1

GENERAL GUDELINES FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

I. The following areas (some may not be applicable to some parameters) are to
be discussed in the folders:
1. Aim
2. Principle
3. Sources and general theory
4. Standards for drinking water (as per BIS)
5. Removal methodologies
6. Equations of the titration
7. Formulae used in the calculation and explanation for the salient features of them
8. Procedure
9. Environmental Engineering Significance
10. Results and Comments on the results
11. Graphs
12. Questions and Answers
13. Observation Table
14. Calculations

It is customary to have 1 – 12 items on right hand side of the folder while the last
two on the left hand side
II. As far as possible, hand writing should be legible with neat presentation of figures and
tables.
III. Graphs should be clear. Scale used for drawing the graphs should be mentioned on
the graph itself clearly. The points marked for drawing graphs should be clear and
distinct from one another.
IV. All the observations and calculations should be carried in ink only and NOT with
pencil.
V. For every class (after the first one), folder of the previous class, observation book (in
ready condition with Observation and Calculation Tables for the day’s experiment),
calculator are must. Also, students would be asked some questions regarding the
procedure of the day’s experiment and one would be allowed to do the experiment only
if faculty are satisfied with the answers.
VI. Titrations should be carried till one gets two concurrent values (may or may not be
consecutively concurrent) and that value only should be taken into the consideration.
Hence, theoretically 2 is minimum and ∞ (may be 5 – 7) is the maximum number of
readings one should take.
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Please verify and see that you are having the following items in your work space
corresponding to your respective experiment.
Sl.
No. Experiment Reagents Apparatus(Purpose)
1 Acidity N/50 NaOH
Methyl Orange Burette(Titration)
Phenolphthalein 25 ml Measuring cylinder(sampling)
2 Alkalinity N/50 H2SO4 100 ml Beaker (Reagent for Burette)
Phenolphthalein Conical Flasks – 2 ( Titration)
Methyl Orange Funnel (Taking reagent into burette)
3 Chlorides N/71 AgNO3
K2CrO4
N/71 NaOH

N/71 H2So4
4 Hardness Ammonia Buffer Burette(Titration)
0.01M EDTA 25 ml Measuring cylinder(sampling)
Eriochrome Black T indicator 100 ml Beaker (Reagent for Burette)
NaOH 2N Conical Flasks – 2 ( Titration)
Funnel (Taking reagent into burette)
Spoon (E B T)
10 ml Pipette (Buffer)
5 D.O. MnSO4 BOD Bottles – 3 (sampling)
Alk.KI 200/500 ml Measuring Cylinder
Conc. H2SO4 (Volume determinations)
Starch 25 ml Pipette – 2 (fixing DO)
N/40 Na2S2O3 10 ml Pipette (Acid)
Wash Water Beaker(Cleaning)
Burette(Titration)
100 ml Beaker (Reagent for burette)
Funnel (Taking reagent into burette)
Conical flasks – 3 (Titration)
6 B.O.D. Phosphate buffer solution 5 litre flask
Magnesium sulphate solution 1 ml Pipette (Standards)
Calcium chloride solution BOD Bottles – 2 (for each sampling)
Ferric chloride solution Incubator
Sodium thiosulphate solution Burette(Titration)
Distilled water 100 ml Beaker (Reagent for burette)
Funnel (Taking reagent into burette)
Conical flasks – 3 (Titration)
7 C.O.D. N/60 N K2Cr2O7 COD Digester
2Fe(SO4)2(NH4)6H2O 10ml Vial with cap
Conc. H2SO4 Conical flask – 1 (Titration)
Organics free water Burette(Titration)
Organic matter 100 ml Beaker (Reagent for burette)
Ferroin indicator Funnel (Taking reagent into burette)
5ml pipette
8 Fluorides 100 ppm stock solution 10 ml Pipette (Standards)
SPADNS solution 5 ml Pipette - 2 (1 – Standards and 1 –
Reference solution reagent)
Distilled Water 1 ml Pipette (Standards)
 3
Beakers – 5 or more (standards and samples)
Spectrophotometer (Analysis)
9 Electrical Conductivity KCI 0.1N. Conductivity meter with measuring cell
Beaker
Thermometer.
10 Turbidity Hydrazine sulphate solution Nephelometric turbidmeter
Hexamethylene teramine solution
Sample tubes
11 Total Solids Evaporating dishes(Pyrex, porcelain or platinum
Oven
Desiccator
Water bath.
12 Total Dissolved Solids Evaporating dishes
Oven
Desiccator
Whatman filter paper No. 44
Water bath.
13 Total Fixed and Evaporating dish
Volatile Solids Oven 1030C
Muffle furnace 6000c
Desiccator
Water bath.
14 Total Settleable Solids Imhoff cone
Holding device
15 Total Suspended Solids Gooch crucible/glass fibre filter
Suction apparatus
Desiccator
16 Sulphates Hydroxylamine chloride Filter paper
Benzidine hydrochloride Beaker
NaOH(0.05N) Hot pan
Phenolpthalein indicator Burette
Pipettes
17 Residual Chlorine Orthotolidine reagent Chloroscope
18 Break Point Chlorination Six beakers of 1 litre capacity each
Stirrer
Chloroscope
19 Jar Test Alum solution (Synthetic coagulant)
Jar test apparatus
Nirmali solution(natural coagulant)
Beakers – 6
Pipette _1
Turbidity meter
PH meter
20 Available Chlorine Concentrated acetic acid Conical flask
Potassium iodide crystals Burette
Sodium thiosulphate 0.025 N Pipette
Starch Indicator
 4

ACIDITY
OCCURRENCE AND TYPES
Most natural waters, domestic sewage and many industrial wastes are buffered
principally by a carbon dioxide – bicarbonate system. It is customary to consider that all
waters having pH lower that 8.5 contain acidity. The acidity of natural waters is caused by
carbon dioxide or by strong mineral acids, the former being the effective agent in waters
having pH values greater than 4.5 and the latter the effective agent in waters with pH
values less than 4.5.
Carbon dioxide is a normal component of all natural waters. It may enter surface
waters by absorption from the atmosphere, but only when the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in the water is less than the partial pressure of the carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, in accordance with Henry’s law. Carbon dioxide may also be produced in
waters through biological oxidation of organic matter, particularly in polluted water. In such
cases, if photosynthetic activity is limited, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the water
may exceed that of the atmosphere and carbon dioxide will escape from liquid. Thus it may
be concluded that surface waters are constantly absorbing or giving up carbon dioxide to
maintain equilibrium with the atmosphere. The amount the can exist at equilibrium is very
small because of the low partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Ground waters and waters form the of stratified lakes and reservoir often contain
considerable amount of carbon dioxide. This concentration results from bacterial oxidation
of organic matter with which the water has been in contact and under the conditions, the
carbon dioxide is not free to escape to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is an end product
of both aerobic and anaerobic bacterial oxidation; therefore its concentration is not limited
buy the amount of dissolved oxygen originally present. It is not uncommon to encounter
ground water with 30 to 50 mg/l of carbon dioxide. This is particularly true of waters that
have percolated through soils that do not contain enough calcium or magnesium carbonate
to neutralize the carbon dioxide through formation of bicarbonates.
Mineral acidity is present in many industrial wastes, particularly those of the
metallurgical industry and some from the production of synthetic organic materials. Certain
natural waters may also contain mineral acidity. The drainage from abandoned mines, lean
ore dumps will contain significant amounts of sulphuric acid or salts of sulphuric acid if
sulphur, sulphides, or iron pyrites are present. Conversion of these materials to sulphuric
acid and sulphates is brought about b sulphur – oxidizing bacteria under aerobic
conditions.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND MINERAL ACIDITY

Acidity if of little concern from a sanitary or public health viewpoint. Carbon dioxide
is present in malt and carbonated beverages in concentrations greatly in excess of any
concentrations known in natural waters, and no deleterious effects due to the carbon
dioxide have been recognized. Eaters that contain mineral acidity are so unpalatable that
problems related to human consumption are nonexistent.
Acid waters are of concern because of their corrosive characteristics and the
expense involved in removing or controlling the corrosion – producing substances. The
corrosive factor in most waters is carbon dioxide, but in many industrial wastes it is mineral
acidity. Carbon dioxide must be reckoned with in water softening problems were the lime or
lime – soda ash method is employed.
Where biological processes of treatment are used, the pH must ordinarily be
maintained within the range of 6 to 9.5. This criterion often requires adjustment of pH to
 5
favourable levels and calculation of the amount of chemicals needed is based
upon acidity values in most cases.

APPLICATIONS OF ACIDITY DATA

Carbon dioxide determinations are particularly important in the field of public water
supplies. In the development of new supplies, it is an important factor that must be
considered in the treatment method and the facilities needed. Manu underground supplies
require treatment to overcome corrosive characteristics resulting from carbon dioxide. The
amount present is an important factor in determining whether removal by aeration or simple
neutralization with lime or sodium hydroxide will be chosen as the treatment method. The
size of equipment, chemical requirements, storage space and cost of treatment all depend
upon amounts of carbon dioxide present. Carbon dioxide is an important consideration in
estimating chemical requirements for lime or lime – soda ash softening.
Most industrial wastes containing mineral acidity must be neutralized before they
may be discharged to rivers or sewers or subjected to treatment of any kind. Quantities of
chemicals, size of chemicals feeders, storage space and costs are determined from
laboratory data on acidity.

REAGENTS

i. Methyl Orange Indicator

ii. Phenolphthalein Indicator
iii. N/50 Sodium Hydroxide solution

PROCEDURE

1. Place 25 ml. of water sample in a conical flask.

2. Add to it 2 - 3 drops of Methyl Orange Indicator. If it gives an organish red
colour it means mineral acidity is available. Titrate it with N/50 NaOH to
yellow end point otherwise mineral acidity is absent. (Go to step 4 in that
case)
3. Note the volume of N/50 NaOH solution used
4. In another flask place 25 ml. of water sample.
5. Add 2 – 3 drops of Phenolphthalein Indicator. If phenolphthalein gives a pink
colour on addition in the sample, acidity is not available. If it does not give
any colour, titrate with N/50 NaOH to a pink end point.
6. Note the volume of solution used.

OBSERVATIONS

Sl. No. Volume of Sample Burette Readings

(ml.) Initial Final ml. of Reagent used
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS
Mineral Acidity = V x1000 mg/l
VS
 6
CO2 Acidity = VR x1000 mg/l
VS
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

ALKALINITY
OCCURRENCE AND TYPES
The alkalinity of the water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids. The
alkalinity of natural waters is due primarily to the salts of weak acids, although weak or
strong bases may also contribute. Bicarbonates represent the major form of alkalinity,
since they are formed in considerable amounts from the action of carbon dioxide upon
basic materials in the soil. Other salts of weak acids, such as borates, silicates and
phosphates, may be present in small amounts. A few organic acids that are quite resistant
to biological oxidation – for example, humic acid – form salts that add to alkalinity of natural
waters. In polluted or anaerobic waters, salts of weak acids such as acetic, propionic and
hydrosulphuric may be produced and would also contribute to alkalinity. In other cases,
ammonia or hydroxides may make a contribution to the total alkalinity of water.
Under certain conditions, ay contain appreciable amounts of carbonate and hydroxide
alkalinity. This condition is particularly true in surface waters where algae are flourishing.
The algae remove carbon dioxide, free and combined, from the water to such an extent
that pH values of 9 to 10 are often obtained. Boiler water always contain carbonate and
hydroxide alkalinity. Chemically treated waters, particularly those produced in lime or lime –
soda ash softening of water, contain carbonates and excess hydroxide.
Although many materials may contribute to the alkalinity of water, the major portion of
the alkalinity in natural water is caused by there major classes of materials which may be
ranked in order of their association with high pH value as follows: i) hydroxides, ii)
carbonates and iii) bicarbonates. For most practical purposes, alkalinity due to other
materials in natural waters is insignificant and may be ignored.
The alkalinity of waters is due principally to salts of weak acids and strong bases, and
such substances act as buffers to resist a drop in pH resulting from acid addition. Alkalinity
is thus a measure of the buffer capacity and in this used to a great extent in waste water
treatment practice.
PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF ALKALINITY
As far as is known, the alkalinity of water has little public health significance. Highly
alkaline waters are usually unpalatable and consumers tend to seek other supplies.
Chemically treated waters sometimes have rather high pH values which have met with
some objection on the part of consumers. For theses reasons, standards are sometimes
established on chemically treated waters.
APPLICATION OF ALKALINITY DATA
CHEMICAL COAGULATION
Chemicals used for coagulation of water and waste water react with water to form
insoluble hydroxide precipitates. The hydrogen ions released react with alkalinity of the
water. Thus the alkalinity acts to buffer the water in a pH range where the coagulant can be
effective. Alkalinity must be present in excess of that destroyed by the acid released by the
coagulant for effective and complete coagulation to occur.

WATER SOFTENING
 7
Alkalinity is a major item that must be considered in calculating the lime and
soda – ash requirements in softening of water by precipitation methods. The alkalinity of
softened water is a consideration in terms of whether such waters meet drinking water
standards.

CORROSION CONTROL
Alkalinity is an important parameter involved in corrosion control. It must be known in
order to calculate the Langelier saturation index in the corrosion studies.
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Many regulatory agencies prohibit the discharge of wastes containing caustic
(hydroxide) alkalinity to receiving waters. Municipal authorities usually prohibit the
discharge of wastes containing caustic alkalinity to sewers. Alkalinity as well as pH is an
important factor in determining the amenability of wastewater to biological treatment.

REAGENTS
i. Phenolphthalein Indicator
ii. Methyl Orange Indicator
iii. N/50 Sulphuric Acid

PROCEDURE
1. Take 25 ml. of water sample (Vs) in a conical flask.
2. Add 2 – 3 drops of Phenolphthalein Indicator. If no colour is produced, the
phenolphthalein alkalinity is absent (Go to step no.5).
3. If the sample turns pink, titrate with N/50 H2SO4 till the pink colour
disappears.
4. Record the ml. of acid used (designate as P1).
5. Add 2 – 3 drops of methyl orange to the titrated mixture to get yellow colour.
6. Continue titration with N/50 H2SO4 until the first appearance pink red is noted.
7. Record the ml. of acid used (designate as T1).

OBSERVATIONS
Sl. Volume of sample Burette Readings
No. (ml.) Initial Final ml. of Reagent used
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity = P1 x 1000 mg/l
Vs
Total Alkalinity = T1 x 1000 mg/l
Vs
Sl. No. If Alkalinity is due to
Bicarbonates Carbonates Hydroxides
1. P=0 T NIL NIL
2. P < (1/2) T T – 2P 2P NIL
3. P > (1/2) T NIL 2(T-P) 2P-T
4. P = (1/2/) T NIL T NIL
5. P=T NIL NIL T
 8

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

i. Alkalinity due to Bicarbonates = mg/l
ii. Alkalinity due to Carbonates = mg/l
iii. Alkalinity due to Hydroxides = mg/l
 9
CHOLORIDES

Chlorides occur in all natural waters in widely varying concentration. The chloride
content normally increases as the mineral content increases. Upland and mountain
supplies usually are quite low in chlorides, whereas river and ground waters usually have a
considerable amount. Sea and ocean waters represent the residues resulting from partial
evaporation of natural waters that flow into them, and chloride levels are very high.
Chlorides gain access to natural waters in many ways. The solvent power of water
dissolves chlorides from top soil and deeper formations. Spray from the ocean is carried
inland as droplets or as minute salt crystals, which result from evaporation of the water in
the droplets. These sources constantly replenish the chlorides in inland areas where they
fall. Ocean and sea waters invade the rivers that drain into them, particularly the deeper
rivers. The salt water, being more dense, flows upstream under the fresh water which is
flowing downstream. There is a constant intermixing of the salt water with the fresh water
above.
Human excreta, particularly the urine contain chloride in an amount about equal to the
chlorides consumed with food and water. This amount averages about 6g of chlorides per
person per day and increases the amount of CI in sewage about 15 mg/l above that of the
carriage water. Thus sewage effluents add considerable chlorides to receiving streams.
Many industrial wastes contain appreciable amounts of chlorides. Control of contamination
of surface waters by chlorides contained in industrial wastes is a major consideration and
in all areas where oil field brines and other salt brines is allowed to reach receiving
streams.

APPLICATION OF CHLORIDE DATA

In many areas the level of chlorides in natural waters is an important consideration in
the selection of supplies for human use. Where brackish waters must be used for domestic
purposes, the amount of chlorides present is an important factor in determining the type of
desalting apparatus to be used. The chloride determination is used to control pumping of
ground water from locations where intrusion of sea water is a problem.
In areas where the discharge of salt water brines and industrial wastes containing
high concentrations of chlorides must be controlled to safeguard receiving waters, the
chloride determination serves to excellent advantage for regulatory purposes.
Chlorides interfere in the determination of COD. A correction must be made on the
basis of the amounts present or else a complexing agent such as HgSO4 can be added.
Sodium chloride has a considerable history as a tracer. One of its principal
applications has been in tracing pollution of wells. It is admirably suited for such purposes
for five reasons.
a. Its presence is not detectable by eye.
b. It is a normal constituent of water and has no toxic effects.
c. The chloride ion is not adsorbed in amount by biological processes.
d. It is not altered or changed in amount by biological processes.
e. The chloride ion is easily measured.
It is to be expected that chlorides will continue in limited use as tracers where other
methods are not applicable.

REAGENTS
i. Potassium Chromate Indicator.
ii. N/71 Silver Nitrate Solution.
 1
iii. N/71 Sodium hydroxide Solution
iv. N/71 Sulphuric acid

PROCEDURE
1. Take 25 ml. of sample (VS) in a conical flask.
2. Adjust the pH between 7.0 and 8.0 either with sulphric acid or sodium
hydroxide solution. Otherwise, AgOH is formed at high pH level or CrO-24 is
converted into Cr2O-27 at low pH levels.
3. Add 2 -3 drops of Potassium Chromate Indicator.
4. Titrate with Standard N/71 Silver Nitrate solution till colour changes from
light yellow to brick red (or brown).
5. Note the amount of titrant used (RS).
6. Repeat the procedure with chloride free water and note the amount of titrant
used (RB).

OBSERVATIONS

Sl. No. Volume of sample Burette Readings

(ml.) Initial Final ml. of Reagent used
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS

Chlorides, mg/l = RS - RB X Normality of Ag NO3*35.46 X 1000

VS

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

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HARDNESS

CAUSE AND SOURCE OF HARDNESS

Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations. Such ions are capable of reacting
with soap to form precipitates and with certain anions present in the water to form scale.
The principal hardness causing cations are calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous iron
and, manganous ions. These cations, when associated with anions like carbonates,
bicarbonates, chlorides, nitrates,

PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE

Hard waters are as satisfactory for human consumption as soft waters. Because of their
adverse action with soap, however, their use for cleaning purpose is quite unsatisfactory,
unless soap costs are disregarded.
Amount Hardness (mg/l) Degree of Hardness
<75 Soft
75-150 Moderately Hard
150-300 Hard
>300 Very Hard

RELATION BETWEEN HARDNESS AND ALKALINITY

The part of the total hardness that is chemically equivalent to the bicarbonate
alkalinities present in the water is considered to be carbonate hardness or temporary
hardness. Since alkalinity and hardness are both expressed in terms of CaCO3, the
carbonate hardness can be found as follows:
i. When (Bicarbonate +Carbonate) Alkalinity is less than Total Hardness:
Carbonate (Temporary) Hardness = (Bicarbonate + Carbonate) Alkalinity
Permanent Hardness = Total Hardness – Carbonate Hardness
ii. When (Bicarbonate +Carbonate) Alkalinity is equal to Total Hardness:
Carbonate (Temporary) Hardness = Total Hardness
Permanent Hardness = Nil.
Carbonate Hardness is singled out for special recognition because the bicarbonate
and carbonate ions with which it is associated tend to precipitate this portion of the
hardness at elevated temperatures such as occur in boilers or during the softening process
with lime.

PSEUDO HARDNESS
Sea, brackish and other waters that contain appreciable amounts of Na interfere with
the normal behaviour of soap because of the common ion effect. Sodium is not a hardness
causing cation, and so this action which it exhibits when present in high concentration is
termed pseudo hardness.

APPLICATION OF HARDNESS DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Hardness of water is an important consideration in determining the suitability of a
sample for domestic and industrial uses. It is used as a basis for recommending the need
for softening processes. The relative amounts of calcium and magnesium hardness and of
carbonate and noncarbonated hardness present in water are factors in determining the
most economical type of softening process to use, and become important considerations in
design determinations of hardness serve as a basis for routine control of softening
processes.
REAGENTS
 1
i. Eriochrome Black T Indicator
ii. Ammonia Buffer
iii. Standard 0.01 M EDTA Solution

PROCEDURE
1. Take 25 ml. of sample (VS) in a conical flask.
2. Add 1 ml. of Ammonia Buffer solution and few crystals (a Pinch) of Erio-
chrome Black T Indicator.
3. Titrate with standard 0.01 M EDTA Solution till the colour changes from
wine red to blue.
4. Note the reading (VR).
5. Repeat the procedure by taking fresh sample and after boiling it.

OBSERVATIONS

Sl. No. Volume of sample Burette Readings

(ml.) Initial Final ml. of Reagent used
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS

Total hardness – Temporary hardness = Permanent hardness (mg/l)as CaCO3

HARDNESS = VR x1000 mg/l

VS

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

 1

DISSOLVED OXYGEN

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE

In liquid wastes, D.O. is the factor that determines whether the biological changes are
brought about by aerobic or be anaerobic organisms. The former use free oxygen for
oxidation of organic and inorganic matter and produce innocuous end products. Whereas
the latter bring about such oxidations through the reduction of certain inorganic salts such
as sulphates and the end products are often very obnoxious. Since both types of
organisms are ubiquitous in nature, it is highly important that conditions favourable to the
aerobic organisms (aerobic conditions) be maintained; otherwise the anaerobic organisms
will take over and development of nuisance conditions will result. Thus D.O. measurements
are vital for maintaining aerobic conditions in natural waters that receive polluted matter
and in aerobic treatment processes intended to purify domestic and industrial wastewaters.
Determinations of D.O. serve as the basis of the B.O.D. test; thus they are the
foundation of the most important determination used to evaluate the polluted strength of
domestic and industrial wastes.
Oxygen is a significant factor in the corrosion of iron and steel, particularly in water
distribution systems and in steam boilers. Removal of oxygen from boiler feed water by
physical and chemical means is common practice in the power industry. The D.O. test
serves as the means of control.

REAGENTS
i. Manganous Sulphate
ii. Alkaline Potassium Iodide
iii. N/40 Sodium Thiosulphate
iv. Conc. Sulphuric Acid
v. Starch Indicator

PROCEDURE
1. Find out the exact capacity of the bottle in ml.
2. Collect the sample in a narrow mouth flat stoppered through D.O. sampler to
avoid contact with air. The bottle should be completely filled.
3. Add 1.0 ml. of Manganous Sulphate solution by a 10/20ml. pipette, dipping the
end below the surface. Some water would overflow. Transfer back the
remaining Manganous Sulphate solution into its respective bottle without
dipping the pipette in to the solution and place the pipette in a glass of beaker
kept for washing.
4. Add 1.0 ml. of Alkaline Potassium Iodide solution also in the same manner by
using a separate 10/20 ml. pipette. Transfer back the remaining Alkaline
Potassium Iodide, solution into its respective bottle without dipping the pipette
in to the solution.
5. Place the pipettes in a glass of water kept for washing.
6. Insert the stopper and mix thoroughly (white precipitate indicates absence of
dissolved oxygen). Let the brown precipitate settle.
7. Add 2.0 ml. of H2So4 and mix thoroughly.
8. Take the calculated amount of decoction (VS = 201ml.) worked out as below:
 200 * 300 
   201 mL
 300  2 
 1
9. Titrate with N/40 Sodium Thiosulphate using Starch as indicator till
the blue colour disappears.
10. Note the ml. of titrant used (VR) and the room temperature.

OBSERVATIONS

Sl. No. Volume of sample Burette Readings

(ml.) Initial Final ml. of Reagent used
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS
However, in the present experiment, since the Normality of Na2S2O4 is 1/40 (and 1 ml.
of N/40 Sodium Thiosulphate = 1 mg/l of the sample), the ml. of the titrant used is
equivalent to mg/l of DO.

D.O. = VR X 1000 X 1 X8
VS 40

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

o
Dissolved Oxygen = mg/l @ C
 1

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (B.O.D.)

AIM:
To determine Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) exerted by the given waste water
sample.

PRINCIPLE:
The BOD is an empirical biological test. This BOD test may be considered as wet
oxidation procedure in which the living organisms serve as the medium for oxidation of the
organic matter to carbon-dioxide and water.
CnHaObNc +[n+a-b-3c]O2Bacteria nCO2 +[a-3c]H2O +cNH3
424 2 2
On the basis of the above relationship, it is possible to interpret BOD data in terms of
organicmatter as well as the amount of oxygen used during its oxidation.

INTERFERENCE:
An undesirable oxygen consumption via nitrification can be prevented by addition of 1
ml of an N-allyl thourea solution. Free chlorine, present in some waste waters after
chlorination reacts with organic components within about 2 hours and does not interfere.
Compounds which use up oxygen without the presence of micro-organisms (e.g. iron (ll),
sulphite of sulphide ions) are oxidized by leaving the orginal sample for 2 hours with
occasional shaking. Lack of nutrient in dilution water, lack of an acclimated seed organisms
and the presence of toxic substances can result in very low BOD values despite the
presence of sufficient degradable organic materials. In such cases, a series of
measurements should be carried out at greater dilutions.

REGENTS:
1. Distilled water
2. Phosphate buffer solution
3. Magnesium sulphate solution
4. Calcium chloride solution
5. Ferric chloride solution
6. Sodium thiosulphate solution.

PROCEDURE:
1. Place the desired volume of distilled water in a 5 litre flask. Aeration is done by
bubbling compressed air through water.
2. Add 1 ml of phosphate buffer, 1 ml of magnesium sulphate solution, 1 ml of
calcium chloride solution and 1 ml of ferric chloride solution for every litre of
distilled water (dilution water).
3. In the case of the waste waters which are not expected to have sufficient bacterial
population, add seed to the dilution water. Generally, 2 ml of settled sewage is
sufficient for 1000 ml of dilution water.
4. Highly acidic or alkaline samples are to be neutralized to a pH of 7.
5. Add 2 or 3 ml of sodium thiosulphate solution to destroy residual chlorine if any.
6. Take the sample as follows:
Strong wastes: 0.1, 0.5 or 1%
 1
Settle domestic sewage: 1, 2.5 or 5%
Treated effluents: 5, 12.5 or 25%
River water 25% to 100%
7. Dilution the sample with the distilled water and mix the contents well.
8. Take diluted sample into 2 BOD bottles.
9. Fill another two BOD bottles with diluted (distilled) diluted water (distilled water).
10. Immediately find D.O. of a diluted waste water and diluted water (distilled water).
11. Incubate the other two BOD bottles at 20oC for 5 days. They are to be tightly
stoppered to prevent any air entry into the bottles.
12. Determine D.O. content in the incubated bottles at the end of 5 days (120 hours).

CALCULATIONS:

Let initial D.O. of diluted sample = Do.

D.O. at the end of 5 days for the diluted sample = D5.
Initial D.O. of distilled water (blank) = Co.
D.O. at the end of 5 days for the distilled water (blank) = C5.
Therefore D.O. depletion of dilution water = Co – C5
D.O. depletion of the diluted sample = Do – D5
Therefore D.O. depletion due to microbes = (Do – D5)–(Co – C5)

BOD at 20oC of the sample = [(Do-D5) X vol. of bottle] - (Co – C5)

ml sample

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Initial D.O. Final Initial Final 5 days

Sr. Volume of of sample D.O. of D.O. of D.O. of BOD at
no. sample Dilution mg/l sample blank blank 20oC
(ml) ratio mg/l mg/l mg/l (mg/l)
 1

CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

APPLICATION OF COD DATA

The COD test is used extensively in the analysis of industrial wastes. It is particularly
valuable in surveys designed to determine and control losses to sewer systems. Results
may be obtained within a relatively short time and measures taken to correct errors on the
day they occur. In conjunction with the BOD test, the COD test is helpful indicating toxic
conditions and the presence of biologically resistant organic substances. The test is widely
used in the operation of treatment facilities because of the speed with which results can be
obtained.

REAGENTS
I. K2Cr2O7 of N/60 N
II. 2Fe(SO4)2(NH4)6H2O
III. Conc. H2SO4
IV. Organics free water
V. Organic matter
VI. Ferroin indicator

PROCEDURE
1. Take 2.5 ml of sample into the vial.
2. Add 1ml of potassium dichromate solution.
3. Carefully add 3.5ml of Conc.H2SO4.
4. Digest the mixture (7.5ml) after capping the vial tight in the COD digester
for 24 hours.
5. Cool the vial and transfer the contents to a conical flask.
6. Add 1 or 2 ml drops of Ferroin Indicator
7. Titrate the excess dichromate with 0.1M Ferrous ammonium sulphate till
the colour changes from blue – green to reddish brown.
8. Repeat the procedure from step 2- 7 for blank with 2.5 ml distilled water.
9. Designate the titration for the sample as Rs and for the blank i.e distilled
water as RB
OBSERVATIONS

Sl. Volume of Sample Burette Readings

No. (ml.) Initial Final ml. of Reagent used
1.
2.
3.

CALCULATIONS
 1

COD = RB – RS X (Normality of titrant) X 8X1000

VS

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

 1
FLOURIDE TEST USING SPADNS METHOD
Reagents: -
1. Fluoride stock solution: Dissolve 221.0 mg. anhydrous sodium fluoride,
NaF, in distilled water and make up to 1000 ml. in a volumetric flask.
1.0 ml. = 0.1 mg. F-
2. Fluoride standard solution: Dilute 100 ml. stock fluoride solution to 1000
ml. in a volumetric flask with distilled water.
1.0 ml. = 00.1 mg. F-
3. Acid Zirconyl – SPADNS reagent:
(a) Zirconyl-acid reagent: Dissolve 133 mg. zirconyl chloride octe
hydrate, ZrOCI2.8H2o in 25ml. distilled water. Add 350-ml. conc.
HCL and dilute to 500 ml. distilled water.

(b) SPADNS solution: Dissolve 958 mg SPADNS, sodium 2-(para

sulphophenyl azo) –1, 8-dihydroxy-3, 6-naphthalene disulphonate*,
in distilled water and dilute to 500 ml. This solution is highly stable
if procted from sunlight. Mix equal volumes of Zirconyl-acid reagent
and SPADNS solution. This is acid Zirconyl-SPADNS reagent and
is very stable and can be kept for two years.

4. Reference solution: To 100 ml. distilled water in a beaker add 10 ml.

SPADNS solution. Dilute 1 ml. conc. HCL to 10-ml. with distilled water and
add to the above solution. Mix well. Use this solution as reference to set
the spectrophotometer. This solution is stable and can be reused.
5. Sodium arsenite solution: Dissolve 6.0 g. sodium arsenite, NaAsO2 in
distilled water and dilute to 1000 ml.

Procedure:
Standards:
1.Pipette 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, and 7.0, ml. fluoride standard
solution into 50 ml. Nessler tubes and make up to the mark with
distilled water.
2. Add exactly 10.0-ml. acid-zirconyl-SPADNS reagent to each tube and
mix well.
3. Set the spectrophotometer or filter photometer to zero absorbance
using reference solution at 570 mμ and measure the absorbance of the
standards immediately.
4. Plot a calibration curve.
Samples:
Place 50.0 ml. Of the sample or an aliquot diluted to 50.0 ml. in a Nessler tube. If
the sample contains any residual chlorine add 1 drop of sodium arsenite solution
for each 0.1mg CI2 and mix well. Add exactly 10.0-ml. of the acid-zirconyl-
SPADNS reagent and mix well. After setting the spectrophotometer to zero-
absorbance with the reference solution, measure the absorbance of the sample.
Find out the mg fluoride of the sample equivalent to the observed optcal density
from the calibration graph.
Express the result as mg fluoride (as F-) per liter of the sample.
 2
FLUORIDES
REAGENTS
i. Fluoride Stock Solution of 100 ppm
ii. Colour Reagent

PROCEDURE
1. Prepare 20ml. of 10 ppm stock solution from given 100 ppm stock solution.
2. Prepare 10ml. of different standards (Eg: 1 ppm, 2 ppm, 3 ppm, ….) from this 10
ppm stock solution prepared in the previous step.
3. Add to each of these standards 2 ml. of colour reagent.
4. Take 10ml. of the sample and add 2 ml of colour reagent.
5. Keep them for about an hour for the colour development.
6. Record the absorbance for all the standards and for the sample as well in an U V
Spectrophotometer at 570nm.
7. Prepare the calibration chart for the standards with the help of the concentration
and their corresponding absorbance values.
8. Back read the concentration of Fluoride of the sample from this calibration chart
with the help of the absorbance of the sample recorded.

OBSERVATIONS

Sl.No. Concentration of the Standard (ppm) Absorbance @ 570 nm

1. Blank (distilled water)
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
5. 4
6. 5
7. For Sample( )
8. For Sample( )

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

 2

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

AIM: To determine the conductivity of the give sample.

PRINCIPLE:
The electrical conductivity is a total parameter for dissolved, dissociated substances.
Its value depends on the concentration and degrees of dissociation of the ions as well as
the temperature and migration velocity of the ions in the electric field.

APPARATUS:
1. Conductivity meter with measuring cell.
2. Beaker
3. Thermometer.

REAGENTA:
1. KCL 0.1N.

PROCEDURE:
1. Calibrate the cell with standard 0.1 N. KCL solution of conductivity 14.12 mmhos
at 30oC.
2. Rinse the cell thoroughly with deionized distilled water and carefully wipe with a
tissue paper.
3. Dip the cell into the sample solution, swirl the solution and wait upto 1 minute for
a steady reading.
4. Note down the Instrument reading and also temperature by a thermometer.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Description of sample Temperature Conductivity(mmhos) Remarks

 2

TURBIDITY
AIM:
To find out Turbidity of the given samples.

PRINCIPLE:
When light is passed through a sample having suspended particles, some of the light
is scattered by the particles. The scattering of the light is generally proportional to the
turbidity. The turbidity of sample is thus measured from the amount of light scattered by the
sample taking a reference with standard turbidity suspension.

APPARATUS:
1. Nephelometric turbidimeter
2. Sample tubes.

INTERFERENCES:
The determination of turbidity is interfered by the presence of debris and other rapidly
settleable matter. The true colour in the sample reduces the values of turbidity.

REAGENTS:
1. Dissolve 1.0 gm Hydrazine sulphate and dilute to 100 ml.
2. Dissolve 10 gm Hexamethylene Tetramine and dilute to 100 ml.
3. Mix 5 ml of each of the above solution (1 and 2) in a 100 ml volumetric flask and
allow to stand for 24 hours at 25+ 3oC and dilute to 1000 ml. this solution has a
turbidity of 40 NTU.
4. This solution can be kept for about a month.

PROCEDURE:
1. SWITCH ON Nephelometric turbidimeter and wait for few minutes till it warms up.
2. Set the instrument at 100 on the scale with a 40 NTU standard suspension. In this
case, evey division on the scale will be equal to 0.4 NTU turbidity.
3. Shake thoroughly the sample, and keep it for sometime to eliminate the air bubbles.
4. Take sample in Nephelometer sample tube and put the sample in sample chamber
and find out the value on the scale.
5. Dilute the sample wqith turbidity free water and again read the turbidity.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Sample details Turbidity(NTU) Remarks

 2

TOTAL SOLIDS
AIM:
To determine the Total Solids of the given sample.

PRINCIPLE:
Total solidas are determined as the residule left after evaporation and drying of the
unfiltered sample.

APPARATUS:
1. Evaporating dishes (pyres, porcelain or platinum)
2. Oven
3. Desiccators
4. Water bath.

PROCEDURE:
1 A clean porcelain dish is ignited in a muffle furnace and after partial cooling in the
air, it is cooled in a desiccators and weighed.
2 A 100 ml of well mixed sample (graduated cylinder is rinsed to ensure transfer of all
suspend matter) is placed in the dish and evaporated at 100oC for 1 hour.
3 Dry to a constant weight at 103oC, cool ina desiccators and weigh.

CALCULATIONS:
Total solids (mg/l) = (A-B) X 1000
V
A = Final weight of the dish in mg.
B = Initial weight of the dish in mg.
V = Volume of sample taken in ml.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Sample details Volume of Initial weight of the Final weight of the Total solids
sample (ml) Dish (mg) Dish (mg) (mg/l)
 2

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

AIM:
To fine out Total Dissolved Solids of the given sample.

PRINCIPLS:
Total dissolved solids are determined as the residue left after evaporation and drying
of the filtered sample.

APPARATUS:
1. Evaporating dishes
2. Oven
3. Desiccators
4. Whatman filter paper No. 44
5. Water bath.

PROCEDURE:
1. A clean porcelain dish is ignited in muffle furnace and after partial cooling in the
air, it is cooled in a desiccators and weighed.
2. A 100 ml of filtered sample is placed in the dish and evaporated at 100oC on
water bath followed by drying in oven at 103oC for 1 hour.
3. Dry to a constant weight at 103oC, cool in a desiccators and weigh.

CALCULATIONS:

TDS (MG/L) =(A – B) X 1000

V
A =Final weight of the dish in mg.
B =Initial weight of the dish in mg.
V =Volume of the sample taken in ml.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Sample details Volume of Initial weight of the

Final weight of the Total solids
sample (ml) Dish (mg) Dish (mg) (mg/l)
 2

TOTAL FIXED AND VOLATILE SOLIDS

AIM:
To find out Total fixed and volatile solids of the given sample.
PRINCIPLE:
Total volatile solids and fixed solids are determined as residue remaining after
evaporation, drying at 103oCand ignition at 600oC.
APPARATUS:
1. Evaporating dish.
2. Oven 103oC.
3. Muffle furnace 600oC
4. Desiccators.
5. Water bath.
PROCEDURE:
1. A clean porcelain dish is ignited in muffle furnace and after partial cooling in the air,
it is cooled in a desiccators and weigh (W1).
2. A 100 ml of well mixed sample (graduated cylinder in rinsed to ensure transfer of all
suspended matter) is placed in the dish and evaporated at 100oC on water bath,
followed by drying in oven at 103oC for 1 hour.
3. Dry to a constant weight at 103oC, cool in a desiccators and weigh (W2).
4. Ignite the residue on evaporation at 600oC in the muffle furnace to constant weight
in 10 to 15 minutes.
5. Allow the dish to cool and moisten the ash with a few drops of distilled water.
6. Dry to a constant weight at 103oC, cool in a desiccators and weigh (W3).
CALCULATIONS:

(a) Total solids (mg/l) = (W2 – W1) X 1000

ml. of sample

(b) Total volatile solids (mg/l) = (W3 – W1) X 1000

ml. of sample

(c) Total fixed solids = (a) – (b)

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Type of Sample Volume of Weight of Wt. of dish Residue

solids details sample empty dish +Residue (mg/l)
ml (mg) (mg)
Total solids

Total
volatile
solids
 2

TOTAL SETTLEABLE SOLIDS

AIM:
To find out Total settleable solids of the given sample.

PRINCIPLE:
The particles in suspension whose specific gravity great than that of water will settle
under quiescent conditions.

APPARATUS:
1. Imhoff cone
2. Holding device

PROCEDURE:
1. Gently fill the Inhoff cone with the thoroughly wel mixed sample usually one litre
and allow it to settle.
2. After 45 minutes, gently rotate the cone between hands to ensure that all solids
adhering to the sides are loosened.
3. Allow the solids to settle for 15 minutes more, to make up for a total period of 1
hour.
4. Read the volume of the sludge which has settled the apex.
5. Express the results in ml settleable solids per litre of sample per hour.

CALCULATIONS:
Total settleable solids (ml/l) = ml of solids X 1000
ml of sample

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The Imhoff cones must be cleaned with a strong soap and hot water using a brush.
2. Wetting the cone with water before use, helps in preventing adherence of the solids
to the sides.
3. The method is subjected to considerable in accuracy if the solids contain large
fragments.
4. The determination of total settleable solids should be carried out soon after
sampling in order to avoid errors through flocculation.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Volume of sample taken Total settleable solids
Sample details (ml) ml/l/hour
 2
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS
AIM:
To determine Total suspended solids of the given sample.

PRINCIPLE:
Total suspended solids are determined as the residue left on gooch cruchible or a
glass fibre filter after drying in oven.

APPARATUS:
1. Gooch crucible/glass fibre filter
2. Suction apparatus
3. Desiccators

PROCEDURE:
1. A clean gooch crucible is ignited in a muffle furnace and after partial cooling in the
air, cool in deciccator and weigh (W1).
2. Pour 100ml of well mix sample on gooch crucible or glass fibre filter which is kept
on filter flask and apply suction.
3. Wash the gooch crucible with 100ml of distilled water to remove all soluble salts.
4. Carefully remove the glass fibre filter paper or gooch crucible and dry in a oven at
105oC for one hour.
5. Cool in a desiccators and weigh(W2).
6. Ignite gooch crucible in a muffle furnace at 600oC for 15-20 minutes.
7. Cool the crucible partially in air until most of heat has been dissipated and then in a
desiccators and record final weigh(W3).

CALCULATIONS:

Total suspended solids (mg/l) = (W2 – W1) X 1000

ml. of sample

Suspended volatile solids (mg/l) = (W2 – W3) X 1000

ml. of sample

W1, W2 or W3 are recorded weights in mg.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Volume of Empty weight of Final weight of
Sample details sample Gooch crucible Gooch crucible Solids
taken(ml) (mg) (mg) mg/l
Total
Suspended
Solids
Volatile
Suspended
solids
 2
Estimation of the Sulphate Ion Concentration By Turbidimetry
Principle: When light is passed through the suspension, absorption, reflection and
refraction dissipate part of incident radiant energy, while the remainder is transmitted.
Measurement of the intensity of the transmitted light as a function of concentration of
the dispersed phase is the basis of turbidimetric analysis.

Sulphate ions are precipitated as barium sulphate crystals of uniform size in acid
medium. Light absorbed by the precipitate is measured using a spectrophotometer.
Turbidimetric analysis is based on measuring the weakening of intensity of luminous flux
when it passes through a solution containing particles in suspension. The intensity
decreases owing to absorption and scattering of light.

The amount of available 'Sulphate' of soil is calculated, comparing the unknown

sample turbulence with standard curve on sulfur.

Reagents:

Acid seed solution: Dissolve 0.109 g K2SO4 in one liter of 6 N HCl

1. BaCl2 Crystals
2. Stabilizing reagent: mix 20 ml of glycerol with 80 ml of alcohol
3. 200 ppm 'Standard' solution
Calibration curve:

1. Prepare 200,100,50,25,10 ppm of 'Sulphate' standard solution.

2. Take 10 ml of each of the standards into volumetric flask.
3. Add 1ml of acid seed solution, 1 ml of stabilizing reagent to each volumetric flask.
4. Add to each 1g BaC12 crystals and make up to 50ml.
5. Record their turbidity at 420nm-wave length using spectrophotometer.
6. Plot the turbidity against the concentrations of these solutions and draw the curve
For Soil Samples

1. Pipette out 10 ml of the sample into a 50 ml volumetric flask

2. Add 1 ml of acid seed solution, 1 ml of stabilizing reagent.
3. Add 1 gm of BaC12 crystals, shake it and make up the volume to 50 ml
4. Read the turbidity of this solution within 10minutes at 420m.
5. Compare the unknown sample turbidity with standard curve and calculate the
amount of 'Sulphate' present in the given soil.
Procedure

1. The turbidity meter (spectrophotometer) is switched on and allowed to stand for

10-15 minutes with the wavelength set to 420 m.
2. The blank sample is inserted into the sample holder and the scale of transmitance
set to read 100.
3. The standard samples as prepared above are inserted into the sample holder and
respective readings are recorded.
4. The calibration curve is prepared for the above set of standards.
Effluent samples obtained from column test are filtered, and diluted if necessary to bring well within the range of standards, their
transmitance/absorption readings are recorded, and correct values are obtained from Calibration Curve.
 2

SULPHATES
AIM:
To find the amount of Sulphates in the given sample.
PRINCIPLE:
Benzidine hydrochloride reacts with sulphates in HCL solution to form a slightly soluble
compound of benzidine sulphuric acid.

CaSO4 + C12 H8 (NH2)2 2 HCl ------>C12 H8 (NH2)2 H2SO4 Benzidine Sulphuric acid + Ca++ +
Mg+++ Cl2
MgSO4
The compound is filtered and washed entirely free of HCL. The amount of H2SO4 in the
compound is determined by titration with standard NaOH(0.05N)

REAGENTS:
1. Hydroxylamine chloride
2. Benzidine hydrochloride
3. NaOH (0.05N)
4. Phenolphthalein indicator
APPARATUS:
1. Filter paper
2. Beaker
3. Hot pan
4. Burette
5. Pipettes.
PROCEDURE:
1. Take 125ml of sample in a 4ooml beaker.
2. Add 5 ml of hydroxylamine chloride and then add 10 ml of benzidine
hydrochloride.
3. Stir the mixture vigorously and allow the precipitate to settle.
4. Filter the solution and wash the beaker and the filter paper with cold distilled
water.
5. Pierce the filter paper in the funnel and wash the precipitate formed on the filter
paper to the original beaker with 100 to 150 ml distilled water.
6. Heat the beaker to dissolve the contents for 20 to 30 minutes.
7. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator and titrate with 0.05N NaOH until pink
colour is developed.

CALCULATIONS:
Concentration of sulphates (mg/l)= Vol. of 0.05N NaOH X 38.4
Volume of the sample taken
 3

RESIDUAL CHLORINE
AIM:
To find out the amount of Residual chlorine available in the given sample.
PRINCIPLE
Ortholidine is an aromatic organic compound that is oxidized in acid solution by
chlorine, chloramines, and other oxidizing agents to produce a yellow coloured compound
called Holoquinone. Intensity of yellow colour of holoquinone is proportional to the amount
of chlorine present.

INTERFERENCE:
Oxidising agents such as ferric compounds, manganic salts, nitrites etc.

APPARATUS:
Chloroscope.

REAGENTS:
Orthotolidine reagent.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take the water sample under question into one of the cylinders of the comparator
and distilled water into the other.
2. Add 5 drops of orthotolidine solution to both the cylinders and put them in the
comparator.
3. The colour which matches in both the cylinders directly gives the ‘residual chlorine’.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Amount of the residual chlorine (mg/l) =
 3

BREAK POINT CHLORINATION

AIM:
To determine the optimum dose of bleaching powder and chlorine by Break point
chlorination.

APPARATUS:
1. Six beakers of 1 litre capacity each
2. Stirrer
3. Chloroscope.

PRINCIPLE:
Chlorine combines with water to form hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid.
Hypochlorous acid dissociates to give the OCI- ion. Quantities of OCI- and HOCI rupture the
cell membrane of impurities like ammonia, oxidisable inorganic matter like ferrous ions,
nitrites etc. to form chloramines and stable ions of the latter respectively.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take 1000 ml of water sample in six different beakers.
2. Prepare a stock solution of 0.1 g/l by dissolving 0.5 g of bleaching powder in 100
ml of distilled water. Each ml of stock solution gives a dosage of 0.5 mg.
3. Add varying does of bleaching powder to each beaker. This amount may be
2.0,3.0,4.0,5.0 till 8.0 mg. (The dosage may be raised by 10 times in the case of
polluted waters.)
4. Stir the sample with a glass rod so that bleaching powder gets dissolved into water.
5. Necessary contact period of 20 minutes is given for bleaching powder to oxidize
chloro-organic compounds and form free available chlorine.
6. After the required contact period, the residual chlorine in each sample is
determined.
7. The first beaker which gives the residual chlorine between 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l that will
be the required dose for disinfection.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The beakers should not be disturbed during its contact period.
2. The bleaching powder should be allowed to dissolve completely.
3. As far as possible, bleaching powder should be applied in solution form.

OBSERVATION AND RESULTS:

Optimum dose of bleaching powder (mg/l) =
 3

JAR TEST
AIM:
To find the optimum amount of coagulant required to treat the turbid waters.
PRINCIPLE:
Metal salts hydrolyse in presence of the natural alkalinity to form metal hydroxides.
The div alent cations can reduce the zeta-potential, while the metal hydroxides are good
absork=bents and hence remove the suspended particles by enmeshing them.
APPARATUS:
1. Jar test apparatus
2. Beakers
3. Pipettes
4. Turbidity meter
5. pH meter.
REAGENTS:
1. Alum solution (synthetic coagulant)
2. Nirmali solution (natural coagulant).
PROCEDURE:
1. Take 1 litre of sample into each of the 6 beakers.
2. Switch on the motor and adjust the speed of paddles to 100 rpm.
3. Add varying doses of alum solution i.e., 1 ml, 2 ml, 3ml, 4ml or 6ml to different
beakers simultaneously. (The doses varies with turbidity in water sample.)
4. Allow flash mix (at 100rpm) for 1 minute.
5. Reduce the speed of paddles to 40 rpm and continue mixing for 10
minutes.
6. Switch off the motor and allow 20 minutes for settling .
7. Collect the supernatant without disturbing the sediment and find the turbidity of
each.
8. Also record pH, colour, alkalinity. CO2 and temperature.
9. Repeat the experiment with high doses of alum, if satisfactory results are not
obtained.
10. The experiment may be repeated for different pH ranges.
11. Note the ideal (optimum) dose of the coagulant for excellent floc formation.

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Raw water turbidity (NTU) =

Sample detail/ Dosage of Coagulant Residual Turbidity

Jar no.

RESULT:
Ideal dose fo coagulant(mg/l) =
 3

AVAILABLE CHLORINE
AIM

To determine the Available chlorine in the given sample of bleaching powder.

PRINCIPLE:

Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent and liberates iodine from iodide ion.
CI2 + 2KI--------- I2 + 2KCI
Starch give blue colour with iodine
I2 + Starch -------- Blue colour.
The liberated iodine is titrated with standard sodium thiosulphate – a reducing agent.
I2 + 2Na2 S2O3 ----------- Na2S4O6 + 2Nal.
The disappearance of blue colour indicates the completion of reaction with free iodine is
converted back to iodide.

INTERFERENCE:

Any oridizable organic or inorganic matter.

APPARATUS:

1. Conical flask
2. Burette
3. Pipette.

REAGENTS:

1. Concentrated acetic acid

2. Potassium iodide crystals
3. Sodium thiosulphate 0.025N
4. Starch indicator.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take 5 gm of fresh bleaching powder. Adding small quantity of water to it, and
prepare fine paste. Add some more water, stir and allow to settle for a few minutes.
Dilute it with distilled water to make upto 1 litre and stopper the container.
2. Take 25ml of the bleaching powder solution in a conical flask and add a pinch of Kl.
3. Add 10 ml of acetic acid and allow the reaction to complete.
4. Titrate the sample with standard sodium thiosulphate solution until the yellow colour
of the liberated iodine is almost faded out.
5. Add 1 ml of starch solution and titrate until the blue colour disappears.
6. Note down the quantity of sodium thiosulphate added (V1).
7. Repeat the same procedure fro distilled water.
8. Note down the volume of sodium thiosulphate added (V2).
 3

CALCULATIONS:
Concentration of chlorine = (V1 –V2) X N X 35.45 X 1000
Vol. of bleaching powder solution.

1 gm of bleaching powder contains______________mg of chlorine.

There fore percentage of chlorine
content in bleaching powder =

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Sr. Sample Vol. of ml. of sodium Avilable % of

No. details Sample thiosulphate Chlorine chlorine
Taken run down Mg/l
Ml
Initial Final

burette burette

Readings readings
 3

APPENDIX

APPENDIX A
PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS AND REAGENTS
1. Aluminium hydroxide suspension:

Dissolve 125 gm of potassium or ammonium alum in 1 litre of distilled water. Warm

to 60o C and add slowly with stirring, 55 ml of concentrated ammonium hydroxide.
After it has stood for about one hour, transfer the mixture to a large bottle and wash
the precipitate thoroughly by successive decantations with distilled water until free
from ammonia, chloride, nitrite and nitrate.

2. Ammonium molybdate solution:

(a) Dissolve 25 gm of ammonium molbdate in 175 ml of distilled water.

(b) Add continuously 280 ml concentrated H2SO4 to 400 ml of distilled water in

another container and cool. Mix the two solutions (a) and (b) dilute to 1 litre.

3. Alkali iodide – azide reagent:

Dissolve 500 gm NaOH (or 700 gm of KOH) and 150 gm of Kl (or 135 gm of Nl) in
distilled water and dilute to one litre. Dissolve 10 gm of NaN3 in 40 ml of distilled
water separately and pour it into the above solution. This solution should not give
colour with starch solution when diluted and acidified.

4. Ammonium acetate buffer solution:

Dissolve 250 gm of NH4C2H3O2 in 150 ml distilled water. Add 700 ml of glacial acetic
acid and the solution is diluted to 1 litre with distilled water.

5. Acid zirconium alizarin solution:

(a) Dissolve 0.3 gm of zirconium oxychloride or 0.25 gm of zirconium oxynitrate in

50 ml of distilled water. Dissolve 0.07 gm of alizarin sodium monosulphonate in
another 50 ml of distilled water and add the latter solution slowly to the zirconium
solution with continuous stirring. The resulting solution clears on standing for a few
minutes.

(b) Dilute 112 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid to 500 ml with ditilled water. Also
add 37 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid to 400 ml of distilled water and then dilute
to 500 ml. mix the two diluted acids when cool.

(c) Dilute the clear zirconium prepared in (a) to 1000 ml with mixed acid solution
prepared in (b). The reagent is at first red, but within an hour it changes to orange –
 3
yellow and is ready for use. The solution shall be stored in the dark; if
kept in a refrigerator it is stable for 2 to 3 months.

6. Buffer solution:

Dissolve 16.9 gm of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) in 143 ml of concentrated

ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). Add 1.25 gm of magnesium salt of EDTA to obtain
sharp change in colour of indicator and dilute to 250 ml with distilled water.

7. Calcium chloride:

Dissolve 27.5 gm of anhydrous CaCl2 and dilute to 1000 ml.

8. Eriochrome black T indicator:

Mix 0.5 gm of eriochrome black T, with 100 gm NaCl (A.R.) to prepare dry powder.

9. Ferrion chloride:

Dissolve 0.25 gm of FeCl36H2O and make upto 1 litre.

10. Ferrion indicator:

Dissolve 0.98 gm of FeSO47H2O and 1.5 gm of 1, 10 – phenanthroline monohydrate

in distilled water and dilute to 100 ml with distilled water.

11. Hydroxylamine HCl solution:

Dissolve 10 gm of NH2OH. HCl in distilled and dilute to 100 ml of distilled water.

12. Inhibitor:

Dissolve 4.5 gm of hydroxylamine hydrochloride in 100 ml of 95% ethyl alcohol or

isopropyl alcohol.

13. Lugol’ solution:

Dissolve 10 gm of neutral potassium iodide (analytical quality) in 20 ml of distilled

water and add to it 5 gm of twice sublimed iodine of analytical quality. After
thoroughly mix the solution, add 5 gm of sodium acetate and 50 ml of distilled water.
Store in a 100 ml narrow neck flask made of neutral glass with ground glass stopper
that fits well.

14. Napthylamine hydrochloride reagent:

Dissolve 0.60 gm of 1 --- napthylamine hydrochloride in distilled water to which 1.0

ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid has been added. Dilute to 100 ml with distilled
water and place in a refrigerator. If the precipitate occurs after few days, the reagent
can be used further by filtering the solutins.

15. Methyl orange indicator:

 3
0.5 gm of methyl orange powder is dissolved in CO2 free distilled water
and diluted to one litre.

16. Murexide indicator:

Prepare a grind mixture of 0.2 gm of murexide with 100 gm of solid NaCl (A.R.).
Since this indicator is unstable under high pH, titration must start immediately after
adding this indicator powder to the sample under test.

17. Manganese sulphate:

Dissolve 480 gm of tetrahydrate manganous sulphate in distilled water, filter and

dilute one litre. This solution should not give colour with starch when added to an
acidified solution of Kl.

18. Magnesium sulphate:

Dissolve 22.5 gm of MgSO47H2O and dilute to 1000 ml.

19. Mercuric sulphate:

HgSO4 crystals, analytic grade.

20. Orthotolidine reagent:

Dissolve 1.35 gm of othotolidine dihydrochloride in 500 ml distilled water and add

this solution, with constant stirring, to another mixture of 150 ml of conc. HCl in 350
ml distilled water. It should be stored at normal temperature in the dark or brown
bottles with non-rubber caps.

21. Phenolphthalein indicator:

5 gm of phenolphthalein powder is dissolved in 500 ml of 95% ethyl – alcohol, and

made up 1 litre with distilled water. Add dropwise 0.02 NaOH till faint pink colour
appears.

22. Potassium chromate indicator:

Dissolve 50 gm K2Cr2O4 in a small quantity of distilled and add AgNO3 till definite
red precipitate is formed. Allow to stand for 24 hours. Filter and dilute to 1000 ml
with distilled water.

23. pH 4.62 buffer solution:

200 ml of 1M CH3COOH is mixed with 100 ml 1 M NaOH and 700 ml distilled water.
 3
24. pH 7.0 buffer solution:

(a) Dissolve 9.078 gm anhydrous potassium dihydrogen phosphate, KH2PO4 with

distilled water. Dilute to 1 litre.

(b) Dissolve 11.88 gm of disodium hydrogen phosphate, Na2HPO4.

2 parts of (a) are mixed with 3 parts of (b).

25. pH 9.0 buffer solution:

(a) Dissolve 12.40 gm H3BO3 in 100 ml NaOH and make it 1 litre with distilled water.

(b) Prepare 0.1 M HCl.

8.5 Parts of (a) are mixed with 1.5 parts of (b).

26. Phenanthroline solution (C12H8N2H2O):

Dissolve 100 mg 1, 10 – phenanthroline monohydrate in 100 ml distilled water

containing 2 drops of conc. HCl.

27. Phosphate buffer solution:

Dissolve 8.5 gm of KH2PO4, 21.75 gm of K2HPO4, 33.5 gm of Na2HPO4,7H2O and

1.7 gm of NH4Cl in distilled water and make upto 1 litre. Adjust pH to 7.2.

28. Phenol disulphonic acid (PDA):

Dissolve 25 gm of pure phenol in 150 ml of conc. H2SO4. add 75 ml fuming H2SO4

(15% free SO3). Stir well and heat for 2 hours on water bath. If fuming sulphuric acid
is not available, add 85 ml conc. H2SO4 to the above solution stir and heat for 2
hours.

29. Standard EDTA solution 0.01M:

Dissolve 3.723 gm of EDTA sodium sald in distilled water to prepare 1 litre of

solution. Standardized against standard calcium solution such that 1.0 ml of the
EDTA titrant is equivalent to 1.0 mg CaCO3.

30. Standard calcium colution:

Weight accurately 1.0 gm AR grade CaCO3 and transfer to 250 ml conical flask.
Place a funnel in the neck of a flask and add 1 + 1 HCl till CaCO3 dissolves
completely. Add 200 ml distilled water and boil for 20 – 30 minutes to expel CO2.
Cool and add few drops of methyl red indicator. Add 3N NH4OH dropwise till
intermediate orange colour develops. Dilute to 1000 ml to obtain 1 ml = 1 mg Ca
CO3.
 3
31. Sodium hydroxide 2N:

Dissolve 40 gm of NaOH in distilled water and dilute to 1 litre.

32. Standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N):

0.8 gm of NaOH is dissolved in CO2 free distilled water and diluted to 1000 ml. It is
standardized against 0.02 N potassium biopthalate, KHC3H4O4. Store in air tight,
rubber stoppered pyrex/coring glass bottle to protect from atmospheric CO2.

33. Sodium thiosulphate 0.1 N:

Dissolve 25 gm of Na2S2O35H2O in distilled water and dilute to 1000ml in freshly

boiled and cooled distilled water. Add about 5 ml chloroform as a preservative.

34. Standard sulphuric acid 0.02 N:

Prepare 0.1 N H2SO4 by diluting 3 ml conc. H2SO4 to 1000ml. standardize against

standard Na2CO3 0.1 N. Take appropriate volume of H2SO4 (approximatels 0.1N)
and dilute with distilled weater to make upto 1 litre to obtain standard 0.02N H2SO4

35. Standard silver nitrate solution 0.0141 N:

Dissolve 2.395 gm of dry AgNO3 in distilled water and dilute 1000 ml. Standardize
against NaCI. 1 ml. of 0.0141 N AgNO3 = 0.5 mg CI.

36. Standard sodium chloride 0.014 N:

Dissolve 8.243 gm of anhydrous NaCI in 500 ml. distilled water.

37. Sulphanilic acid solution:

Completely dissolve 0.60 gm of sulphanilic acid in 70 ml. of hot distilled water, after
cooling, add 20 ml. of concentrated hydrochloric acid and dilute to 1000 ml. with
distilled water.

38. sodium acetate buffer solution:

Dissolve 16.4 gm of an hydrous sodium acetate in distilled water and dilute to 100
ml. Filter if necessary.

39. Stock nitrite solution:

Dissolve 0.246 gm of anhydrous sodium nitrite in nitrite – free distilled water and
dilute to 1 litre. Preserve by adding 1 ml of chloroform. One mililitre of the solution
contains 0.05 mg of nitrite nitrogen.

40. Standard nitrite solution:

Dilute 10 ml of stock nitrite solution to 1 litre with nitrite free distilled water.
Preserve by adding 1 ml of chloroform and store in a sterilized bottle. One ml of
this solution contains 0.0005 mg of nitrite nitrogen (as N).
 4
41. Standard phosphate solution:

Dissolve 0.716 gm of dry potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) in 1 litre of

distilled water. Dilute 100 ml of the solution to 1 litre. One mililitre of the diluted
solution contains 0.05 mg of phosphate (as PO4).

42. Strong acid reagent:

Add 300ml concentrated H2SO4 to 600 ml distilled water. Add 4 ml conc. HNO3,
cool the solution and dilute to 1000 ml.

43. Sodium hydroxide (3N):

Dissolve 12 gm of NaOH and dilute to 100 ml.

44. Stannous chloride:

Dissolve 2.5 gm of a fresh stannous chloride (SnCI22H2O) in 10 ml of concentrated

hydrochloric acid and dilute to 100 ml in distilled water. Store the solution in a cool
place in an aspirator bottle having a glass stopcock. A 5 mm thick layer of pure
mineral oil shall be floated over the surface of the solution to minimize oxidation.
Always drain out a little of the solution out of the stopcock before use.

45. Sodium hydroxide 0.05 N:

Dissolve 0.2 gm of NaOH in distilled water and dilute to 100 ml with distilled water.

46. Starch Indicator:

Dissolve 2 gm of L.R. grade soluble starch in distilled water and pour this emulsion
into 100 ml of boiling water. Allow to boil for few minutes, add 0.2 gm of salicyclic
acid or toluene as preservative. Cool this solution and then use.

47. Standard sodium thiosulphate (0.025 N):

Dissolve 1.575 gm of Na2S2O3 in distilled water and make upto 1 litre./

Dissolve 6.205 gm of Na2S2O3 5H2O in 1000 ml(1 LItre) of water

48. Standard potassium dichromate (0.025N):

Dissolve 12.259 gm of K2Cr2O7 dried at 103oC for 24 hours in distilled water and
make upto 1000ml.

49. Sulphuric acid reagent:

Add 100 gm of Ag2SO4 to 1000 ml of concentrated H2SO4 and keep over night for
dissolution.
 4
50. Standard ferrous ammonium sulphate (0.1N):

Dissolve 39 gm of Fe (NH4)2SO46H2O in about 400 ml distilled water. Add 20 ml

conc. H2SO4 and dilute to 1000 ml. standardise this solution by titrating against
standard K2Cr2O7 (0.1N) using ferrion indicator.

51. Standard sodium fluoride solution:

Dissolve 0.221 gm of dry sodium fluoride in distilled water and make upto 1000 ml.
dilute 100 ml of the solution to 1000 ml. One milliliter of this diluted solution
contains 0.01 mg of fluoride (as F). The solution shall be kept in polyethylene or
wax-lined glass bottles.

52. Stock Iron solution:

Add 20 ml conc. H2SO4 to 50 distilled water and dissolve 404 Fe

(NH4)2(SO4)26H2O. Add drop wise 0.1 N KMnO4 till faint pink colour persists. Dilute
to 1000 ml. 1 ml = 200 µg Fe.

53. Standard Iron solution:

Dilute 50 ml stock Fe solution to 1000 ml. Prepare this freshly 1 ml = 10 µg Fe.

54. Standard silver sulphate:

Dissolve 4.40 gm of Ag2SO4 in distilled water and dilute to 1000 ml. 1 ml = 1 mg

CI.

55. Stock Nitrate solution:

Dissolve 721.8 gm anhydrous potassium nitrate and dilute to 1000 ml with distilled
water. 1 ml = µg NO3.

56. Standard nitrate solution:

Evaporate 50 ml stock nitrated solution to fryness on water bath. Dissolve residue

in 2 ml phenol disulphonic acid reagent and dilute to 500 ml. 1 ml = 10 µg NO3.
 4

PREPATION OF STANDARD
SOLUTIONS AND REAGENTS
1. ACIDITY

Standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N): 0.8 gm of NaOH is dissolved in CO2 free
distilled water and diluted to 1000 ml. It is standardized against 0.02 N potassium
biopthalate, KHC3H4O4. Store in air tight, rubber stoppered pyrex/coring glass bottle to
protect from atmospheric CO2.

Methyl orange indicator: 0.5 gm of methyl orange powder is dissolved in CO2 free
distilled water and diluted to one litre.

2. ALKALINITY

Standard sulphuric acid 0.02 N: Prepare 0.1 N H2SO4 by diluting 3 ml conc. H2SO4 to
1000ml. standardizes against standard Na2CO3 0.1 N. Take appropriate volume of
H2SO4 (approximatels 0.1N) and dilute with distilled weater to make upto 1 litre to
obtain standard 0.02N H2SO4

Phenolphthalein indicator: 5 gm of phenolphthalein powder is dissolved in 500 ml of

95% ethyl – alcohol, and made up 1 litre with distilled water. Add dropwise 0.02 NaOH
till faint pink colour appears

3. CHLORIDIES

Standard silver nitrate solution 0.0141 N: Dissolve 2.395 gm of dry AgNO3 in distilled
water and dilute 1000 ml. Standardize against NaCI. 1 ml. of 0.0141 N AgNO3 = 0.5
mg CI.

Potassium chromate indicator: Dissolve 50 gm K2Cr2O4 in a small quantity of distilled

and add AgNO3 till definite red precipitate is formed. Allow to stand for 24 hours. Filter
and dilute to 1000 ml with distilled water.

HARDNESS

Standard EDTA solution 0.01M: Dissolve 3.723 gm of EDTA sodium sald in distilled
water to prepare 1 litre of solution. Standardized against standard calcium solution such
that 1.0 ml of the EDTA titrant is equivalent to 1.0 mg CaCO3.

Buffer solution: Dissolve 16.9 gm of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) in 143 ml of

concentrated ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). Add 1.25 gm of magnesium salt of EDTA
to obtain sharp change in colour of indicator and dilute to 250 ml with distilled water.

Eriochrome black T indicator: Mix 0.5 gm of eriochrome black T, with 100 gm NaCl
(A.R.) to prepare dry powder.

DO
 4
Standard sodium thiosulphate (0.025 N): Dissolve 1.575 gm of Na2S2O3
in distilled water and make upto 1 litre (OR) Dissolve 6.205 gm of Na2S2O3 5H2O in
1000 ml(1 LItre) of water

Manganese sulphate: Dissolve 480 gm of tetrahydrate manganous sulphate in distilled

water, filter and dilute one litre. This solution should not give colour with starch when
added to an acidified solution of Kl.

Alkali iodide – azide reagent: Dissolve 500 gm NaOH (or 700 gm of KOH) and 150
gm of Kl (or 135 gm of Nl) in distilled water and dilute to one litre. Dissolve 10 gm of
NaN3 in 40 ml of distilled water separately and pour it into the above solution. This
solution should not give colour with starch solution when diluted and acidified.

Starch Indicator: Dissolve 2 gm of L.R. grade soluble starch in distilled water and pour
this emulsion into 100 ml of boiling water. Allow to boil for few minutes, add 0.2 gm of
salicyclic acid or toluene as preservative. Cool this solution and then use.

6. COD

Standard ferrous ammonium sulphate (0.1N): Dissolve 39 gm of Fe (NH4)2SO46H2O

in about 400 ml distilled water. Add 20 ml conc. H2SO4 and dilute to 1000 ml.
standardise this solution by titrating against standard K2Cr2O7 (0.1N) using ferrion
indicator.

Standard potassium dichromate (0.025N): Dissolve 12.259 gm of K2Cr2O7 dried at

103oC for 24 hours in distilled water and make upto 1000ml

Mercuric sulphate: HgSO4 crystals, analytic grade.

Ferrion indicator: Dissolve 0.98 gm of FeSO47H2O and 1.5 gm of 1, 10 –

phenanthroline monohydrate in distilled water and dilute to 100 ml with distilled water.

7. FLUORIDE

Standard sodium fluoride solution: Dissolve 0.221 gm of dry sodium fluoride in

distilled water and make upto 1000 ml. dilute 100 ml of the solution to 1000 ml. One
milliliter of this diluted solution contains 0.01 mg of fluoride (as F). The solution shall be
kept in polyethylene or wax-lined glass bottles.

Acid zirconium alizarin solution: (a) Dissolve 0.3 gm of zirconium oxychloride or 0.25
gm of zirconium oxynitrate in 50 ml of distilled water. Dissolve 0.07 gm of alizarin
sodium monosulphonate in another 50 ml of distilled water and add the latter solution
slowly to the zirconium solution with continuous stirring. The resulting solution clears on
standing for a few minutes.

(b) Dilute 112 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid to 500 ml with ditilled water. Also
add 37 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid to 400 ml of distilled water and then dilute to
500 ml. mix the two diluted acids when cool.

(c) Dilute the clear zirconium prepared in (a) to 1000 ml with mixed acid solution
prepared in (b). The reagent is at first red, but within an hour it changes to orange –
 4
yellow and is ready for use. The solution shall be stored in the dark; if kept
in a refrigerator it is stable for 2 to 3 months.
 4

DRINKING WATER – SPECIFICATION

Test Characteristics for Drinking Water
S. Substance or Characteristic Requirement Permissible
No. (Desirable Limit in the
Limit) absence of
Alternate
source
Essential characteristics
1. Colour, (Hazen units), Max 5 25
2. Odour Unobjectionable --
3. Taste Agreeable --
4. Turbidity (NTU), Max 5 10
5. pH Value 6.5 to 8.5 No Relaxation
6. Total Hardness (as CaCo3) mg/L, Max 300 600
7. Iron (as Fe) mg/L, Max 0.3 1.0
8. Chlorides (as Cl) mg/L, Max. 250 1000
9. Residual, free chlorine, mg/L, Min 0.2 --
10. Fluoride (as F) mg/L, Max 1.0 1.5
Desirable Characteristics
11. Dissolved solids mg/L, Max 500 2000
12. Calcium (as Ca) mg/L, Max 75 200
13. Magnesium (as mg) mg/L, Max 30 100
14. Copper (as Cu) mg/L, Max 0.05 1.5
15. Manganese (as Mn)mg/L, Max 0.10 0.3
16. Sulfate (as SO4) mg/L, Max 200 400
17. Nitrate (as NO3) mg/L, Max 45 No Relaxation
18. Phenolic Compounds (as C6H5OH) mg/L, Max 0.001 0.002
19. Mercury (as Hg) mg/L, Max 0.001 No relaxation
20. Cadmium (as Cd) mg/L, Max 0.01 No relaxation
21. Selenium (as Se) mg/L,Max 0.01 No relaxation
22. Arsenic (as As) mg/L, Max 0.01 No relaxation
23. Cyanide (as CN) mg/L, Max 0.05 No relaxation
24. Lead (as Pb) mg/L, Max 0.05 No relaxation
25. Zinc (as Zn) mg/L, Max 5 15
26. Anionic detergents (as MBAS) mg/L, Max 0.2 1.0
27. Chromium (as Cr6+) mg/L, Max 0.05 No relaxation
28. Poly nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (as PAH) -- --
g/L, Max
29. Mineral Oil mg/L, Max 0.01 0.03
30. Pesticides mg/L, Max Absent 0.001
31. Radioactive Materials
i. Alpha emitters Bq/L, Max -- 0.1

ii. Beta emitters pci/L, Max -- 1.0

32. Alkalinity mg/L, Max 200 600

33. Aluminium (as Al) mg/L, Max 0.03 0.2
34. Boron mg/L, Max 1 5
4