Geotechnic

al
Engineerin
g
Handbook
Geotechnical
Engineering

Surendra Maharjan
Table of Contents
1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS.....................................................................................4
1.1 Consolidation and Settlement.................................................................................................4
1.2 One Dimension Consolidation Test.........................................................................................4
1.3 Terzaghi's Consolidation Theory (One Dimensional Theory)..................................................4
1.4 Pressure - Void Ratio Curves.................................................................................................5
2 shear strength of soil...................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Concept of shear strength of soil............................................................................................6
3 foundation engineering.................................................................................................................. 8
3.1 Site Investigation and Soil Exploration of Bridge Sites............................................................8
3.2 Soil Exploration of Bridge Site.................................................................................................8
3.3 Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures................................................................................8
3.3.1 Plastic equilibrium in soils: Active and Passive States*....................................................8
3.3.2 lateral earth pressure theory............................................................................................8
3.3.3 Rankine's earth pressure theory....................................................................................11
4 design of retaining wall................................................................................................................ 11
4.1 Definition of retaining wall.....................................................................................................11
4.2 Classification......................................................................................................................... 13
4.3 Other types........................................................................................................................... 16
4.4 Anchored Retaining Wall......................................................................................................... 16
4.5 Piled Retaining Wall................................................................................................................ 17

.................................................................19
 ..................................................................19
4.6 Special features of Dry Masonry Retaining Wall...................................................................19
4.7 Common causes of retaining wall failure...............................................................................19
4.7.1 Poor drainage (lack of weep holes or clogged holes......................................................20
4.7.2 Shallow Footing............................................................................................................. 21
4.7.3 Sub-Standard Materials or Lack of Reinforcement poor workmanship..........................21
4.7.4 Unanticipated Loads......................................................................................................21
4.7.5 Extra Load on Top......................................................................................................... 22
4.7.6 Slope Failure................................................................................................................. 22
4.7.7 Design errors................................................................................................................. 22
4.8 Front battered and back battered..........................................................................................24
4.9 Some Construction techniques for increasing stability of Masonry Retaining Walls..............24
4.10 Design of retaining wall.........................................................................................................24
5.......................................................................................................................................................... 25
6.......................................................................................................................................................... 26
7 survey information and design consideration for check dam........................................................27
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 27
7.2 Function................................................................................................................................ 27
7.3 Sites...................................................................................................................................... 27
7.4 Nomenclature of Check Dam................................................................................................29
7.5 Practical Features................................................................................................................. 29
7.6 Design considerations of check dam....................................................................................30
7.6.1 Site Selections............................................................................................................... 30
7.6.2 Spacing of Check Dams................................................................................................30
7.6.3 Structural Design........................................................................................................... 31
7.6.4 Hydrological aspect.......................................................................................................31
 Methods of estimation of surface runoff/flood flow.......................................................................31
7.6.5 Hydraulic Element Design..............................................................................................32
7.7 Strain Cases for Check Dam................................................................................................35
7.8 Static and Soil Mechanical Calculation.................................................................................37
7.9 Stabilization of Gully head....................................................................................................39
7.10 Scouring Problem................................................................................................................. 41
7.11 Foundation............................................................................................................................ 41
7.12 Maintenance......................................................................................................................... 42
1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

1.1 Consolidation and Settlement

Flexibility, superiority in performance, mouldability and monolithicity are the features which lead
the concrete as top in the modern construction technology.

In the beginning empirical approach was used for the design of concrete elements. Later elastic
theory was followed to limit stress in concrete and reinforcement within the elastic range. But limit
state method, semi empirical approach, is proved as the best method of design.

1.2 One Dimension Consolidation Test

The main purpose of the test is to obtain the compressibility properties of a saturated soil for use in
determining the magnitude and rate of settlement of structures.

Loads are applied such that successive load intensity, p, is twice the preceding one. The load
intensities commonly used being 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 tonnes/ft2. Each load is allowed to
stand until compression has practically ceased (no longer than 24 hours). Sandy samples are
compressed relatively short time.

After the application of the greatest load for the test, the soil sample is allowed for expansion to
have the information about swelling nature of the soil, elastic properties and magnitudes of plastic
or permanent deformations.

1.3 Terzaghi's Consolidation Theory (One Dimensional Theory)

The assumptions of the theory are as follows

a. The clay layer is homogeneous.

b. The clay layer is saturated.
c. The clay layer is laterally confined.
d. Darcy's Law is valid.
e. The compression of the soil layer is due to the change in volume which, in turn, is due to the
expulsion of water from the void spaces.
f. Deformation of soil layer is in the direction of load application.
g. The coefficient of consolidation is constant during the consolidation.
The terzaghi's theory is applicable in all cases where

a. Secondary consolidation is not significant.

b. The clay stratum is drained out on one or both surfaces.
c. The clay stratum is deeply buried.
d. The thickness of the clay stratum is thin compared to the loaded areas.
1.4 Pressure - Void Ratio Curves
The curve is the applied pressure with respect to the void ratio at the end of the each increment of
load.

Determination of void ratio

Vs= Volume of the solids in the sample= dry weight, W/ GsYw

We can also write, Vs= Ahs or hs=Vs/A

Void ratio, e=Ah-Ahs/Ahs= h-hs/hs
Where h= height of the sample at each stage which decreases with increment of load

Equilibrium void ratio at the end of any load increment may be determined by the change in
volume void ration method.
Change of Void Ratio Method
2 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

2.1 Concept of shear strength of soil

The basic concept of shearing resistance and shearing strength can be understood by first
studying the principle of friction between solid bodies. Consider a prismatic block B resting on a
plane surface XY as shown in Figure 2-17. The block B is subjected to two forces

 A normal force, Pn, that acts perpendicular to the plane XY, and
 A tangential force, Fa, that acts parallel to the plane XY.
Assume that the normal force, Pn, is constant and that the tangential force, Fa, is gradually
increased. At small values of Fa, the block B will not move since the applied force, Fa, will be
balanced by an equal and opposite force, Fr, on the plane of contact XY. The resisting force, Fr, is
developed as a result of surface roughness on the bottom of the block B and the plane surface XY.
The angle, θ, formed by the resultant R of the two forces Fr and Pn with the normal to the plane
XY is known as the angle of obliquity.

If the applied horizontal force, Fa, is gradually increased, the resisting force, Fr, will likewise
increase, always being equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied force. When the
force Fa reaches a value that increases the angle of obliquity to a certain maximum value θm, the
block B will start sliding along the plane. Recall that during this entire process the normal force,
Pn, remains constant. The following terminology can now be developed:

Basic concept of shearing resistance and strength

If the block B and the plane surface XY are made of the same material, the angle θmis
equal to φ,which is termed the angle of frictionof the material. The value tan φis
called the coefficient of friction.
If the block B and the plane surface XY are made of dissimilar materials, the angle θmis
equal to δ, which is termed the angle of interface frictionbetween the bottom of the
block and the plane surface XY. The value tan δis called the coefficient of interface
friction.
The applied horizontal force, Fa, on the block B is a shearing force and the developed
force is called frictional resistance or shearing resistance. The maximum frictional orshearing
resistance that the materials are capable of developing on the interface is
(Fa)max.
If the same experiment is conducted with a greater normal force, Pn, the maximum frictional or
shearing resistance (Fa)max, will be correspondingly greater. A series of such experiments would
show that for the case where the block and surface are made of the samematerial, the maximum
frictional or shearing resistance is approximately proportional tothe normal load Pnas follows:
(Fa)max= Pn tan φ
If A is the overall contact areaof the block B on the plane surface XY, the relationship in
Equation 2-16 may be written as follows to obtain stresses on surface XY:
Fa P
A
max

A ( )
= n sin φ

τ =σ n tan φ
where
σ n= Normal Stress
τ = Shear Strength
A graphical representation of Equation 2-18 is shown in Figure 2-18a. In reality, the relationship is
curved, but since most geotechnical problems involve a relatively narrow range of pressures, the
relationship is assumed to be linear as represented by Equation 2-18 over that range.
The concept of frictional resistance explained above applies to soils that possess only the frictional
component of shear strength, i.e., generally coarse-grained granular soils. But soils that are not
purely frictional exhibit an additional strength component due to some kind of internal electro-
chemical bonding between the particles. This bonding between the particles is typically found in
fine-grained soils and is termed cohesion, c. simplistically, the shear strength, τ, of such soils is
expressed by two additive components as follows and can be graphically represented as shown in
Figure 2-18(b):
τ =C+ σ n tan φ
The above equation was first proposed by French engineer Coulomb and is used to express shear
strength of soils. When plotted on arithmetic axes the resulting straight line is conventionally
known as the Mohr-Coulomb (M-C) failure envelope. “Mohr” is included in “Mohr-Coulomb”
because Equation 2-19 can also be derived based on concept of Mohr’s circle. The development
of the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope based on the application of Mohr’s circle is presented in
Appendix B.
3 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

3.1 Site Investigation and Soil Exploration of Bridge Sites

A site investigation is the field examination of the possible sites of the bridge location and selects
the most suitable location based on the factors: need for a bridge, present and future traffic,
economy, stream characteristics, sub soil condition, safety and aesthetics. The thorough
investigation at site will help a designer to produce a successful final design.

The characteristics of an ideal site for a bridge across a river are

a. Bridge site is selected at the straight reach, narrow section of a river.
b. Steady river flow without serious whirls and cross currents.
c. Rocky or firm banks, non erodible river bed
d. Suitable high banks above high flood level on each side.
e. Firm or inerodible river beds and banks.
f. Absence of expensive river training works.
g. Avoidance of excessive underwater construction.
h. Economical approaches which should not be too high or long or liable to flank attacks of the
river during floods, free of frequent drainage crossings, hills, built up area, sacred places,
troublesome of land acquisition. The approaches should be at proximity to the direct and
straight alignment of the road, without sharp curves.

3.2 Soil Exploration of Bridge Site

The aim of soil exploration is to get information for the correctly deciding the location and type of
foundation. The data required are

a. Nature of soil deposits

i. Depth and thickness of soil strata
j. Location of ground water table
k. Depth of rock bed and
l. Engineering properties of soils and rock
Methods of soil exploration
Borings
Geophysical methods
Test pits and core drilling

3.3 Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures

3.3.1 Plastic equilibrium in soils: Active and Passive States*

A body of soil is said to be in plastic equilibrium if every point of it is in the verge of failure. The
stress condition during the plastic equilibrium can be represented by the Mohr-Column Shear
Strength Equation:

t= C+stanF ………….1.0

3.3.2 lateral earth pressure theory

There are two classical earth pressure theories. They are

Coulomb's earth pressure theory

Rankine's earth pressure theory
Consider a rigid wall, with a plane vertical face, is backfilled with cohesionless soil. If the wall does
not move due to the backfill, the earth pressure on the wall is pressure at rest condition. As shown
in the figure a, suppose if the wall gradually rotates about A away from backfill, the earth pressure
on it gradually reduces and after certain displacement at the top of the wall, the earth pressure
becomes constant. The pressure is minimum possible and termed as active pressure because the
weight of the earth behind the wall is responsible for movement of the wall. If the wall is vertical
and smooth the resultant pressure on the wall is normal to the wall and if rough, the resultant
pressure inclines to d to the horizontal. The angle d is said to be the angle of wall friction. As the
wall moves further sufficiently, the soil behind it tends to rupture about the curve surface ADC. If
the surface is assumed as plane, the analysis shows that the plane makes 45 0+F/2 with the
horizontal.
If the wall is rotated about A towards backfill, the earth pressure increases and becomes constant
after certain movement. The maximum pressure is called as passive earth pressure because the
weight of the backfill opposes the movement of wall. The rupture surface is slightly curve, ADC but
assumed as plane making an angle 450-F/2 with horizontal.
constantthe soil behind it tends to slide along the curve surface ADC and the exerted pressure
gradually decreases till the minimum value. The minimum earth pressure is called as active earth
pressure.
Figure: Development of active and passive earth presure

Lateral earth pressure at rest condition

If the wall is rigid and does not move due to supporting backfill, then the soil is in elastic
equilibrium condition. Consider a soil element E at the depth of Z from the top, the pressures on
the element are
Vertical pressure,sv=gz
Horizontal pressure,sh
If the backfill is homogeneous the sv,sh increases linearly with depth.
Hence sh/sv= constant
Or, sh/ gz= constant=Ko, coefficient of earth pressure at rest condition
Therefore sh = Kogz
The total pressure for the soil at rest is P0=1/2 KogH2
3.3.3 Rankine's earth pressure theory
Assumptions of the Rankine's Theory:

The soil mass is semi infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless.

The ground surface is plane either horizontal or inclined.
The back of the wall is vertical and smooth.
The wall yields about the base and thus satisfies the deformation condition of the plastic
equilibrium.
Cases:
1. Dry or moist backfill with no surcharge

4 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL

4.1 Definition of retaining wall

Retaining wall is a structure used to retain back fill and maintain difference in elevation of the two
ground surfaces. Retaining wall may be effectively utilized to tackle the problem of landslides by
stabilizing the cut slopes and fill slopes.

The lateral pressure could be also due to earth filling, liquid pressure, sand, and other granular
materials behind the retaining wall structure. There are various types of retaining wall structures
which are used for numerous goals.

 Use dry masonry in every case where it is applicable (see special features of dry masonry
walls below). Only use other types of wall when you are certain you need greater strength
and can justify the additional cost.

 Careful design and supervision of foundations are of paramount importance.

 While excavating foundations, remove debris to a safe location. Do not allow it to be

thrown down the slope.
 In most locations, solving the drainage problem is a major difficulty. Therefore
consideration should always be given to using the best-drained of structures.

 In bound masonry and reinforced concrete walls, weep holes of a minimum width of
75 mm, sloping downwards, should be given every one metre along and up the wall.
There should be a line of weep holes along the wall at the lowest level at which it can be
drained.

 Backfilling is critical: many walls are not backfilled and so retain nothing but air!
Always ensure that retaining walls are properly backfilled and compacted in layers.
Place a drainage blanket of aggregate with a porous membrane of filter fabric (geotextile
if possible; but otherwise hessian) over weep holes or drainage areas.

 Once construction is complete, ensure that the slopes around the structure are tidied up
and treated using appropriate bio-engineering measures. All surplus debris must be
removed, or it will encourage the development of erosion.

Retaining walls may be defined as a wall built to resist the pressure of liquid,

earth filling, sand, or other granular material filled behind it after it is built. It is
commonly required in the construction of hill roads, masonry dams, abutments
and wings walls of bridges and so on. Depending upon the site conditions, type of
material to be retained and the height of the wall to be constructed, retaining wall
may be built in dry Stone masonry, stone masonry, brick masonry, plain cement
concrete and reinforced cement concrete.
Typical arrangement of retaining wall and breast wall in road cross section.
Source: IS14458 part 2

The main function of retaining wall is

To stabilize the cut slopes and fill slopes
The retaining walls are normally not intended to stabilize slope failures. They are mainly meant to
support the active or passive earth pressure from the assumed failure wedge above the base of
the wall. The stabilization of existing or probable failure planes caused by landslides, flows and
falls require separate treatment and specific design approaches. Only the fill slopes and cut slopes
could be stabilized/retained by retaining walls.

4.2 Classification
The retaining wall shall be classified based on type of construction and mechanism of behavior as
follows:

Gravity wall
Gravity walls are stabilized by their mass. They are constructed of dense, heavy materials such as
concrete and stone masonry. Some gravity walls do use mortar, relying solely on their weight to
stay in place, as in the case of dry stone walls. They are economical for only small heights (upto
3m).

Generally gravity walls are in trapezoidal in shape, i.e., very wide at the base and both faces of the
wall taper inward to a smaller width at the top
o Dry masonry wall, cement mortar masonry wall, concrete wall, gabion retaining wall, Crib
retaining wall, gabions, and bin retaining wall are also type of gravity retaining walls

o It can be constructed from different materials such as concrete, stone, and masonry units.

o Sliding, overturning, and bearing forces shall be taken into consideration while this type of
retaining wall structure is designed.

Gravity walls resist the earth pressure by its weight only, so the dimension is huge

Semi gravity wall

In many cases, a small amount of steel may be used for the construction of gravity walls, thereby
minimizing the size of wall sections. Such walls are generally referred to as semigravity walls.
Cantilever retaining wall
Cantilever retaining walls (figure 7.1c) are made of reinforced concrete that consists of a thin stem
and a base slab. This type of wall is economical to a height of about 25 ft (10 m).

o Cantilever retaining wall composed of stem and base slab

o It is constructed from reinforced concrete, precast concrete, or prestress concrete.

o Cantilever retaining wall is the most common type used as retaining walls.

o Cantilever retaining wall is either constructed on site or prefabricated offsite i.e. precast.
o The portion of the base slab beneath backfill material is termed as heel, and the other part is
called toe.

o Cantilever retaining wall is economical up to height of 10m.

o It requires smaller quantity of concrete compare with gravity wall but its design and
construction shall be executed carefully.

o Similar to gravity wall, sliding, overturning, and bearing pressure shall be taken into
consideration during its design.

Counterfort retaining /buttressed retaining wall

Counterfort retaining walls (figure 7.1d) are similar to cantilever walls. At regular intervals,
however, they have thin vertical concrete slabs known as counterforts that tie the wall and the
base slab together. The purpose of the counterforts is to reduce the shear and the bending
moments in the vertical stem of the wall. This type of wall is suitable if the height of the wall is
more than 8m.

o It is a cantilever retaining wall but strengthened with counter forts monolithic with the back
of the wall slab and base slab.
o Counter fort spacing is equal or slightly larger than half of the counter-fort height.

o Counter-fort wall height ranges from 8-12m.

4.3 Other types

4.4 Anchored Retaining Wall

o This type of retaining wall is employed when the space is limited or thin retaining wall is
required.
o Anchored retaining wall is suitable for loose soil over rocks.

o Considerably high retaining wall can be constructed using this type of retaining wall
structure system.

o deep cable rods or wires are driven deep sideways into the earth, then the ends are filled
with concrete to provide anchor.

o Anchors (tiebacks) acts against overturning and sliding pressure.

4.5 Piled Retaining Wall

o Pile retaining wall are constructed by driving reinforced concrete piles adjacent to each other as
shown in the Fig.

o Piles are forced into a depth that is sufficient to counter the force which tries to push over the wall.

o It is employed in both temporary and permanent works.

o Piled walls offer high stiffness retaining elements which are able to hold lateral pressure in large
excavation depths with almost no disturbance to surrounding structures or properties.

o Sheet pile walls are built using steel sheets into a slope or excavations up to a required depth, but it
cannot withstand very high pressure

o Sheet pile retaining wall economical till height of 6m

4.6 Special features of Dry Masonry Retaining Wall

This is the simplest form of retaining wall. The stability of such walls depends
upon the arrangement of stones in the wall and the friction between the individual
stones. The stones used in the wall should be of large size and roughly hammer-
dressed so as to ensure maximum bedding area. The wall should have a minimum
top width of 60 cm. and the front face should have a batter varying from 1 in 4 to
1 in 3. The batter of I in 4 is adopted for walls lesser than 4.5 m in height. In
principle, the height of dry stone masonry wall should be restricted to 6 m. For
walls above 4.5 m in height, the upper 4.5 m of the walls is usually built of dry
rubble stone masonry and the portion below this height is built with mortar.

The stones used in the wall construction are laid at right angle to the face baller.
A proper bond is maintained and the front and the rear faces of the wall are nicely
bonded with the hearting. The filling immediately behind the wall should consist of
stone chips gravel or similar granular material and not earth. 75 to 100 mm.
square weep-holes should be provided in the wall at 2m c/c vertically and
horizontally to drain off the water from the filling behind. The wall has been shown
in figure 943 on page (252).

4.7 Common causes of retaining wall failure

Sliding along base, overturning about toe, bearing capacity failure are failure mechanisms of a
retaining wall. These failures are caused by following major causes
4.7.1 Poor drainage (lack of weep holes or clogged holes
The main cause of retaining wall failure is poor drainage. Without proper drainage, hydrostatic
pressure builds up behind the retaining wall. Saturated soil is substantially heavier than dry soil,
and the retaining wall may not be designed to handle such a load.

To solve this problem, retaining walls should have adequate drainage that will act as a funnel for
the water behind the retaining wall, leading such water out and away from the structure to
minimize hydrostatic pressure build up. In most retaining wall constructions, drainage is provided
by a mechanism that consists of a perforated pipe (to channel the water), gravel (to maintain
porosity at the wall), and geotechnical fabric (to separate the gravel from the soil).
4.7.2 Shallow Footing
It is recommended that you make your retaining wall footing deep enough to resist the weight of
saturated soil; it should also be deeper than the frost line (if frost is present in your area).

A retaining wall with a shallow footing has a lower capacity to resist the lateral pressure of the soil
and water behind it than a wall with a deeper footing. The depth of the footing becomes even more
crucial in gravity walls, which depend mainly on their own weight to be effective (read about gravity
walls and other types of retaining walls here).

4.7.3 Sub-Standard Materials or Lack of Reinforcement poor workmanship

The use of a poor concrete mix, the lack of supports or the lack of reinforcing bars are also causes
of retaining wall failure. Remember that even a 4-feet-high, 15-feet-long retaining wall could be
holding back as much as 20 tons of soil

Poor construction practices might be due to or inexperienced contractor works that is carried out
as per standards and specified plans.

Inadequate mortar, or grouting, or improper steel reinforcement placements are compelling

examples of poor construction. it is recommended to understood construction requirement and
conditions and review the plan properly.

4.7.4 Unanticipated Loads

It is client to designer information issues so it is essential to have good communication between
different people who involve in the design. Unexpected loads might be resulted from a surcharge
that designer did not about it. Moreover, it could have been a steeper slope backfill or wind load.
4.7.5 Extra Load on Top
Putting an extra (that is, unaccounted for) load 3 feet from the top of the retaining wall – say a car
or a shed – can cause a blowout failure. In this case, the retaining wall leans over and
subsequently topples from the extra load. To prevent failure due to extra load, account for all the
load the retaining wall must bear before construction. Depending on the amount of load calculated,
your contractor may have to widen and/or deepen the footing of the wall, increase its thickness, or
install anchors or tiebacks for extra strength.

4.7.6 Slope Failure

Retaining wall failures are also related to slope failure. If the dynamics of the slope the wall is
holding back suddenly changes, the wall will be exposed to stresses it was not designed to handle.
Read how slope failure can induce retaining wall failure here. You should also read up on
the causes of slope failure.

4.7.7 Design errors

Design errors as the cause of failures are relatively rare when prepared by an experienced
designer. However, sometimes the designer is given insufficient or erroneous information. For
example, “Design the wall to retain eight feet”, but later examination of the grading plans, or as-
built conditions, shows the wall retaining nine feet, an additional foot, thereby increasing the base
moment on the stem by nearly fifty-percent. Or there could be surcharge loads, such as an
adjacent footing or roadway, of which the designer was unaware. Good data communication
between the EOR and his/her client is essential. If software is used as a design aid, it is essential
that the designer correctly inputs data and understands the capabilities and limitations of the
particular program (Retain Pro advises its users to be licensed civil or structural engineers, or at
least have the expertise to design a relatively complex retaining wall by hand calculations). Poor
soil investigation taking the nominal soil properties

Retaining wall failures due to design errors are rather exceptional case provided
that an experienced structural designer carried out wall design. Nonetheless, there
are situations where designers are provided with inadequate or faulty information
that can be extremely detrimental.

Overturning about base

Sliding along its base

Bearing capacity failure

Settlement
Overall stability
 4.8 Front battered and back battered
Front battered retaining walls are many times expensive than back battered retaining walls in
steep hilly areas

4.9 Some Construction techniques for increasing stability of Masonry Retaining Walls
Pointing and grouting

Conventional mortar pointing of joints along the wall face has been widely used in the past with
varying success. Mortar fixes unstable sections, but unless adequate drainage is maintained
(using weep holes) this repair may actually accelerate deterioration. However, once applied
subsequent cracking of rigid mortar joints can act as tell-tale indicators of further movement.
Whereas trowel applied mortar rarely penetrates wall joints more than 100 mm, and often does
little more than block water drainage, low pressure pumping (pressure pointing) of cement mortar
fills joints up to 500 mm into the wall. This is a more effective means of stabilising loose sections
or lengths of wall. Pressure grouting has been used with success and has the effect of
transforming the wall into a rigid gravity structure. Grouting work must be undertaken at low
pressures to minimise the risk of collapse.

Buttressing
Masonry buttressing may provide a successful repair for unstable sections but the technique relies
on sufficient space being available in front of the wall. Alternatively gabions have proven ideal for
temporary support to unstable sections. A permanent earth buttress or embankment may be used
to entirely cover an unstable wall, effectively removing it altogether. Material should be free
draining and the earth bank must be suitably graded to provide usable agricultural space for the
adjacent landowner. Masonry walls may also be locally thickened using a concrete or cement
mortar render, stabilising loose blocks and protecting stonework from further weathering, figure 9.
Soil Nailing
This technique has been used successfully on walls in Bradford [Bruce & Jewell, 1986 and 1987]
and more recently along a 340 m length of Telford's walls on the A5 road in North Wales. Dry-
stone walls are at first pressure pointed or grouted, cored and then anchored back into the ground
behind the wall using soil nails inclined at 10° - 20° on a 1-3 square metre grid. Nails can be
galvanised mild steel, stainless steel or glass fibre reinforced plastic.
Base Slope

Keying
Back Batter

4.10 Design of retaining wall

Various types of loads and forces acts on a retaining wall and their calculation is important for its
design. These forces on retaining wall depend on various factors which are discussed.

1. Lateral earth pressure

The main purpose of retaining wall construction is to retain soil that is why soil lateral earth
pressure is major concern in the design. Sliding soil wedge theory is the basis for most of theories
by which lateral earth pressure is computed.
 The wedge theory suggests that a triangular wedge of soil would slide down if retaining wall was
removed suddenly and the wall has to sustain this wedge soil. Figure 1 shows free body lateral
forces acting on retaining walls.

Coulomb and Rankine equations are two major formulas which are used to
compute lateral earth pressure:

2. Surcharge loads

3. Axial loads

4. Wind on projecting stem

5. Impact forces

6. Seismic earth pressure

7. Seismic wall self-weight forces

Proportioning of Retaining wall

Stability Analysis

6 CCC
7 CCC
8 SURVEY INFORMATION AND DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR CHECK DAM

8.1 Introduction
A check dam is a small barrier which is a non-vegetative erosion control practices constructed of
rocks, sand bags, gabion placed across a drainage way, gully or natural channel. Check dam
reduces the effective slope of the natural drainage or channel, thereby reducing the velocity of
flowing water, allowing sediment to settle and controlling erosion.

8.2 Function
 The main purpose is to prevent the down cutting (erosion) of channel, gullies by reducing
the runoff velocity.
 Raise the bed level and reduce the slopes in a gully by silting up and trapping the silt from
going downstream, and support the unstable side slopes and prevent channel and lateral
erosion
 Reduce the water depth by widening the gully or channel bed, and promote water
percolation in the soil, and conserve water for plant growth for stabilizing banks.

8.3 Sites
 Any loose or active gully or natural drainage (Kholshi)
 In any rill (a shallow channel cut by water flowing over rock or soil) that threatens to
enlarge
 In general anywhere on a slope where there is a danger of scour from running water

8.4 Materials

Types of Check dam General Advantages Disadvantages

characteristics
Brushwood Check Dam  Made of wooden  Simple,  Takes long time
poles and brush,  Use local for the check
 Least permanent of materials, dams to
 all the other Low cost, develop the
types,  After the roots roots and get
 Suitable for small and shoots established
gullies of 1 to 2 come out, they
meters in depth, can form a
long term
  Low cost, where barrier
materials are
locally available.

Loose Stone Check Dam  Made of loose  Use local  If not made
stones or rocks, materials properly and
 Stability and  Simple sizeable stones
strength depend on  Low cost are not used,
the size of rocks (where stones the stones will
and quality of the  are be moved by
construction, and abundantly the large water
 Commonly used in available) flow, and they
the gully control may be quickly
works, where damaged
stones are
abundantly
available

Boulder Check dam  Made of big  Use locally  Transportation

boulders or rocks. available of the big
 Stability and materials, boulders is
strength depend on such as difficult
the size of the boulders, (especially, if
boulders or rocks  Simple Low not located
and quality of the cost (where upslope of the
construction. boulders are site)
 Commonly used in  abundantly  Large voids, if
the gully control available) not properly
works, where  If properly filled up in the
boulders or rocks made, are dam, may
are abundantly almost like a create water
available permanent jets, which
structure and could be
durable destructive if
directed
towards banks

Gabion Check dam  Made with wire  Flexible and  Costlier than
crates permeable loose stone or
 Suitable, boulder
(Gabion Boxes) of where land structures
different sizes filled mass is  Gabion has to
with stones, unstable be brought from
 Economical outside or
 ƒ Flexible, imported, not
compared to
 ƒ Preferred where other solid locally
big boulders are structure available; so
not available the community
has to bear the
cost of the
 gabion
 Need skilled
labor for their
construction

Masonry Check dam  Made of cement  Permanent  Costly Materials

masonry or and solid (cement, rods)
concrete structure are not locally
 Not commonly  Have available
used in ordinary aesthetic look  Need more
locations, except to engineering
protect important design, and
infrastructures such skilled labor for
as road, building the construction
etc

8.5 Nomenclature of Check Dam

Figure 8-1: Front view of Check Dam.

Figure 8-2 : Plan View of Check Dam

8.6 Practical Features

 Choose locations for the check dams so that the maximum effect can be achieved using
the minimum possible volume of construction. Provide check dams at natural nick points
and foot of debris heap. In most cases gullies are so irregular that the spacing of check
 dams will be determined by the actual field conditions. If the gulley is fairly regular, the
spacing of check dams can be determined using the relationship :
i. Horizontal distance between successive check dams:
d=h ×100/( S O−Se )
Where d = spacing between two successive check dams
H = height of the heck dam up to the notch
So= existing slope of bed in %
Se=stabilizing slope of bed in % (in general it is 3 - 5 %)
 Excavate a foundation in the gully bed until you find a sound layer to build on. The base of
the dam should be at least 660 mm thick if it is one meter high; for every additional meter
of height, add a further 330 mm to the width.
 Construct the check dam using the best-drained and most cost-effective materials. If
possible, use dry stone masonry or gabions to improve drainage. If this will not work, use
concrete-bound mortar.
  If using concrete-bound masonry, include weep holes to drain water from behind the check
dam and reduce hydrostatic pressure.
 The ends of the dam should be keyed right into the gully sides and should be raised at
least 250 mm to form a central spillway or notch: this ensures that water coming over the
dam will then run down the middle and not scour the ends.
 An apron must be provided below the dam to ensure that energy is dissipated and that flow
continues in the center of the gully below the check dam.
 If there is a risk of people or animals damaging the top of the dam, or if it is in a gully likely
to take a large flow of water, point the top layer with cement mortar.
 Once the construction of the check dam is completed, backfill behind the wings and sides,
and compact the fill thoroughly.

8.7 Design considerations of check dam

Generally the main parameters which are considered in the design of a check dam are

8.7.1 Site Selections

Following considerations need to be taken for the selection of sites for the construction of check
dams
i. The site should be wide enough to limit specific runoff
ii. A check dam should be made at a straight and firm stream bed and bank
iii. Stable site should be located for the base foundation and side foundation
iv. The selection of the site is also restricted by the height of the structure

8.7.2 Spacing of Check Dams

The spacing of the check dams should be so placed that the line joining the top of the lower check
dam and the bottom of the successive upper check dam gives the gradient. This gradient for the
kind of soil in the gully bed or stream bed will give a non-erosive velocity of flow. This gradient is
known as the compensation gradient. For the general practice, the compensation gradient is taken
as 3 to 5 percent slope.

Horizontal distance between successive check dams is given by the relation:

d=h ×100/( S O−Se )
Where d = spacing between two successive check dams
H = height of the heck dam up to the notch
So= existing slope of bed in %
Se=stabilizing slope of bed in % (in general it is 3 - 5 %)

8.7.3 Number of check dams

It is calculated from the following formula:
Number of check dams = (a-b)/H,
Where, a = the total vertical distance between the first and the last check dam in that portion of the
gully,
B = Se x d’/100 = the total vertical distance calculated according to the compensation
gradient for that portion of the gully
d’ = the horizontal distance between the first and the last check dam in that portion of the
gully,
H = average height of the check dams.

8.7.4 Structural Design

Structural design involves the determination of the dimensions of the various components of the
check dam, its strength and stability. The safety of the check dams is mostly endangered by
scouring. Foundation depth and spillway size and shape have, therefore, to be selected taking
scouring depth into consideration.
Check dams are designed for:
i. Safety against overturning;

FSoverturning =
∑ M R ≥1.2
∑ Mo
ii. Safety against sliding; and

FS sliding=
∑ F R ≥ 1. 2
∑ Fd

iii. Safety against the bearing pressure on the foundation soil.

qu
FSbearing capacity = ≥1 .2
qmax

8.7.5 Hydrological Aspect

Hydrological aspect of the design of a check dam concerns to the assessment of flood flows (total
quantity of water expected to flow through the drainage) for channel or gulley. The total surface
runoff depends upon the characteristics of catchment area i.e. catchment area size, conditions of
catchment, river or drainage sections and profile, infiltration. It involves the estimation of surface
runoff.
Methods of estimation of surface runoff/flood flow
a) Rational Formula
The rational method is the simplest method and depends on the area, the intensity and a factor.
CIA
Mathematically, Q=
360
Where Q is the rate of run off in m3/s or cumecs
I is the rainfall intensity in mm per hour for the designed frequency for a duration equal to
the time of concentration, tc
A is the catchment in hectares
C is a dimensionless constant, run off coefficient (roughly defined as ratio of runoff to
rainfall)
Rainfall intensity
Runoff coefficient
The proportion of rain which becomes run off depends on many factors: the topography, the
vegetation, the infiltration rate, the soil storage capacity, drainage pattern, and so on. It is at the
same time the virtue of the rational formula and its weakness that all these factors are combined
into single run off coefficient C.
b) Manning Formula
A practical formula to get good results from field observations is the Manning Formula. The run off
estimation is calculated from the river bed Characteristics;
2 1
1
v= R 3 S 2
n
Where v is the velocity of flow
n roughness coefficient specially known as Manning’s n
R is the hydraulic radius= A/P
S is the slope of the drainage
Q=VA
Where Q is the rate of flow in m3/s
A cross sectional area of the river/ drainage/ stream, m2

8.7.6 Hydraulic Element Design

a) Spillway Section
The spillway section is formed by lifting the dam wings to guide the flowing water in a defined way
and to fix the place where the water should fall. The spillway section must be designed big enough
accommodate the peak runoff including the bed load. It is necessary to design a secure height of
0.3 m to 1.0 m and an inclined crown shoulder.

The spillway section can be designed by using the following formula:

Rectangular Notch: Francis’s Formula –
Q =1.84*Bsp*Hsp1.5
 Where Q=Peak runoff in cumecs
Bsp= Length of the notch in meters
Hsp= Height of notch in meters
q = specific runoff = Q/ Bsp cumec /meter
Breadth of spillway section varies according to the breadth of the river bed, and shall be designed
in such a way that stilling basin is formed without endangering the banks. The symmetrical
spillway sections have different forms, such as circle segment, a trapezium, a trapezium with
rounded edges, rectangle or a triangle.

b) Foundation Depth
The foundations are given to a check dam to anchor it in the ground for its stability so that it does
not give away or over turn when the runoff or peak flows occur and the dam is silted up. The
following considerations need to be taken while designing and construction the foundation of a
check dam:
i. The depth of foundation must be taken below the scour level;
ii. In the erodible strata if Ds is the anticipated maximum depth of scour below the designed
highest flood level including that on account of possible concentrations of flow, the
minimum depth of foundation below the highest flood level should be taken as 1.33 * Ds;
iii. The scour depth is not to be taken from the present bed level but from one to be expected
in the future after siltation of the lower check dam and after the establishment of new bed
gradient due to the reduced bed load after the erosion control;
iv. Take a 1.0 m foundation as a rule of thumb.

c) Scour Holes
Scour occurs when the bed velocity of the stream exceeds the velocity, which can move the
particles of the bed material. Velocity varies with the gradient, the hydraulic depth and the
characteristics of the bed and the banks. When the velocity is retarded, silt is dropped; and when
the velocity is increased, silt is picked up. Scour is worse when the flow is falling. It depends more
on the water depth than on the gradient. A stream or river has to adjust its velocity to what its bed
and banks can stand by changing its section.

Figure 8-3 : Scour depth in check dam (B.Hiller, 1979)

Where, Bsp =breadth of spillway

Hsp= height of spillway, H= height of energy line, Hcr= critical height, Q= runoff, q= specific
run off, h= fall height of check dam, hw= water cushion height, hs= scour water depth, hsh=
scour hole depth, ls= scour hole length, hf= height of foundation, d95= grain diameter which
divides bed material in a way that 95 % is smaller than d 95, bsh = breadth of scour hole, tf=
foundation thickness
The scouring action of the current is not uniform and it is all along the bed width; and scouring is
deeper at the obstructions and also at bends than normal. Therefore, the maximum scour depth
has to be determined.
Scour Depth Estimation
Normal scour depth is calculated using Schocklitch’s Formula:
Scour Depth, DS = (4.75 * h0.2 *q0.57) /dm 0.35
Where, DS= Scour depth in meter below water level;
h = water level difference in meter above and below the check dam,
q = run off in cubic meters /meter width in the spillway;
dm= Grain diameter in mm which divides bed material in a way that 90 % is smaller than dm
Breadth of scour hole is calculated as:
Breadth of Scour Hole or Apron = 1.5 * Length of the Notch
Length of scour hole is calculated as:
Length of Scour Hole or the Apron = 4*(0.467 * q2/3)1.5 * h0.5
d) Side Foundations
Giving side foundations of a check dam into the gully side slopes prevents the destructive flows of
water around the dam and consequent scouring of the banks. Keying a check dam into the side
slopes and bottom of the gully greatly enhances the stability of the structure, which is important
where expected peak flow is large, and soils are highly erosive.
 e) Apron
Apron must be installed on the gully bottom and protective works on the gully side slopes below
the check dam, otherwise flows may undercut the structure from downstream and destroy it. The
apron should be roughly level on its surface and go down about 0.3 m below the original bottom
elevation (Burchard H. Heede, 1976).

8.8 Strain Cases for Check Dam

The forces on the check dams changes with the course of the time. The forces on the check dam
just after the construction is different with check dam after the complete aggregation (refillment).
The various forces that are exerted on the check dam are as follows;

i. Water pressure from upstream

ii. Water load
iii. Water pressure from downstream
iv. Uplift Pressure
v. Soil Pressure
vi. Total load of water and soil pressure
All the main (Force Cases) strain cases are shown in a simplified way.
Strain Case 1: First stage or Before Refillment
In the first stage, the check dam is not yet refilled, the full hydrostatic water pressure acts during
high water

Figure 8-4 : Strain Case 1 (Before Refillment)

Strain case 2:
Immediately after the gradual refilling
The reduced water pressure due to seepage and the active soil pressure act on the upstream
check dam side.
Figure 8-5 : Strain Case 2 immediately after refilling

Strain case 3:
Refilling is not gradual, but is caused by a mud flow which strains the dam by a bump

Figure 8-6 : Bump through mudflow

Strain case 4
It is assumed that the new river bed is completely aggraded and sole and banks are intact.

Figure 8-7 : After the complete aggradation

Strain case 5 Disaster case

It is assumed that the full water pressure acts on the wings and the active soil pressure on the
actual dam body. The banks downstream of the check dam slide down owing to the deep scour
hole, and therefore counter pressure derives only from friction.
Figure 8-8: After the complete aggradation of the new riverbed, sole and banks slide away

8.9 Static and Soil Mechanical Calculation

For the design of check dams, generally following force conditions are relevant

1. Static Analysis
Normal case (Strain Cases 1 and 2)
On the check dam the following forces act
Horizontally – From Upstream
The full hydrostatic water pressure
From downstream
The resistance of the sole and banks
Vertically – the check dam’s own weight
Mudflow Strain (Strain Case 3)
The check dam must resist the following strains
Horizontally- From Upstream
The water pressure on the shoulder
The active soil pressure on the body
From down stream
The total resistance of the sole and banks
Vertically – the own height of the check dam
Disaster Case (Strain Case 5)
Horizontally- From Upstream
The plain water pressure on the shoulder
The active soil pressure on the body
From downstream
The friction between the banks and the dam( without the soil resistance of the
banks
Vertically – Check dam’s own weight
2. Stability Check of a Check dam
i. Safety against overturning;
FSoverturning =
∑ M R ≥1.2
∑ Mo
Where,
Σ MO=sum of the moments of forces tending to overturn about point
Σ MR=sum of the moments of forces tending to resist overturning about point
Forces creating overturning moments are
 The upstream water pressure
 The soil pressure of the fill material
 Eventually the mud flow strain
 Uplift
Forces creating stabilizing moments are
 The check dam’s own weight
 The total resistance of the sole and banks against the check dam (soil resistance
and friction) in the disaster case this is only friction
ii. Safety against sliding; and

FS sliding=
∑ F R ≥ 1.2
∑ Fd
Where
Σ FR = sum of the horizontal resisting forces
Σ Fd = sum of the horizontal driving forces
Driving forces are:
 The upstream water pressure
 The soil pressure of the fill material
 Eventually the strains of a mudflow
 Eventually the uplift
 Resisting forces are
 The total resistance of the banks and the sole against the check dam.
 The check dams can be made secure from sliding by strengthening with deep
foundation in the sole and in the banks.
iii. Safety against the bearing pressure on the foundation soil.
qu
FSbearing capacity = ≥1.2
qmax

Where, qu= ultimate bearing capacity

qmax = maximum pressure on footing
8.10 Stabilization of Gully head
Gulley is a large ditch or valley created by running water, eroding sharply into soil, typically on
a hillside.  Gullies usually originate from concentration of flowing water on the soil surface and are
almost always due to man's activities. They can start from livestock trails in overgrazed pastures,
faulty drainage from roads, neglected rills and furrows in farm lands, lodging trails, clogged
drainage canals. Gully erosion is very destructive.

Gulley formation is hastened by heavy rainfall, when large quantities of runoff attain a high velocity
and increased erosive power.

Development of a gully

A gully develops in three distinct stages; waterfall erosion; channel erosion along the gully bed;
and landslide erosion on gully banks.

Figure 8-9: Gully head advancement.

Gully control/stabilization

In gully control/stabilization, the following three methods must be applied according to the order
given:

i. Improvement of gully catchments to reduce and regulate the run-off rates (peak flows);
ii. Stabilization of the gulley head to prevent the gully from “eating backward”
iii. Safe conduct of water through the gully, if it is part of the natural drainage system;
iv. Stabilization of gullies by structural measures and accompanying vegetation.

i. Stabilization of gully head

If the gully does not belong to the natural drainage system and stabilization is attempted by
planting only. The run off entering the gully head has to be intercepted by a diversion canal. This
canal is dug above the gully head at a distance of once or twice the depth of the gully. It should
have a trapezoidal cross section and must be designed wide enough to conduct maximum rainfall.
Precautions must be taken that not a new gully develops from the diversion canal.

Where the gullies are part of the natural drainage system, sometimes only temporary diversion
canals are dug. In this case the gully head is stabilized in a way that the gully cannot enlarge by
waterfall erosion anymore when water enters.

To stop the gully from eating back, the gradient of the gully head is first reduced to about 45 0. The
surface of the gully head is then stabilized by any of the following methods

 A brush cover well anchored to the ground is the most recommendable vegetative method
 Figure 8-10: Stabilization of Gully head by brush cover

 Sodding may be possible in grass land, where sods are available. The sods must be
nailed to the surface.
 Riprap interplanted with cuttings is also a very recommendable method to stabilize a
gully head. The layout of the rip rap should be concave to concentrate the water in the
middle. An apron at the bottom is essential to prevent scouring

 Pole structure: In the absence of stones also a pole structure can be employed for the
gully head. It should be laid out in V shaped to concentrate the water in the center. An
apron must be constructed below and a canal above at the intake.
  Solid structures for gully head stabilization can be made of riprap, gabions, masonry or
concrete. The construction can be in the form of an arch as shown. If it is necessary to
concentrate the runoff above the gully head, there should be wing walls of earth or riprap.
The flow is conducted through a water spill or notch and falls down to the bottom of the
gully bed, which is protected by an apron

8.11 Scouring Problem

Scour refers to lowering of bed level locally, generally caused by the energy of the falling water
and bed load. The energy is destroyed in the scour hole or on the apron. If the check dams are not
based on rock, big scour holes will be created. The closer the distance between the front wall and
the water stream, the more the front wall is endangered. This distance can be increased with
noses or with consoles. Especially in gravity structures, where the body is based on the
foundation, this foundation is in danger of collapsing. So the front wall must be constructed in such
a way that it can resist the scouring forces.

Measures to reduce the scouring problem

 By providing an apron
Aprons are protective layers installed on the gully bottom so that the energy of falling water
can be dissipated and prevent the structures from undercut. The materials for the apron
can be gabion mattresses, concrete floor, plum concrete etc.
The length of the apron varies from 1.5 to 1.75 of height of the check dam.
 By providing a small ground weir, a stilling basin can be made, where the energy of the
falling water is destroyed in the water cushion caused by the energy of the falling water
 Bank protection
Check dams may be destroyed if flowing water scour the gully side slopes below the
structures and produce a gap between the dam and the bank. Since water below a check
dam is turbulent, eddies develop that flow upstream along each gully side slope. These
eddies are the cutting forces. Materials like loose rock apron, gabion mattress are effective

8.12 Foundation
The foundation of gravity check dams shall be well based in the sole and in the banks. The
foundation must reach firm rock or gravel and should not be based on soil or weathered rock. With
the excavation all dead rock, soil and nonhomogeneous material (like timber remains) must be
removed. Never base structures on a slanting excavation hole. The sole for the foundation must
be level. All obstacles must be taken out and big stones or rock must be removed. Even the
foundation in the banks must be level. Build terraces with a minimum length of 30 cm.

Take a 1.0 m foundation in the sole and 0.5m in the banks as a rule of thumb.
The foundation must be deeper than the scour hole. Take a secure height of 50 cm for the
foundation (deeper than the deepest point of the scour hole).

8.13 Maintenance
Maintenance of structures and the care of plantations and vegetative methods of slope
stabilization are very important. Structures which are not maintained can have disastrous
consequences for people staying downstream by possible destruction through floods.

These tasks have the aim

 To guarantee the longest life span,

 To discover and to repair new damages in slopes and torrents as soon as possible,
 To discover in sufficiently protected areas, those which need supplementary work.
Normally maintenance and care consist of:-
a) Inspections
A checkup must be done before and after the monsoon. Basically all structures, watercourses
(sole and bank erosion, obstacles etc.) and slope protections must be checked.
b) Care of plantations, drain system and watercourses
This consists of:
Drainage: to clean out ditches, remove weeds, and to repair ditches
Slopes: where necessary grass cutting, restoration of grass cover, cutting of the bushes to mend
and to supplement afforestation, to check newly formed rills, gullies and slides with brush wood
check dams and with other vegetative methods of slope stabilization
Water courses: To clean the water courses from deposits, especially from floating wood, big
stones, weeds etc. erosion trends must be recognized and controlled immediately. Changes of
water courses must be monitored and controlled.
c) Repair work
This concerns especially structures in masonry, wood and vegetative methods of slope
stabilization.
Retaining Walls: All kind of retaining walls as well as check dams and embankments have to be
checked for condition of the foundations, pressure indications, settlement, degree of derangement,
functioning of drains, damage due to rotting, hitting and abrasion etc.
Check dams: have to be checked additionally for the condition of the spillway section, scouring
damage above and below the structure, bank foundations condition of the apron and the scouring
basin, scouring activities in the banks etc.
With all these structures every damaged part has to be changed or patched up. Scouring damage
must be repaired by setting a better protection (big stones, masonry, gabions etc). Often it is not
possible to repair rotting check dams. They have to be exchanged by removing the old one or by
constructing a new one in front of the old one. A replacement is normally built in concrete. Their
replacement of whole check dams does not belong to the annual maintenance.
d) Supplementary work
Normally it is not possible to be completely successful at the first attempt. Especially in new
constructions and young plantations, damage often exceeds routine maintenance. New bank
protections are necessary, drains must be extended, new retaining structures are necessary. For
that purpose special budgets with higher amounts are needed in the first few years in contrast of
normal routine maintenance.