 °F. The penetration is a measure of hardness. Typical results are 10
for hard coating asphalt, 15 to 40 for roofing asphalt and up to 100 or more for water
proofing bitumen. The grades with penetrations greater than 40 are mostly used in road
construction and occasionally in industrial applications. The grades with penetrations
less than 40 are used exclusively in industrial applications. In hot climate lower grades
such as 60/70 is used.

 Viscosity and Flow:

The viscous or flow properties of bitumen are of importance both at high temperature
during processing and application and at low temperature to which bitumen is subjected
during service. The flow properties of bitumens vary considerably with temperature and
stress conditions. Deterioration, or loss of the desirable properties of bitumen, takes the
form of hardening. Resultantly, decrease in adhesive and flow properties and an
increase in the softening point temperature and coefficient of thermal expansion.

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 Softening point:
This property make us to know whether given bitumen can be used at the particular
place i.e. softening point value should be higher than pavement temperature otherwise
bitumen present in the layer get soften and come out.Softening point is the temperature
at which a steel ball falls a known distance through the bitumen when the test assembly
is heated at a known rate. Usually the test consist of a (3/8) in dia. steel ball, weight 3.5
gm, which is allowed to sink through a (5/8) in dia, (1/4) in thick disk of bitumen in a
brass ring. The whole assembly is heated at a rate of 9 °F per min. Typical values would
be 240 °F for coating grade asphalts, 140 °F to 220 °F for roofing asphalt and down to
115 °F for bituminous water proofing material.

 Ductility:
Ductility test is conducted to determine the amount bitumen will stretch at temperature
below its softening point. A briquette having a cross sectional area of 1 in2 is placed in
a tester at 77 °F. Ductility values ranges from 0 to over 150 depending on the type of
bitumen. Presence of ductility means the formation of the film and coating would be
proper.

 Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of a binder does not influence its behaviour . But all the same, its value
is needed in mix design. The property is determined at 27º C.

 Durability:
Bitumen durability refers to the long-term resistance to oxidative hardening of the
Material in the field. Although, in-service, all bitumens harden with time through
reaction.With oxygen in the air, excessive rates of hardening (poor durability) can lead
to premature binder embrittlement and surfacing failure resulting in cracking and chip
loss. Bitumen lives upto twenty years if maintained properly throughout the pavement
life.

 Versatility:
Due to versatility property of Bitumen it is relatively easy to use it in many applications
because of its thermoplastic property. It can be spread easily along the underlying
pavement layers as it liquefies when heated making the job easier and hardens in a solid
mass when cooled.

 Economical:
It is available in cheaper rates almost all over the world which makes it feasible and
affordable in many applications.

 Strength:
Though the coarse aggregates are the main load bearing component in a pavement,
bitumen or asphalt also play a vital role in distributing the traffic loads to the layers
beneath.

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Tar
• Black solid mass obtained during the destructive distillation of coal, wood, or other
organic materials
• It contains 75-95% bituminous contents
• Contains higher percentage of carbon
• Hardens much quickly than asphalts
• More adhesives than asphalt
• Possess toxicity to a high degree
Uses:
• For roofing and road making
• For making bituminous paints and water-proofing compounds
• Coal tar can be used as a preservatives for timber
Types of tar:
1. Coal tar : produced by destructive distillation of coal or as a byproduct in the
manufacturing of coal gases
2. Mineral tar: produced by distillation of bituminous shales, contains less volatile matter
and other composition are same as other tar
3. Wood tar: produced by distillation of pure and resinous trees. It contains creosote oil
and hence possess strong preservative property
Difference between Bitumen and Tar

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8.2 Types Properties and Uses of Glass, Plastics and Rubber
Glass
A glass is an amorphous and transparent solid substance which is produced on the
solidification of a liquid state without crystallization. Glass is therefore, classified as a ‘supper
cooled liquid’ that lacks three dimensional periodicity characteristic of a crystal. Solidification
refers to the transformation of materials from the liquid to the solid state. While cooling, the
disordered structure of the liquid changes to the orderly arrangement and it is known as
crystallization. When the disordered structure of the liquid is frozen as it is, the change is said
to be a glass transition. Thus, glass does not have a sharp melting point. When a glass is heated,
it begins to soften at a temperature far below the point at which it flows like a liquid.
Glass is obtained when white sand is fused with alkaline earth metal oxides and carbonates.
Thus, it is a mixture of a number of silicates. The mixture can be represented as xM2O,
yM’O.6SiO2 for ordinary glass.
M – Monovalent alkaline earth metals
M’– Bivalent metals
x,y– are the simple integers
For example, it can be stated as Na2O.CaO.6SiO2
By replacing certain metals, different glasses can be obtained
Varieties of Glass
 Soda Lime or Soft Glass
It is a mixture of raw materials like sodium and calcium silicate Na2O.CaO.6SiO2. The
approximate composition is SiO2 75%, sodium oxide 15%, calcium oxide 8% and
aluminium oxide 2% (as impurity). They soften at a comparatively lower temperature
and are, thus called as soft glass and can be hot worked easily. These glasses are
resistant to devitrification and resistant to water also.
Uses
The soda lime glass is used in making cheap window panes, electric bulbs, bottles,
dishes and other substances where high temperature resistance and chemical stability
are not required.
 Potash Lime or Hard Glass
It is a mixture of potassium and calcium silicates as SiO2, (K2CO3 + CaCO3). Their
approximate composition is K2O.CaO.6SiO2. It is a hard glass as it possesses high
melting point and can withstand higher temperature and is comparatively more resistant
to acid, alkali and other solvents than the soft glasses.
Uses
They are used for making hard glass apparatus for laboratories, combustion tubes and
other substances where comparatively high temperature resistance and chemical stability
are required.
 Flint Glass (Lead Glass)
In this glass, lead carbonate or lead oxide is used in excess to have the composition as
K2O. PbO. 6SiO2. The approximate composition are silica (45%), sodium oxide (4%),

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 potassium oxide (4%), calcium oxide (3%) and lead oxide (44%). It is prepared by
fuming litharge (lead oxide), potassium carbonate and silica in proper propositions.
Properties
(i) The flint glass is of higher refracting power.
(ii) It has a higher density and transparency than ordinary glasses.
(iii) It has lower softening temperature than soda glasses.
(iv) It has excellent electrical properties.
(v) It has high specific gravity.
(vi) It is bright and lustrous.
Uses
It is used for making optical instruments, ornamental purposes, high quality table wares,
neon sign tubings, cathode ray tubes, electrical insulators etc. It is also used as shields to
X-rays and γ-rays in medical and atomic energy fields, respectively.
 Crown Glass
A partial replacement of silica by phosphorous penta-oxide gives crown glass.
 Pyrex Glass (Borosilicate Glass)
It is a mixture of sodium aluminium borosilicates i.e. certain amounts of boron and
aluminium oxides are mixed together to produce this most common of the hard glass of
commerce. These are called as pyrex glasses. The approximate composition is silica 80%,
sodium oxide 4%, calcium oxide 0.5%, potassium oxide 0.5%, B2O3 12%, Al2O3 3%.
Properties
(i) They have a low coefficient of expansion.
(ii) They can withstand sudden alteration of temperature very well without
cracking.
(iii) They contain less alkali and so are less prone to chemical attack.
(iv)Borosilicate glasses have very high softening point and excellent resistivity
(shock proof).
Uses
Such glasses are widely used for laboratory equipments which are to be heated at high
temperature. They can be used in kitchenwares, chemical plants, electrical insulators etc.
They are also extensively used in industry for pipelines for corrosive liquids.
 Alumino Silicate Glass
If silica is partially replaced by aluminium in ordinary glass then aluminium silicate glass
is obtained. The approximate composition of this glass is: SiO2(55%), Al2O3 (23%), B2O3
(7%), MgO (9%), CaO (5%), Na2O (0.5%) and K2O (0.5%).

Properties
It has very high softening temperature.

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 Uses
It is used in domestic equipments, chemical combustion tubes, mercury discharge tubes
etc.
 Crooke’s Glass (Optical Glass)
It is generally made by fusing red lead, potassium carbonate and sand. Special varieties
of Crooke’s glass can be made, i.e. boron trioxide in place of silica and, barium and zinc
oxide in place red lead. Crooke’s glass contains cerium oxide which prevents ultraviolet
light harmful to eyes.
Properties
(i) They have low melting point and are relatively soft.
(ii) They have low chemical resistance.
(iii) They have low durability.

Uses
These are used as special type of glass for optical purposes (making lens).
 Bottle Glass
It is ordinary soda lime glass having approximate composition of MgO (3.5%). Al 2O3
Fe2O3 (0.5%).

Uses
It is used as cheap commercial glass.
 Ground Glass
It is prepared by grinding ordinary soda (soft) glass by emery and turpentine oil or by
sand blasting.
 Safety Glass
It is obtained by taking two or three flat glass sheets and in between them alternative thin
layers of butyral plastic or vinyl acetate resin is introduced with a suitable adhesive and
cementing them by heat and pressure. On cooling, the glass becomes tough.
Properties
This glass does not break easily under ordinary impact but when it breaks it does
not shatter.
Uses
It is used in making automobile wind shields, aeroplane wind shields etc.
 Laminated Glass
Fine layer laminated glass can also be obtained in the same way as above by placing a
layer of resin, asphalt or synthetic rubber with a suitable adhesive between two layers of
glasses. This process is repeated for several time in order to get high thick glass which
will become bullet proof.

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 Properties
(i) It is shatter proof and shock proof.
(ii) It withstands the sudden changes of temperature and pressure without
breaking.
Uses
For making bullet proof glasses, safety aircraft and automobile glasses etc.
 Glass Wool
It is fibrous wood-like material which is obtained by forcing molten glass through tiny
holes in presence of a jet of high pressure system and then put over a rapidly revolving
drum to get the materials in wool like form.
Properties
(i) It is non-combustible and fire proof.
(ii) These are stain resistant and electrically insulator.
(iii) It has high chemical resistance and it does not absorb moisture or water.
(iv) It has low thermal conductivity and low density.
(v) It has very high tensile strength.

Uses
(i) Since it is a thermal insulator, it is used as wrapper for various articles in the
form of glass wool.
(ii) It is used for making fire proof clothings.
(iii) It is used in air filters as dust filtering materials.
(iv)It is used for filtration of corrosive liquids (acids etc.) as it is resistant to
chemical actions.
(v) Hollow glass bricks are used in constructing walls where light would come in
but cold could be kept out.
(vi)It is used for manufacturing fibre glass, electrical insulation wares, industrial
appliances, domestic wares and other articles where heat resistance is
required.

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Plastics
These are a latterly developed construction material that has replaced timbers and steels. These
are organic materials that becomes plastic when heated and can be moulded to desired shapes
On cooling plastics regain rigidity.
CONSTITUENT OF PLASTICS
(i) Resins- acts as binder
(ii) Fillers-Fillers improve performance by increasing hardness, strength, bond, opacity,
finish and/or reduce production cost. Many plastics contain fillers, relatively inert and
inexpensive materials that make the product cheaper by weight.
(iii)Plasticizers-Since many organic polymers are too rigid for particular applications, they
are blended with plasticizers. It helps to neutralize the intermolecular force of attraction
between resins.
(iv) Colorants/Pigments -Colorants are common additives, although their weight
contribution is small.
(v) Lubricant- To make easier moulding.
(vi) Catalyst- To accelerate polymerization.

Properties
It is light weight material having density in the range of 1.1 gm/cc to 1.6 gm/cc It is non
corrosive It is good insulator It is economical It has high degree of workability and can be
easily moulded into different shapes and sizes.
 Light weight
 Low thermal conductivity
 A wide range of colors
 Resistance to deterioration by moisture
 Low electrical conductivity
 They are transparent, translucent or opaque
 Good dimension stability and sound absorption property
 Easily fixed in position and quite durable.

Types
1. Thermoplastic These are the plastics that become soft on heating and can be reused by
further reheating and cooling These have temporary setting and hardening property
Acrylic plastics, celluloid plastics, polyethylene, polystyrene, PVC, Poly Vinyl Acetate
(PVA), etc. are examples of thermoplastics.
2. Thermosetting plastic Unlike thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics becomes hard on
application of heat and - curing at a particular range of temperature It is not reusable as
its setting and hardening property is permanent On further heating it decomposes These
are fairly stronger and durable.

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Varieties of Plastics
Polyethylene Terephthalate
Polyethylene Terephthalate sometimes absorbs odours and flavours from foods and drinks that
are stored in them. Items made from this plastic are commonly recycled. PET(E) plastic is used
to make many common household items like beverage bottles, medicine jars, rope, clothing
and carpet fibre.
High-Density Polyethylene
High-Density Polyethylene products are very safe and are not known to transmit any chemicals
into foods or drinks. HDPE products are commonly recycled. Items made from this plastic
include containers for milk, motor oil, shampoos and conditioners, soap bottles, detergents, and
bleaches. It is NEVER safe to reuse an HDPE bottle as a food or drink container if it didn’t
originally contain food or drink.
Polyvinyl Chloride
Polyvinyl Chloride is sometimes recycled. PVC is used for all kinds of pipes and tiles, but is
most commonly found in plumbing pipes. This kind of plastic should not come in contact with
food items as it can be harmful if ingested.
Low-Density Polyethylene
Low-Density Polyethylene is sometimes recycled. It is a very healthy plastic that tends to be
both durable and flexible. Items such as cling-film, sandwich bags, squeezable bottles, and
plastic grocery bags are made from LDPE.
Polypropylene
Polypropylene is occasionally recycled. PP is strong and can usually withstand higher
temperatures. It is used to make lunch boxes, margarine containers, yogurt pots, syrup bottles,
prescription bottles. Plastic bottle caps are often made from PP.
Polystyrene
Polystyrene is commonly recycled, but is difficult to do. Items such as disposable coffee cups,
plastic food boxes, plastic cutlery and packing foam are made from PS.

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GENERAL USES OF PLASTICS
 Electrical conduits
 Floor tiles
 Electrical insulator
 Foams for thermal insulation
 Overhead water tank
 Joint less flooring
 Decorative laminates and mouldings
 Bath and sink units

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Rubber
It is essentially an elastic material. It is found as both natural and synthetic type.
Types of Rubber
Natural Rubber: It is present as emulsion (suspension of liquid with other liquid) in latex of
certain types of tree Crude latex is subjected to a certain treatment to improve and modify its
properties Different plasticizers are added to perform Compounding in latex Large rollers make
the thin sheets of rubber at desired thickness which is Calendering. For making rubber useful
in all seasons it is treated with sulphur which is Vulcanization
Reclaimed Rubber: Rubber waste and worn out rubber are reused by treatment and is called
reclaimed rubber Metals are cleaned off from waste rubber and heated with alkali solution in
closed steel vessel Treated rubber is washed with clean water and then dried to get reclaimed
rubber
Sponge Rubber: It is prepared by adding sodium bicarbonate during Vulcanization Small
pores are left when water molecules present in rubber evaporate. These have better heat and
sound insulating property
Synthetic Rubber: Obtained from petroleum, coal tar and alcohol. Properties are similar to
that of natural rubber but some properties vary widely. Has better resistance to light rays,
weather, acids, etc. Its use is wide spreading.
The following are the properties of rubber:
 Specific gravity
 Abrasion resistance
 Tear resistance
 Compression set
 Resilience
 Elongation
 Tensile modulus
 Tensile strength
 Hardness
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of a material's weight to the weight of an equal volume of water at
a particular temperature. This property enables the chemists to identify compounds. It is
important for part designers and technical buyers to be aware that rubber with a low specific
gravity provides more square inches per pound of stock. By contrast, those with a higher
specific gravity have advantages in molding consistency.
Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion resistance is the resistance of rubber to abrasion by scraping or rubbing. Abrasion-
resistant rubber is used in industrial applications including conveyor belts that move coal, and
pumps that handle slurries. The measurement of material loss due to abrasion is carried out
according to tests such as ASTM D394.
Tear Resistance
Tear resistance is the resistance of an elastomer to the development of a cut or nick when
tension is applied. This property, also called tear strength, is measured in kilonewtons per meter
(kN/m) or pound force per inch (lbf/in). It has to be considered when selecting a compound for
edge trim that will be in contact with sharp objects or rough metal edges.

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Compression Set
Compression set is the extent to which an elastomer fails to return to its original thickness upon
releasing a compressive load. Repeated compression of a rubber sealed over time results in
progressive stress relaxation. Compression set is the end result of a continuous decline in
sealing force. Figure 2 shows the schematic of compression set.
Resilience
Resilience, also known as rebound, is the ability of rubber to return to its original size and
shape following a temporary deformation, such as contact with a metal surface. Resilience is
critical in dynamic seals that serve as a barrier between stationary and moving surfaces. It is
necessary to take into account resilience for applications that require weather stripping between
a door frame and a door.
Elongation
Elongation is defined as the percentage increase, or strain, in the original length of a rubber
sample with the application of a tensile force, or stress. Certain elastomers tend to stretch more
compared to others. Natural rubber, for instance, can stretch up to 700% prior to reaching its
ultimate elongation, which causes it to break. However, fluoroelastomers can only withstand
300% elongation.
Tensile Modulus
Tensile modulus is the stress or force required for producing a strain or an elongation
percentage in a rubber sample. Although it sounds similar to tensile strength, the properties are
different. Harder rubber usually has a higher tensile modulus, making it more resilient. It is
also more resistant to extrusion, which is a process for manufacturing stock materials used in
custom fabrication.
Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is the amount of force needed to tear apart a rubber specimen until it breaks.
It is also known as ultimate tensile strength, and is measured in terms of megapascals or pounds
per square inch (psi) according to ASTM D412. The tensile strength is a key factor for
designers and buyers as it signifies the point of failure resulting from the stretching of rubber.
Hardness
The chemical structure of the elastomers provides them with an inherent hardness that can be
altered. The modified hardness is then measured in terms of of durometer (duro) on a Shore
scale. Shore A is used for a soft to medium-hard rubber. Solid rubber, with a consistency of
pencil erasers, has a hardness of 40 duro. By contrast, harder rubber, like that used in hockey
pucks, has 90 duro hardness. Figure 1 shows rubber with different hardness.
Uses of Rubber:
The following are some of the uses of rubber:
 Thermal insulation
 Lining of reservoir
 Rain water and flexible tubing
 Belting of all types
 Tyres and tubes
 Adhesive
 Hose pipes, printing roller etc.
 Mounting material
 As a buffer

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  Gasketina material.

8.3 Gypsum Products and Composite materials

Gypsum Products
The word gypsum is derived from the Greek word gypsos, "plaster". Gypsum is naturally
occuring soft sulfatemineral composed of calcium sulfatedihydrate, with the chemical formula
CaSO4·2H2O.
Gypsum is white crystalline substances soluble in hydrochloric acid, sparingly soluble in
water and insoluble in sulphuric acid. It sets and hardens quickly hence used as binding
material.
Properties of gypsum products/item
 Good sound absorber
 Possess small bulk density
 They are incombustible
 They have poor strength in wet state
 They develop high creep under load especially, in moist surroundings.
 Gypsum is moderately water-soluble
 When gypsum is heated in air it loses water and converts first to calcium sulphate
hemihydrate, (bassanite, often simply called "plaster") and, if heated further, to
anhydrous
calcium sulphate (anhydrite) known as plaster of paris.
USES
 It is used as filler in paint, paper and rubber industries.
 Used in manufacture of cement to increase its setting time.
 It is also used to prepare “Plaster of Paris” and gypsum boards. These boards are
popularly
known as gypsum board and are formed by mixing gypsum with asphalt.
Composites
A composite material is a material made from two or more constituent materials with
significantly
different physical or chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with
characteristics
different from the individual components.Combination of two or more constituent materials on
a macroscopic examination to produce a new material with enhanced properties is called
composites. Concrete = aggregate + cement
Human Bone = fiberlike osteons + interstitial bone matrix
The individual components remain separate and distinctwithin the finished structure. The new
material may be preferred for many reasons: common examples include materials which are
stronger, lighter, or less expensive, heat resistance or stiffness when compared to traditional
materials.
E.g.: Pearlitic steels, wood, R.C.C, vehicle tyres.
Composition
 Multiple metal alloys
 Ceramics
 Polymers

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Following affects the properties of composite
 The size and distribution of constituent in relation to each other.
 The bond strength between them.
 The shape, size, amount and properties of each material.

Benefits of composite
 Non-corrosive
 Non-conductive
 Flexible, will not dent
 Low maintenance
 Long life
 Design flexibility
Composites are of various type such as:
 Natural Composites: – Wood: Cellulose fibers + lignin matrix – Bone and Bamboo etc.
 Synthetic Composites: – Tire: steel or polymer fiber + rubber matrix – Fiberglass (e.g.,
boats): Chopped fibers + polyester – Fiber-reinforced Plastic (FRP) composites: panels,
beams, columns
 Hybrid Composites: – Wood or concrete wrapped with polymer composites – Wood
beams reinforced with FRP plates on the tension side – Sandwich structure (face sheets
with wood core)
The composites have diversified characteristics so that they are vastly used in the field of civil
engineering construction. Some of the characteristics are high strength, non corrosiveness,
strength with brittleness, compressive strength, tensile strength, light weight, etc
The advantages of using composites are as:
 High strength-to-weight ratio (specific strength)
 High stiffness-to-weight ratio (specific stiffness)
 Noncorrosive, nonmagnetic, nonconductive
 High energy absorption properties: acoustic and seismic responses
 High fatigue-life
 Ability to incorporate sensors in the material to monitor and/or correct its performance
i.e. Smart composites
 Ability to tailor the material (both fiber architecture and shape) for specific applications,
and to design the material with other inherent properties (UV light, flammability, smoke
toxicity)
 Ease of fabrication of large complex structural shapes or modules which helps in
Modular construction
 The composites used in engineering are RCC, Fiber glass, plastic, Composite rebars
and grids to reinforce concrete in bridge decks and highway barriers, Composite cables
and tendons to prestress/post-tension concrete structures (bridges and building)

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USES
 Craft
 Boats and marine
 Sporting equipment (Golf shafts, tennis rackets, surfboards, hokey sticks, etc.)
 Automotive components
 Wind turbine blades
 Body armor
 Building materials
 Water pipes
 Bridges
 Tool handles
 Ladder rails

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|Bibliography
1. Singh,G., & Singh, J. Building Materials. Delhi: Standard Publishers Distributers.
2. Khurmi R.S. & Sedha.Material Science and processes. New Delhi. S Chand and
Company Ltd.
3. Peter A. Thronton &Vito J. Colangelo (1985). Fundamentals of Engineering
Materials. Prentice Hall.
4. Singh,P.(2008).Civil Engineering Material,Katson Books.
5. Rajput,R.K (2004). Engineering Material,New Delhi. S.Chand & Company Ltd.
6. S.K. Duggal, Building Materials.

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