Male Reproductive System

 The male reproductive system contains the external genitals (the penis, testes
and the scrotum) and internal parts, including the prostate gland, vas deferens
and urethra. A man's fertility and sexual traits depend on the normal functioning
of the male reproductive system, as well as hormones released from the brain.

Organs and Functions

 The male reproductive system is responsible for reproduction. It is made of the
following parts:

 Penis — the

which can fill with blood to cause an erection. It contains the urethra, which
carries both urine and semen.
 Scrotum — this is a loose bag of skin that hangs outside the body, behind the
penis. It holds the testes in place.
 Testes (or testicles) — these are a pair of egg-shaped glands that sit in the
scrotum, on the outside of the body. They produce sperm and testosterone,
which is the male sex hormone.
 Epididymis — this is a highly coiled tube that lies at the back of the testes. All
sperm from the testes must pass through the epididymis, where they mature and
start to ‘swim’.
 Vas deferens — this is a thick-walled tube joined to the epididymis. It carries
sperm from the epididymis up to the prostate gland and urethra.
 Prostate gland — this is a walnut-sized gland that sits in the middle of the
pelvis. The urethra runs through the middle of it. It produces the fluid secretions
that support and nourish the sperm.
 Urethra — this is a tube that extends from the bladder to the external opening at
the end of the penis. The urethra carries both urine and sperm.
 Seminal vesicles — these are 2 small glands above the prostate gland that
make up much of the fluid in semen.

What can go wrong?

As with any other part of the human body, things can sometimes go wrong with the
male reproductive system, including:

 infertility
 difficulty urinating
 prostate disease
 impotence, which is the inability to get a satisfactory erection
 loss of libido, or sex drive
 hormone deficiency
 testicular cancer

If you notice any symptoms or problems, it is important to see your doctor quickly.
Early treatment can avoid serious long-term problems.

jFemale Reproductive System

 The female reproductive system is involved in sexual activity and fertility, and
includes organs such as the uterus (womb), ovaries, fallopian tubes and vagina,
as well as hormones.

Anatomy and functions

 The female reproductive system includes:

 2 ovaries — female hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) are produced in

the ovaries, and eggs are stored here to mature and be released in ovulation.
 Fallopian tubes — these are 2 thin tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus,
allowing the egg to be transported.
 Uterus (womb) — if pregnancy occurs, the fertilised egg will implant in the
uterus and grow into a foetus and then a baby here.
 Cervix — this is the lower part of the uterus that connects it to the vagina.
 Vagina — this is a muscular tube connecting the cervix to the outside of the
body.

How does the menstrual cycle work?

On average, girls in Western countries start menstruating around 12 to 13 years, but
girls can have their first period as early as 9 years of age and as late as 16 years.
The menstrual cycle usually occurs monthly — a 28-day cycle is average.
Each cycle prepares a woman for a possible pregnancy. Ovulation releases an egg
from the ovary, and the endometrium (internal lining of the uterus) grows to nurture
the egg if it is fertilised.
If the egg isn't fertilised, the lining (mostly blood) separates from the uterus and
leaves the body from the vagina as a period (the menstrual flow).
Menopause refers to a when a woman's stops having her period. This usually
happens between the ages of 45 and 55 years — the average age of menopause for
women in Western countries is 51 to 52 years.

What can go wrong?

Conditions that involve the female reproductive system include:

 premenstrual syndrome
 endometriosis
 polycystic ovary syndrome
 fibroids (non-cancerous growths of the uterus)
 cancer

When to see your doctor

Symptoms related to your periods vary depending on the condition and may include:

 mood swings, irritability or depression

 headaches
 bloating
 breast tenderness

See your doctor if you have the following symptoms:

 pain in your lower abdomen, upper thighs or back

 painful, heavy or irregular periods, or no periods at all
 periods that last more than 8 days or are more than 2 to 3 months apart
 pain during or after sex
 infertility
 bowel problems (such as constipation, diarrhoea)
 bleeding between periods
 bleeding after intercourse

Each woman experiences her menstrual cycle differently, most without any
difficulties. If there is any change in your cycle that worries you, see your doctor.

Stages of Puberty
 Puberty: It's Not One
Size Fits All
Puberty's changes start when the brain
triggers the production of sex
hormones. Although physical changes
follow a predictable pattern, every
child develops at their own pace.
Puberty usually begins for girls
before boys. For most girls, puberty
begins around age 11. For boys,
puberty starts from 10 to 14. The
average age is 12.

Budding Breasts Can

Signal Puberty
Breast growth is usually the first sign of
puberty girls will notice. First, small
lumps form behind the nipples. They can
be sore, but the pain goes away as breasts
grow and change shape over the next few
years. As they grow, it’s not unusual for
one breast to develop more slowly than
the other, but they will even out in
time. Boys also may have some swelling
on their chest but it tends to go away
within a year or two.

Boys: Genital Changes

The first sign of puberty in boys is subtle
-- an increase in testicle size. About a year
later, the penis and scrotum start to grow.
Semen can be released during an erection
when they are awake or when they are
asleep.
Hair Growth in Puberty
After breasts and testicles start
growing, body hair will start to grow in
and become thicker. For both boys and
girls, new hair will start growing in the
armpits and pubic area around the
genitals. Arm and leg hair gets thicker.
Boys also may start developing chest
and facial hair.

Acne: An Early Sign of

Puberty
Mild acne may be normal in early
puberty. Puberty's high hormone levels
can trigger acne outbreaks. During
puberty, the oil glands are more active
and your child will probably sweat
more. Keeping the face and body clean
can help, but if acne is a concern, talk to
a doctor. Medications may help.

Later Stages of Puberty

for Girls
About a year after puberty begins, girls
have a growth spurt. A girl will get taller
and start to get wider hips and fuller
breasts. Some curve-related fat will appear
on their stomach, buttocks, and legs. Girls
usually reach adult height by their mid- to
late teens.
 Growth Spurts: From Boys
to Men
The peak growth spurt for boys happens later
than it does for girls. It occurs around six
months after pubic hair development. When
it does, your son's shoulders will become
fuller and broader, and they'll grow taller,
too. Their face shape will look less round and
more adult-like. Depending on when puberty
starts, they may not reach their adult height
until their late teens or even early 20s.

The First Period:

Puberty's Ending
A girl usually gets their first period
between 10 and 16 years old (about 2 to
2 1/2 years after they start puberty.)
Menstruation is a sign that they're
physically an adult and able to get
pregnant. You may want to talk to your
doctor if your daughter doesn’t get their
first period by the time they're 16.

Growing Up Too Fast:

Early Puberty
Some kids become sexually mature at a
very early age. Early or precocious
puberty is when a child reaches a
physical or hormonal milestone
-- breast, testes, or pubic hair growth --
before age 6 to 8 in girls or 9 in boys.
Early puberty is linked with obesity in
girls. Early puberty rarely is due to
hormone exposure or a problem with
the thyroid, ovaries, or brain. Talk to
your doctor if you're concerned.
 Puberty Causes Cracking,
Deeper Voices
Toward the end of puberty, your son's
voice may start cracking. This is normal,
and will stop after a few months. When it
does, their voice will sound deeper. Voice
changes are caused by testosterone, a
hormone released in boys during puberty. It
causes the vocal cords to get thicker and
longer and their larynx to grow bigger. This
is their "Adam’s apple."

When To Call The Doctor

Keep track of your child's bodily changes in a
way that respects their desire for privacy.
Call the doctor if:

 Puberty signs appear in a girl before

age 6-8 or in a boy before age 9
 Puberty changes aren't seen in a girl by
age 13 or in a boy by age 14
 Puberty changes do not follow the
typical pattern of development

Plant Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction requires genetic material (DNADNA) from two parents. The parent
plants have male and female sex cells, called gametes. The genetic material from the male
and female gametes combines to produce offspring. We call this process fertilization. The
product of sexual reproduction are seeds.

Seeds produced through fertilization contain genetic material from both parents. As a result,
the offspring are not genetically identical to either of the parent plants. This  genetic
diversity can help them survive if the environment changes.

Flowering plants reproduce sexually through a process called pollination. Flowers contain

male sex organs called stamens and female sex organs called pistils. The anther is the part
of the stamen that contains pollen. Pollen contains the male gametes. Pollen must be moved
to a part of the pistil called the stigma for reproduction to take place . 

The outermost parts of the

flower are green structures
called sepals. They protect the
flower before it opens. Inside
the sepals are the petals. These
are usually colourful. Petals on
flowers are actually modified
leaves. Within the petals are
the stamens. Each stamen
contains a filament topped by
pollen-producing cells. The
innermost part of the flower is
the carpel. The carpel
contains the ovary. This is
where the eggs, or ovules, are
located. The pollen from
another flower must enter the
ovary and fertilize an ovule in
order for a seed to start
developing.

Sometimes plants pollinate themselves. Other times plants pollinate other plants.

Self-pollination happens when a plant’s own pollen fertilizes its own ovules. Cross-

pollination happens when the wind or animals move pollen from one plant to another. The
advantage of cross-pollination is that it helps keep a species genetically diverse. Genetic
diversity comes in handy when conditions change and organisms need to adapt to the
change. Some plants have features that actually prevent self-pollination. This includes
things such as pollen and ovules that develop at different times.

Pollinators are animals that carry pollen between plants. Many pollinators are insects, like
bees, butterflies, moths and beetles. Some birds, including hummingbirds, also play a part.
Likewise, certain mammals, like bats and rodents, move pollen between plants. The colours
and smells of flowers often attract pollinators. Pollen will stick to a pollinator’s body as it
feeds on the flower’s nectarnectar. 

Fertilization is the next step after pollination. During fertilization, the male gametes from
the pollen join with the female gametes in the egg. The egg, or eggs, are found inside the
stigma. The scientific word for an egg is an ovuleovule.
Fertilization creates fruit that contain seeds. Some fruits are fleshy, like oranges and
watermelons. Others are dry, like acorns or walnuts. Fruits are an attractive food for various
animals. After eating fruit, animals expel waste that contains seeds. This way, seeds can
take root and grow in places far from the plants that produced them!

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction only requires DNA from one parent. It creates offspring that are
genetically identical to the parent. Genetically identical offspring are called  clones. Clones
lack genetic diversity. This makes them less able to fight disease. It also makes them less
adaptable to changes in the environment. 

There are different methods of asexual reproduction. They include vegetative propagation
and fragmentation.

Vegetative propagation does not need seeds or spores. Instead, offspring grow from a part
of the parent plant. In different plants, vegetative propagation happens in different ways.
Here are a few examples.

 Garlic, onions and tulip plants all reproduce using true bulbs. These short
underground stems are also called scaly bulbs. They have a base that is usually
surrounded by modified leaves. These leaves form a papery covering called a tunic.
New bulbs grow off of the parent bulb’s base.
 Crocuses reproduce using corms, which are similar to true bulbs. However, a corm
doesn’t have as many layers. Corms are used up during the growing season and get
replaced by one or more new corms. 
 Potato plants reproduce using tubers. Tubers produce new plants from stems or
growing points called eyes.
 Ginger plants reproduce using rhizomes. These are stems that grow sideways along
the soil or just below the surface. They branch out to produce new points of growth.
 Strawberry plants reproduce using stolons. They look like branches growing along
the ground. Stolons anchor themselves to the ground and develop roots. The roots
grow into new plants.

Fragmentation is another form of asexual reproduction. It involves new plants growing

from small parts of a parent plant that fall to the ground. This is one of the ways that plants
like liverworts and mosses reproduce.

Horticulturists are people who study plants. They often use asexual reproduction through
fragmentation to grow new plants. They do this by cutting a leaf or a stem off a plant and
placing it in water or soil. This process is often called propagating from cuttings.