Conference LIS 2022 @ Kota Jambi, Indonesia.

E-ISSN: 2985-4393

ENG 004 :
A Review on Analysis of Parameters Affecting
Transesterification Reaction using Waste Cooking Oil
Feedstock to Produce Biodiesel
Mohd Affandi Mohd Ali1,* Rosmawati Binti Jalal 1, Zaini Bin Ashari2
1,2
Petrochemical Engineering Department
Polytechnic Tun Syed Nasir Syed Ismail
KM1, Jln Panchor, 84600 Pagoh, Muar Johor
*
Corresponding author: m.affandi@ptsn.edu.my

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this research is to examine the factors that influence biodiesel
production from waste cooking oil in the Malaysian market. Due to their low free fatty
acid concentration and lack of/zero H2O content, virgin oils have traditionally been
used to make biodiesel. Many issues have been made worse by virgin oil, such as oil
shortages caused by a food shortage and pollution, as well as other things that have
made the economy less sustainable. The literature reviewed was selective and
critically determined the likelihood of parameters were affected biodiesel production
efficiency. According to the researcher and industry player, 0.5 to 3 % of free fatty
acid, non/zero H2O content, heterogeneous catalyst 1-5 wt%, methanol/oil ratio 1:5
mole, temperature for single-step transesterification ranging from 25 to 85 °C and
reaction time from 2-10 min could give good feedback to the high percentage of
biodiesel and environmental benign.

Keywords: Free Fatty Acid; H2O; Pre-Treatment; Heterogeneous; Waste Cooking

Oil

INTRODUCTION
The biodiesel sector in Malaysia has a number of challenges. Biodiesel
commercialisation was stymied by a lack of feedstock availability and high costs. Biodiesel
feedstock accounts for 70-80% of the overall cost of manufacturing, according to Demirbas
(2007). This is a significant portion of the entire cost of producing energy fuels. Because oil-
producing plants are now yielding less oil, this has an effect on the production of fatty acid
methyl esters (FAME). Meaningful changes in agricultural operations and much increased
output are necessary before FAME can make a significant contribution as an alternative fuel.
It is essential that farmers ensure a long-term supply in order to lessen the risk of a project
investment. The majority of biodiesel is made from expensive, high-quality vegetable oil,
which adds to its price. However, repurposing used cooking oils may solve this issue. Topare
et al. (2021) claim that waste cooking oil (WCO) may reduce the cost of biodiesel by as much
as two to three times. Despite this, there is still a problem in collecting waste oil in a
systematic manner over time. Additionally, these low-cost feedstocks generally include high
contaminants, more water, and FFA that cannot be efficiently converted to biodiesel. A study
by Cordero-Ravelo and Schallenberg-Rodriguez (2018) found that water might have a
higher impact than the presence of FFA. Ideally, the feedstock should be water-free. The
catalyst will reduce the conversion rate of methyl esters regardless of how little water content
it has (0.1 percent). When water and FFA are present, soap is formed, preventing the ester
and glycerine from being separated. As a result, the presence of water in the catalyst's
surface serves as a barrier between the reactant and the active site of the catalyst, so
reducing its efficacy. By replacing heterogeneous catalysis with homogeneous catalysis,
heterogeneous catalysis simplifies the separation phase. Apart from these advantages, the

25
 Conference LIS 2022 @ Kota Jambi, Indonesia. E-ISSN: 2985-4393

heterogeneous catalyst is environmentally friendly and easy to recycle. Eventually,

production costs may be significantly reduced.
In order to keep up with the demand for gasoline, it is imperative that manufacturing
technologies be developed. Malaysia has the potential to become a world-class biodiesel
producer because to advanced technologies like microwave heating, which can increase
production volume and quality. The cost of operating the biodiesel processing facility and its
related aspects must be reduced. It is thus critical to design a continuous process to replace
the lengthy batch process, since the latter has high operating costs, high labour intensity,
and complicated procedures that may damage the biodiesel sector. Commercial-scale
processing plants utilising new technologies need government funds right now because of
the high risk involved in constructing such plants on a small scale. PME biodiesel's tendency
to gel at lower temperatures is a significant source of worry, and most of the research is
aimed at finding an additive that might alleviate this problem. When compared to petroleum
diesel, biodiesel has a greater cloud and pour point. Driving ability is affected by PME
exports in cold climate regions. Blending it with diesel fuel (e.g. B5) is an alternative
approach.
The Malaysian government, on the other hand, just approved the Renewable Energy
Policy and Action Plan, which will be implemented under the 10th Malaysian Strategic Plan,
which will run from 2011 to 2015. This would help solve the problem of biodiesel
manufacturing. Biodiesel utilisation, the expansion of the biodiesel business, lower costs for
biodiesel production plants, and a better environment for future generations are some of the
goals of this strategy. This demonstrates that the Malaysian government is proactively
addressing the problem of Malaysian biodiesel manufacturing.

Figure 1: a) Single-Step Transesterification b) Biodiesel Purification

METHODOLOGY
One layer of the WCO was discovered to be darker and more viscous than the other,
which may have been due to the presence of water. As a result, just the top layer was
employed in the research. Once it had been passed through the sieve (200 µm size), the top
layer could be used. Excess contaminants were removed by heating and centrifuging the
crude WCO. Prior to transesterification, the cleaned oil was heated to the required reaction
temperature.
Biodiesel was produced from waste cooking oil by using a single-step
transesterification procedure, Figure 1a). Thus, WCO must include less than 3% of FFAs
and water (H2O) content in order to create more methyl ester. Using a stirrer, a
predetermined mixture of catalyst and methanol was heated to a homogenous state. Two
separate layers were formed when the product was allowed to settle for 24 hours. Warm
water was then used to remove the remaining methanol and glycerol from WCOME, figure
1b. The florisil being added to the crude biodiesel and forcefully agitated at 40°C to remove
the water residual during the purification process. The flowchart in Figure 2 illustrates the
WCO reaction process.

26
 Conference LIS 2022 @ Kota Jambi, Indonesia. E-ISSN: 2985-4393

Waste Cooking Oil

Pre-treatment
Bleaching earth

Oil

1. Free Fatty Acid (0.5-3%)

2. H20 content (zero)

Clean WCO Heating

Process

Reaction Section

Methanol

Catalyst

Florisil Biodiesel
Biodiesel
Purification

Glycerol

Figure 2: Reaction Methodology of WCO

FREE FATTY ACID (FFA)

When an alkali catalyst is employed to transesterify triglycerides with alcohol, the FFA
and H2O have unfavourable effects on the process. The FFA is the most significant factor
that has an impact on biodiesel production. Potentiometric titrators, model 785 DMP titrino
(metrohm), Figure 4 was used to determine the number of AV and FFA present in the oil.
Acidity rises in direct proportion to the FFA concentration. Reported by Khan et al. (2021),
the level of FFA in the triglycerides should be in the range of 0.5 to 3% in order for the alkali
catalyst transesterification reaction to work well. Greater the amount of FFA present in the
triglycerides (more than 3 percent), the more probable it is that they will react with the alkali
catalyst, generating soap and decreasing the conversion rate. Meanwhile, an acid catalyst
is required as a pre-treatment step to reduce the FFA level before triglycerides can be turned
into biodiesel.

Figure 4: Potentiometric titrators, 785 DMP titrino (metrohm)

H2O CONTENT
The presence of water (H2O) must be avoided in order to get the most out of biodiesel
conversion. Figure 4 shown the differentiate colour between high and lower water
concentration of H2O in the oil with >0.1 % w/w and 0.06 % w/w, respectively. Therefore,
hydrolysis of biodiesel and creation of soap are both facilitated by the presence of water in

27
 Conference LIS 2022 @ Kota Jambi, Indonesia. E-ISSN: 2985-4393

transesterification reactions, hence water-free reactants are required for this process.
Because of this, more gel might be made and it might be more difficult to separate glycerol.
According to the results of an experimental investigation conducted by Prathviraj et al.
(2020), the presence of water (more than 0.06 percent w/w) results in hydrolysis and soap
production, which decreases the catalyst efficiency and makes downstream recovery
problematic. Demonstrated by Zhao et al. (2019) that even water concentrations as low as
0.1% by weight and at relatively moderate temperatures may induce saponification of ester
to occur during the alcoholysis of oil, resulting in a reduction in the conversion of
triglycerides.

Figure 4: Differentiate colour of water content in oil, 1) Crude WCO 2) Clean crude WCO 3)
fresh WCO (after heated)

According to a study conducted by Cordero-Ravelo and Schallenberg-Rodriguez

(2018), water might have a more substantial impact on the transesterification process than
the presence of FFA in the triglycerides. The quantity of alcohol and catalyst needed for the
procedure was found to be much lower when the moisture content was reduced prior to
transesterification, reported by Leung et al. (2010). They discovered that drying soybean
flakes until the water content was nil resulted in a 60 percent drop in methanol and a 56
percent reduction in sodium hydroxide concentrations. Meanwhile, biodiesel conversion with
a sample containing 2.6 wt. percent water reduces the effectiveness of methanol and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) by 40% and 33%, respectively. Consequently, removing any remaining
water content prior to initiating the transesterification process is critical.

CATALYST EFFECT
The quantity and type of catalyst used in the transesterification reaction process are
two of the most critical elements to consider. Homogeneous, heterogeneous, and biocatalyst
catalysts may all be divided into three distinct groups: When compared to biocatalysts, the
short reaction time and cheap cost of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts have
drawn the most attention in industrial practise, Kumar et al. (2021). Meanwhile, alkali and
acid catalysts make up the majority of the heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts.
According to Shahid and Jamal (2011), different types of catalysts (alkali, acid or enzyme)
have been used depending on what kind of raw feedstock in determining the outcome of
biodiesel production. The biodiesel synthesis process relies heavily on the kind of catalyst
used. Catalysts are primarily used to speed up the rate of reaction in order to provide better
quality, a greater yield, and more profit. Table 1 compares homogeneous and
heterogeneous alkali catalysts, as well as their benefits and drawbacks, Leung et al. (2010).
According to table 1, catalysts from heterogeneous alkali are more ecologically friendly and
less pollution, which are being discussed depth in the next section.

28
 Conference LIS 2022 @ Kota Jambi, Indonesia. E-ISSN: 2985-4393

Table 1: Alkali catalyst homogeneous vs heterogeneous

No Variable Alkali Homogeneous Alkali Heterogeneous
Catalyzed Catalyzed
1 Catalyst e.g. NaOH, KOH, NaOCH3, and CaO, CaTiO3, CaO-CeO2,
KOCH3 CaMnO3, Ca2Fe2O5,
2 Reaction 28 to 70 °C >65 to 80 °C
Temperature
3 FFA % content <3% <3%
4 Acceptable anhydrous conditions anhydrous conditions
moisture content (< 0.06 % w/w) (< 0.06 % w/w)
5 Reaction times 0.5 to 1 h 3 to 69 h (according to the type
and quantity of alcohol)
6 Rate of Reaction High conversion rate (Increase Moderate conversion
catalytic activity) (Higher selectivity)
7 Post-treatment Catalyst is irreversible. Catalyst can be recovered
8 Processing Limited use of continuous Limited use of continuous
methodology mode mode
9 Separation Difficult Easy
10 Purification More wastewater Less wastewater
11 Catalyst reuse Not recyclable Recyclable
Source: (Leung et al. 2010)

HETEROGENEOUS ALKALI CATALYSTS

Single metal oxide, mixed metal oxide, supported alkali earth metal, zeolites, clay
minerals (e.g., hydrotalcites), and ion exchange resins are the six distinct groups of
heterogeneous alkali catalysts. The waste Limestone Base Catalyst (LBC) was selected as
a heterogeneous alkali catalyst in this study. According to the X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
examination, the principal constituents in the limestone-based catalyst are calcium oxide,
CaO (66.61 wt. percent), silicates, SiO 2 (21.92 wt. percent), aluminate, Al 2O3 (6.33 wt.
percent), and ferrite, Fe2O3 (4.00 wt. percent). CaO earth metal oxides are therefore one of
the prospective material for heterogeneous alkali catalysed biodiesel transesterification.
Because of their poor solubility in the reaction mixture, alkali earth metal oxides have been
studied. The activity of metal oxides is normally determined by their basic strength, with
strong base oxides having greater activity. Based on a batch laboratory scale reactor
investigation, Zabeti et al. (2010) found that a 6 weight percent CaO/Al 2O3 catalyst loading
offered excellent optimal reaction conditions at a 12:1 methanol to oil ratio and a 65°C
reaction temperature in 5 hours.
Liu et al. (2008) observed that a larger water content in the reaction process might
boost the activity of CaO. This is because of the presence of O 2-ions on the surface of the
catalyst, whereby, these ions draw H+ from the water molecules and put them on the catalyst.
As a result, the formation of OH- leads to the formation of methoxide anions, which are good
catalysts for the transesterification reaction because they help the process move faster.
Saponification may occur if the fatty acids are hydrolyzed in the presence of too much water
(more than 2.8% by weight of soybean oil). Granados et al. (2007) found contradictory
findings in their study of the influence of water and carbon dioxide on the catalytic activity of
CaO in the methanolysis of sunflower oil. Their study found that water and carbon dioxide
from the air could easily get into CaO. After that, this catalyst was getting contaminated, they
came up with a way to get rid of it by a heating treatment method. The catalytic activity of a
catalyst may be improved by calcining it at a high temperature (700 °C). Before it could be
used, it was strictly forbidden to be exposed to the air. According to Roschat et al. (2012),
they looked at the waste coral fragments that had been calcined at 700 °C. They found that
the best ratio of methanol to oil was 15:1, and the temperature of 65 °C for two hours gave

29
 Conference LIS 2022 @ Kota Jambi, Indonesia. E-ISSN: 2985-4393

the optimum conversion (98%). Meanwhile, after 1.5 hours of calcination at 900 °C for
crushed limestone, researchers from Kouzu et al. (2008) discovered the ideal reaction
conditions for the production of a CaO catalyst.

ALCOHOL AND THE MOLAR RATIO

Other variables that affect biodiesel conversion include the type of alcohol used and
the molar ratio. Methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol are some of the alcohols that may
be utilised in the transesterification process. The most common solvents employed in the
transesterification process are methanol and ethanol. Price, availability, practicality
(recovery and recycling), excellent performance (reactivity), good chemical and physical
qualities, and no influence on global warming are all factors to consider when choosing an
appropriate alcohol. The use of various alcohols impacts the reaction kinetics and production
of biodiesel, according to Mazzocchia et al. (2004). Sanli and Canakci (2008) investigated
the effect of different alcohol types such as methanol, ethanol, 2-propanol, and 1-butanol for
a 48-hour period and found that methyl esters, ethyl esters, 2-propyl esters, and 1-butyl
esters converted at 87.8%, 95.8%, 92.9 percent, and 92.1 percent, respectively. The results
revealed that for longer chains with larger molecular weights of alcohol, more conversion
was found at longer reaction times. The shorter chain required less reaction time,
temperature and alcohol concentration.
Methanol is the most practical and desired alcohol in industrial and laboratory
applications Atapour et al. (2013). It is inexpensive and offers physicochemical benefits.
Methanol reacts swiftly with triglycerides, a catalyst, and may be readily dissolved in it.
However, according to Leung et al. (2010), methanol as a solvent is very dangerous because
it can explode. Methanol and methoxide are very harmful and poisonous substances that
must be handled with caution. Methanol has a flash point of 10 °C and ethanol has an 8 °C
flash point. Both are extremely flammable but safer than other alcohols.
Biodiesel conversion is influenced by the quantity of alcohol and the oil molar ratio.
It's critical to use the proper quantity of alcohol when making biodiesel. Many studies have
examined alcohol to oil molar ratios ranging from 3:1 to 30:1, as reported by Gude et al.
(2013). In the alkali transesterification of vegetable oil, Meher et al. (2006) investigated
molar ratios of alcohol to oil ranging from 6:1 to 24:1. However, according to (Murugesan et
al. 2009), 6:1 alcohol to oil molar ratio is regarded as the benchmark for many types of oil
and is often utilised in industrial processes. According to their findings, alcohol to oil ratios
of 5:1 (Terigar et al. 2010), 8:1 (Liao and Chung 2013), 9:1 (Lertsathapornsuk et al. 2003),
12:1 (Lertsathapornsuk et al. 2008) and higher may be employed for transesterification
reaction.
In order to move the transesterification process to the right side and hence increase
conversion, more alcohol is needed. As a result, it would need a significant amount of mass
transfer resistance in order for the reaction to occur at a predictable rate. Even so, the
recovery and separation processes were hampered by too much alcohol, resulting in a stable
emulsion of biodiesel and glycerol. This stable emulsion enhances the price of
manufacturing since it is more expensive to make. An excessive amount of alcohol has been
proven to complicate the separation process, Sharma and Singh (2009). Alcohol
consumption increases the solubility of glycerol, which lowers the yields of biodiesel since
part of the glycerol remains in the biodiesel phase.

REACTION TIME
Higher biodiesel conversion is possible when the correct reaction time and
temperature are used. Initially, Meher et al. (2006) found that the first rate of reaction was
sluggish because of the mixing and dispersion of alcohol into the oil system during the first
minute. Even at room temperature, given enough time, the reaction progressed fairly quickly

30
 Conference LIS 2022 @ Kota Jambi, Indonesia. E-ISSN: 2985-4393

until maximum yield was achieved, depending on the oil, alcohol, and catalyst utilised. As
found by Leung et al. (2010), transesterification in reverse reduces the product yield (loss of
methyl esters) and also causes more fatty acids to be created. At a reaction time of 120
minutes, the production of biodiesel achieves maximal conversion using the standard
technique and then stays steady as the reaction time increases. Using microwaves, El
Sherbiny et al. (2010) found that reaction time was lowered from 90 minutes to 2-10 minutes
instead of 150 minutes (90 minutes for pre-treatment and 60 minutes for transesterification).
The utilisation of high FFA content feedstock’s, such as jatropha oil (Yaakob et al. 2008) and
rubber seed oil (Ramadhas et al. 2005), is also possible using microwave technology.
However, the microwave-aided reactor's production might be harmed without an appropriate
control mechanism.

REACTION TEMPERATURE
Increasing the temperature of the reaction has a significant effect on how quickly
transesterification may proceed. Higher temperatures are often used to carry out the higher
conversion transesterification process (closer to the alcohol boiling point). Hence, more
energy is required to produce a product at a higher reaction temperature, which raises the
price. According to Sharma and Singh (2009), the typical operating temperature is between
28 and 65 degrees Celsius. At temperatures of 23 °C and 60 °C, the reaction rates of
transesterification of soybeans with methanol and NaOH were compared by Haas et al.
(2004). Methyl esters were produced in substantial concentrations at both temperatures,
although a greater molar ratio of methanol was needed at 23 °C than at 60 °C. As stated by
Murugesan et al. (2009), the maximum production of esters occurs at temperatures ranging
from 60 to 80 °C when the alcohol to oil molar ratio is 6:1. At temperatures ranging from 25
to 85 degrees Celsius, Gerpen et al. (2004) investigated transesterification, whereas Koh
and Mohd. Ghazi (2011) claim that the reaction takes place between 60 and 70 degrees
Celsius. For transesterification at ambient pressure, researchers typically use 40 to 80 °C,
but this temperature range may be increased to 200 to 300 °C in pressurised systems.
Rapeseed and palm oil transesterification was explored by Biktashev et al. (2011) in
supercritical methanol and alcohol at temperatures ranging from 300 to 350°C and pressures
between 20 and 30 MPa. In comparison to the supercritical approach, the biodiesel
conversion at the same temperature was 96 percent for ethanol and 100 percent for
methanol. Oil, alcohol, and catalysts all have a role in determining the optimal heating
temperature. Even while higher temperatures increase the conversion yields of methyl
esters, they also intensify the saponification process, resulting in lower conversion yields.
The boiling point of the alcohol is a major factor in determining the ideal reaction
temperature. At 64.7 °C, the boiling point of methanol was reached, so methanol evaporated
above this degree. Catalytic transesterification may also speed up the saponification of
glycerine. Because the optimal reaction temperature is between 60 and 65 degrees Celsius,
there is no need for pressured reaction equipment.

CONCLUSION
The present review shows that waste cooking oil is a lower feedstock cost 83.3%
within current prices of virgin oil in market but needs pre-treatment since it has high FFA
value and H2O content. Therefore, the review study can be concluded that the range 0.5 to
3 % of Free Fatty Acid and non/zero H 2O content of feedstock are the most important to
ensure higher conversion biodiesel using single step transesterification methods. Moreover,
Malaysia is moving forward to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs) impact of 17
interlinked global goals designed to be a "blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable
future for all".
Collaboration with public–private partnership and giving incentive-based collection,
and policy implementation significantly encourage people to remove various barriers and
awareness of waste cooking oil, thus Malaysia achieved the agenda for sustainable
development in 2030. The collection mechanism models of use cooking oil need to look over
critically and design for easy way people throw and minimize the hazard regarding the oil
waste in future.

31
 Conference LIS 2022 @ Kota Jambi, Indonesia. E-ISSN: 2985-4393

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors want to say thank you to their colleagues for their help and to the
administration of Polytechnic Tun Syed Nasir Syed Ismail for giving us the space and
resources we needed to do this study.

REFERENCES
Atapour, Mehdi., Hamid. Reza. Kariminia, and Parivash. Moslehi. Moslehabadi. (2013).
‘Optimization of Biodiesel Production by Alkali-Catalyzed Transesterification of Used
Frying Oil’. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 1–7.
Biktashev, Sh. A., R. A. Usmanov, and I. A. Gabitov, R. R., Gazizov, R. A., Gumerov, F. M.,
Gabitov, F. R., Abdulagatov, I. M., Yarullin, R. S., Yakushev. (2011).
‘Transesterification of Rapeseed and Palm Oils in Supercritical Methanol and Ethanol’.
Biomass and Bioenergy 35(7):2999–3011.
Cordero-Ravelo, Virginia and Julieta Schallenberg-Rodriguez. (2018). ‘Biodiesel Production
as a Solution to Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) Disposal. Will Any Type of WCO Do for a
Transesterification Process? A Quality Assessment’. Journal of Environmental
Management 228(August):117–29.
Demirbas, Ayhan. (2007). ‘Importance of Biodiesel as Transportation Fuel’. Energy Policy
35(9):4661–70.
Gerpen, J. V, B. Shanks, and D. Pruszko, R., Clements. (2004). ‘Biodiesel Production
Technology Biodiesel Production Technology’. National Renewable Energy Laboratory
105.
Granados, M. L., M. D. Z. Poves, and J. L. G. Alonso, D.M., Mariscal, R., Galisteo, F.C.,
Moreno-Tost, R., Santamaría, J., Fierro. (2007). ‘Biodiesel from Sunflower Oil by Using
Activated Calcium Oxide’. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 73(3–4):317–26.
Gude, V. G., P. Patil, and N. Martinez-guerra, E., Deng, S., Nirmalakhandan. (2013).
‘Microwave Energy Potential for Biodiesel Production’. Sustainable Chemical
Processes 1–31.
Haas, M. J., K. M. Scott, and T. A. Marmer, W. N., Foglia. (2004). ‘In Situ Alkaline
Transesterification: An Effective Method for the Production of Fatty Acid Esters from
Vegetable Oils’. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 81(1):83–89.
Khan, Haris Mahmood, Tanveer Iqbal, Saima Yasin, Muhammad Irfan, Mohsin Kazmi, H.
Fayaz, M. A. Mujtaba, Chaudhry Haider Ali, M. A. Kalam, Manzoore Elah M. Soudagar,
and Nehar Ullah. (2021). ‘Production and Utilization Aspects of Waste Cooking Oil
Based Biodiesel in Pakistan’. Alexandria Engineering Journal 60(6):5831–49.
Koh, May Ying and Tinia Idaty Mohd. Ghazi. (2011). ‘A Review of Biodiesel Production from
Jatropha Curcas L. Oil’. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15(5):2240–51.
Kouzu, M., T. Kasuno, and J. Tajika, M., Yamanaka, S., Hidaka. (2008). ‘Active Phase of
Calcium Oxide Used as Solid Base Catalyst for Transesterification of Soybean Oil with
Refluxing Methanol’. Applied Catalysis A: General 334(1–2):357–65.
Kumar, Harendra, A. Annam Renita, and A. Anderson. (2021). ‘Response Surface
Optimization for Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil Utilizing Eggshells as
Heterogeneous Catalyst’. Materials Today: Proceedings 47:1054–58.
Lertsathapornsuk, V., R. Pairintra, and K. Aryusuk, K., Krisnangkura. (2008). ‘Microwave
Assisted in Continuous Biodiesel Production from Waste Frying Palm Oil and Its
Performance in a 100 KW Diesel Generator’. Fuel Processing Technology
89(12):1330–36.
Lertsathapornsuk, V., P. Ruangying, and K. Pairintra, R., Krisnangkura. (2003). ‘Continuous
Transethylation of Vegetable Oils by Microwave Irradiation’. Bioresources and
Technology 11–14.
Leung, Dennis Y. C., Xuan Wu, and M. K. H. Leung. (2010). ‘A Review on Biodiesel
Production Using Catalyzed Transesterification’. Applied Energy 87(4):1083–95.
Liao, Chien Chih and Tsair Wang Chung. (2013). ‘Optimization of Process Conditions Using
Response Surface Methodology for the Microwave-Assisted Transesterification of
Jatropha Oil with KOH Impregnated CaO as Catalyst’. Chemical Engineering Research
and Design 91(12):2457–64.

32
 Conference LIS 2022 @ Kota Jambi, Indonesia. E-ISSN: 2985-4393

Liu, X., H. He, and X. Wang, Y., Zhu, S., Piao. (2008). ‘Transesterification of Soybean Oil to
Biodiesel Using CaO as a Solid Base Catalyst’. Fuel 87:216–21.
Mazzocchia, C., G. Modica, and R. Kaddouri, A., Nannicini. (2004). ‘Fatty Acid Methyl Esters
Synthesis from Triglycerides over Heterogeneous Catalysts in the Presence of
Microwaves’. Comptes Rendus Chimie 7(6–7):601–5.
Meher, L. C., D. V. Sagar, and S. N. Naik. (2006). ‘Technical Aspects of Biodiesel Production
by Transesterification - A Review’. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
10(3):248–68.
Murugesan, A., C. Umarani, and N. Chinnusamy, T.R., Krishnan, M., Subramanian, R.,
Neduzchezhain. 2009. ‘Production and Analysis of Bio-Diesel from Non-Edible Oils -
A Review’. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13(4):825–34.
Prathviraj, M. P., Augustine Samuel, and K. Narayan Prabhu. (2020). ‘Reprocessed Waste
Sunflower Cooking Oil as Quenchant for Heat Treatment’. Journal of Cleaner
Production 269:122276.
Ramadhas, A., S. Jayaraj, and C. Muraleedharan. 2005. ‘Biodiesel Production from High
FFA Rubber Seed Oil’. Fuel 84(4):335–40.
Roschat, W., M. Kacha, and V. Yoosuk, B., Sudyoadsuk, T., Promarak. (2012). ‘Biodiesel
Production Based on Heterogeneous Process Catalyzed by Solid Waste Coral
Fragment’. Fuel 98:194–202.
Sanli, H. and M. Canakci. (2008). ‘Effects of Different Alcohol and Catalyst Usage on
Biodiesel Production from Different Vegetable Oils’. Energy & Fuels 22:2713–19.
Shahid, Ejaz M. and Younis. Jamal. (2011). ‘Production of Biodiesel: A Technical Review’.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15(9):4732–45.
Sharma, Y. C. and B. Singh. (2009). ‘Development of Biodiesel: Current Scenario’.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13(6–7):1646–51.
El Sherbiny, Shakinaz A., Ahmed A. Refaat, and Shakinaz T. El Sheltawy. (2010).
‘Production of Biodiesel Using the Microwave Technique’. Journal of Advanced
Research 1(4):309–14.
Terigar, Beatrice. G., Sundar. Balasubramanian, and Dorin. Lima, Marybeth., Boldor. (2010).
‘Transesterification of Soybean and Rice Bran Oil with Ethanol in a Continuous-Flow
Microwave-Assisted System: Yields, Quality, and Reaction Kinetics’. Energy & Fuels
24(12):6609–15.
Topare, Niraj S., Kiran D. Patil, and Satish V Khedkar. (2021). ‘Effects of Operating
Parameters on Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil under Ultrasonic
Irradiation’. Materials Today: Proceedings 46:10638–41.
Yaakob, Z., I. S. Sukarman, and F. Kamarudin, S. K., Abdullah, S. R. S., Mohamed. (2008).
‘Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Curcas by Microwave Irradiation’. Renewable
Energy Sources 235–39.
Zabeti, Masoud, Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud, and Mohamed Kheireddine Aroua. (2010).
‘Biodiesel Production Using Alumina-Supported Calcium Oxide: An Optimization
Study’. Fuel Processing Technology 91(2):243–48.
Zhao, Qi, Jian Li, Yang Xu, Dandan Lv, Kanyasiri Rakariyatham, and Dayong Zhou. (2019).
‘Rapid Extraction of Free Fatty Acids from Edible Oil after Accelerated Storage Based
on Amino-Modified Magnetic Silica Nanospheres’. Analytical Methods 11(35):4520–
27.

33