Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938

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Ad Hoc Networks
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adhoc

A primer on design aspects, recent advances, and challenges in

cellular device-to-device communication
Oluwatosin Ahmed Amodu a,∗, Mohamed Othman a,b,∗, Nor Kamariah Noordin c,
Idawaty Ahmad a
a
Department of Communication Technology and Network, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor D.E., Malaysia
b
Laboratory of Computational Science and Mathematical Physics, Institute for Mathematical Research (INSPEM), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM,
Serdang, Selangor D.E., Malaysia
c
Department of Computer and Communication Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor D.E.,
Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Device-to-Device (D2D) communication is one of the technologies on the spotlight for enhancing the
Received 23 February 2019 cellular network performance towards the fifth generation wireless systems. It has diverse potentials to
Revised 16 May 2019
cater for both critical and non-critical applications. For example, timely information dissemination can be
Accepted 27 June 2019
achieved during disasters using D2D communication. Also, content sharing and real-time applications can
Available online 28 June 2019
be effectively facilitated. Recently, new applications and technologies are beginning to embrace D2D to
Keywords: further improve their performance in terms of spectral efficiency, latency, and energy efficiency. However,
D2D this is not bereft of technical challenges due to the peculiar limitations of traditional D2D communication
Interference such as interference. In this paper, we focus on techniques for managing these challenges with regards
Metrics to mode selection, power control, and resource allocation. As compared with other contemporary works
Mode selection on this subject, we discuss these issues in line with some of the most recent research trends. In addition,
Power control
we compile pertinent design considerations of D2D discussed in literature while extracting new patterns
Resource allocation
to familiarize readers with applications, models, methods and metrics studied lately. Furthermore, we
highlight and classify some of the key challenges of D2D communication with respect to current and fu-
ture generation cellular technologies, giving a comprehensive outlook of new research problems recently
identified in this area.
© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction core network in D2D communication [5–7]. This improves network

Device-to-Device (D2D) communication coexisting with cellular
networks is attracting a lot of attention in academia and industry
nowadays. This is due to its potential to leverage device proxim-
ity to increase the energy efficiency of the network. Similarly, it
can facilitate spectral reuse and hop gains [1–3]. D2D finds great
prospects to improve the spectral efficiency of the network when
considering that most mobile users use applications with high data
rates such as video sharing and proximity-aware social networking
[4].
In traditional networks, devices communicate through the base
station (BS) even when they are very close to each other. Mean-
while, devices make mutual communication without traversing the
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: amoduahmedtosin@gmail.com, amodu_oa@ieee.org (O.A.
Amodu), mothman@upm.edu.my (M. Othman), nknordin@upm.edu.my (N.K. No-
ordin), idawaty@upm.edu.my (I. Ahmad).
performance. Mobile operators can as well generate more revenue
through charges for D2D subscribers [8,9]. From the users perspec-
tive, it is advantageous since they can receive incentives when they
relay data to other users [9]. Thus, D2D communication is con-
sidered an integral component of future fifth generation (5G) net-
works providing another network-tier and facilitating spectral re-
source reuse [6,10].
Another driving force behind the need for D2D communication
is the drastic increase in data traffic and content sharing among
mobile users. These contents demand high data rates and huge
bandwidth as seen in video streaming and mobile computing. With
the rate of traffic growth, it is onerous for the current cellular sys-
tems to cope with this increase in traffic [11]. D2D communication
also comes with improved network performance in other aspects
such as reduced delay, improved coverage, energy efficiency, in-
creased throughput, reduced latency, improved fairness, and better
resource usage [4,6,7,12,13]. Similarly, in a controlled environment

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adhoc.2019.101938
1570-8705/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
Fig. 1. Typical D2D communication scenarios with one base station in each cell.
where D2D underlays cellular networks, higher service guarantees
can be provided [14].
From an architectural point of view, D2D pairs may function
autonomously while being partly or fully controlled by the oper-
ators. It can be used with other cooperative communication tech-
nologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and cognitive radios to
enhance the spectral efficiency of the network. Also in centralized
networking to improve network performance under the control of
the network operator [6]. A multihop D2D cooperative communi-
cation could be used to extend coverage during emergencies in no-
coverage zones and coverage-holes. For instance, Shaikh and Wis-
müller [9] mentioned the role of non-governmental organizations
during disasters to provide communication services. To cater for
the arrival delay in such services, local personnel can give first-aid
to the injured and affected people by discovering proximate de-
vices using D2D communication. They can also communicate with
other concerned entities (such as close relatives and other person-
nel) utilizing multihop D2D communication.
Other desired goals achievable by D2D communication are load
management and load balancing. To increase coverage and capac-
ity, devices having better coverage can function as relay nodes to
support other user equipment (UE) having low coverage [13] as
depicted in Fig. 1 which is inspired by [1]. After frequency bands
are properly allocated to D2D pairs and interference is managed,
it is possible to achieve network-wide performance optimization
with the help of the operator. Common links among traffic routes
of several D2D pairs can be created to maximize the benefit of
network coding techniques by properly allocating time-slots or
scheduling transmissions for D2D communication [4,15]. Similarly,
the backhaul reduction of small cells such as femtocells, eases D2D
discovery in some cases since users can be assumed to be in prox-
imity when they are served by small cells due to the small radii of
those cells [1].
Despite the merits of D2D communication, it comes with sev-
eral challenges. One of the key concerns is the interference which
occurs when D2D devices share spectrum with cellular users.
Although D2D can be used to effectively offload cellular data traf-
fic and improve capacity and coverage, devices have a short com-
munication range which limits their performances and possibly in-
creases interference [16]. Poor interference control could degrade
the overall cellular network efficiency and capacity [2]. Similarly,
interference mitigation may require very complex techniques that
are difficult to implement in real network deployments [1]. An-
other major concern is that devices must continually discover each
other before they can communicate. During the discovery process,
devices must check for service compatibility as well as range [14].
A sizeable density of devices is required to increase the probabil-
ity of devices proximity. Several technical issues related to D2D
communication, especially in Long-Term Evolution (LTE)/Long-Term
Evolution-Advanced (LTE-A) networks are due to its low level of
maturity.
A good glimpse of the D2D communication paradigm, its fun-
damental aspects and associated issues in light of current research
trends will require an exhaustive examination of several portions
of current literature. This motivates us to present a primer dis-
cussing some of the design guidelines, key aspects, and recent
trends in D2D communication research. In contrast to previous sur-
veys (Table 1), we focus on some of the most recent developments
in mode selection, resource allocation and power control which are
key to addressing the interference challenge in D2D communica-
tion. These three aspects are essential for optimizing network per-
formance [46].
Mode selection is the process of determining which mode a
particular D2D pair should communicate [46]. As such it sprouts
from the different mode choices available to devices for commu-
nication and aids energy efficiency [14]. It goes a long way to de-
termine the increase/decrease in frequency reuse factor and also
impacts the level of interference between cellular and D2D users
[1]. Resource allocation involves strategies for allocating resources
(such as time and frequency) to different user devices which is
highly essential to meet the instantaneous increase in resource de-
mand [40]. Efficient resource allocation has the potential to achieve
a better Quality of Service (QoS) for cellular and D2D users [47].
Through power control, the transmit power levels of D2D user
equipments (DUEs) and BS are adjusted in the uplink and down-
link, respectively [14,40] to meet the network QoS requirement.
With regards to these aspects, we summarize recent research
in terms of their application target, model, method and metrics
considered. Distinctively from other surveys that have jointly dis-
cussed mode selection, power control and resource allocation (e.g.
[1,2,30,40,42]), we present the fundamental design considerations
and also reveal new research challenges (see Table 2). In addi-
tion, most of the articles referred to are very recent and have
not been reviewed prior to this survey. We exclude some of the
early research papers which have been discussed severally in other
surveys and introduce the most recent directions associated with
the new paradigms where D2D communication would play vi-
tal roles. Among these are caching, cloud radio access networks
(C-RANs), edge-computing, simultaneous wireless information and
power transfer (SWIPT), multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO),
Fog computing and UAVs. The overall objective of this work is to
present a concise precursory material that embraces the key is-
sues of D2D communication and some of the most recent trends
in this area while presenting a rich set of design guidelines, chal-
lenges and research directions to researchers interested in cellular
D2D communication.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: The remaining
of Section 1 briefs the origin of D2D communication, its similari-
ties and differences with other networks, and its application use-
cases. A discussion on the classification of D2D communication is
presented in Section 2. Duplexing and issues related to network
control are also discussed in this section. Section 3 is dedicated
to interference in D2D communication. The design aspects of D2D
communication relating to mode-selection, resource allocation, and
power control are presented in Section 4. Recent works in this re-
gard are systematically summarized and harmonized. Challenges
associated with D2D communication are indicated in Section 5.
Section 6 concludes this paper.
1.1. Brief origin of D2D communication
With the second generation (2G), the existence of digital cel-
lular communication began. The need then was to cater for a
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938 3

Table 1
Overview of previous surveys on D2D based on year published. ( indicates journal publication.)

Year Brief description of the survey.

[4] is the first survey on D2D communication underlay and overlay.

[7] surveys D2D research and prototypes in LTE/LTE-A.
[14] examines technical challenges, standard advancements and research aspects of D2D underlay cellular networks.
2014 [17] overviews intelligent D2D communication for IoT with a focus on the deployment of existing routing algorithms.
[18] surveys global network offloading strategies. One of such is D2D communication.
[19] examines cooperative communication in D2D-assisted networks and associated challenges.
[20] reviews cooperative communication in D2D.

[1] surveys in-band D2D communication with a focus on 3GPP LTE/LTE-A.

[10] surveys control and data planes separation architecture, coordinated multipoint and D2D.
2015 [21] reviews research on D2D channel models.
[22] analyzes D2D security architecture in 3GPP LTE/LTE-A.
[23] overviews applications and advantages of interference alignment in D2D communication.

[24] discusses LTE-D2D application in neighborhood area networks and its applicabilityto power distribution grid.
[6] surveys D2D with a proposed D2D architecture. It also discusses security with a proposed solution which uses Internet Protocol Security.
2016 [25] reviews D2D research based on frequency and control.
[26] surveys D2D and ‘integrant’ technologies such as mmWave D2D, ultra-dense networks, cognitive D2D and handover in D2D.
[27] describes mmWave propagation for D2D communication.

[28] reviews security and privacy in D2D communication.

[29] examines D2D interference management, network discovery, proximity services and security.
[30] reviews optimization techniques for resource allocation in D2D communication.
[31] reviews and classifies proposed solutions for security in D2D.
[32] considers 3GPP LTE security architecture and requirements for D2D communication.
2017 [33]surveys D2D resource allocation with respect to optimization techniques and features.
[12] surveys D2D resource allocation, interference management, and mode selection.
[34] overviews D2D features and use cases.
[35] examines the application of D2D to recent solutions for LTE in unlicensed 5GHz band and its impact on the network.
[36] reviews relay selection techniques in D2D communication for 5G cellular networks.
[37] surveys distributed resource allocation schemes for D2D communication in cellular networks.

[38] reviews recent status of D2D with respect to 3GPP standardization.

[39] discusses approaches for implementing NOMA-based D2D in 5G and IoT.
[40] surveys research issues and challenges in D2D communication.
2018
[11] surveys and classifies socially-aware D2D communication with a discussion on its associated challenges.
[9] examines and classifies routing schemes for multihop D2D communication.
[41] surveys resource allocation methods, power conservation techniques and security mechanisms.

[42] surveys the prospects of social-ties on improving D2D communication as well as associated research gaps.
[43] surveys device discovery for D2D communication in terms of processes, methods, challenges and potential solutions with a proposed device
2019
discovery technique.
[44] studies challenges, research gaps and open issues relating to the integration of D2D and ultra-dense networks.
[45] reviews mobility-aware D2D communication and its associated problems and potential solutions.

few subscribers and provide voice and data services [6]. As time
passed by, a diverse need arose for data sharing from the existing
2G till the fourth generation (4G). D2D communication originated
from adhoc and personal area networks in unlicensed Industrial
Scientific Medical (ISM) bands [10]. It was first proposed in the
academia in [48] so that multihop relays could be enabled in cellu-
lar networks. The authors of [49] investigated its use in improving
the throughput of cellular networks. As interference management
is crucial to D2D communication in cellular networks, [50] stud-
ied interference management in such a hybrid scenario. Currently,
D2D is supported in the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
to address the social and technological needs and provide support
for proximity-based services (ProSe) [1]. A feasibility study in this
regard was presented in [51].
1.2. Between D2D communication and other networks
D2D is different from other networks from a number of angles.
To begin with, cellular communication only occurs through BS in-
tervention even when devices are close to each other, however di-
rect communication between devices can occur in D2D without
any major BS intervention [12]. D2D differs from Mobile Adhoc
Networks (MANETs) and Cognitive Radio Networks (CRNs) in the
sense that the cellular network is involved in the control plane
of the communication network [4,6]. Also, challenges associated
with MANETs and CRNs such as detection of white space, colli-
sion avoidance, and synchronization are settled in D2D communi-
cation [4]. Unlike CRNs which are fully autonomous, D2D is mostly
managed by the network [1,52]. CRNs improve spectrum efficiency
from time and channel perspective while D2D could improve spec-
trum utility from a space perspective. MANETs use the unlicensed
spectrum but D2D communication may work in the licensed or un-
licensed band in different use-cases [28,32].
As compared with D2D communication which is mainly used
for content sharing, Machine-to-machine (M2M) communication
is mostly used for automatic collection and delivery of measure-
ment information [28,32]. M2M communication does not have dis-
tance restrictions for mutual communication, however, commu-
nication has to be routed through core networks, BS and M2M
servers when machine devices connect; even when they are close
[28]. On the other hand, D2D is technology-dependent since it is
focused on connecting close devices while M2M is technology-
independent and more application-based [4]. Bluetooth basically
uses the ISM band for data transmission between devices [53].
Wireless personal area networks (WPAN) and wireless local area
network (WLAN) work in license-exempt band and support low-
cost local services. D2D however, enhances cellular spectral effi-
ciency as it allows mutual device transmission in the cellular spec-
trum [6].
1.3. Applications of D2D communication
D2D communication can be used for commercial and pub-
lic safety purposes. A crucial objective of commercial D2D is
 4 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938

Ours

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

•
•
•

•
•
•
[42]

•
•
•
[40]

•
[33]

•
•

•
[32]

•
[31]

Fig. 2. Some typical use cases of D2D communication.

[30]

•
[29]

meeting the QoS requirement of users to a reasonable level. The

•

public safety category of D2D helps to ensure that users out-

[28]

side the eNodeB coverage area are able to get reliable service.
•

Such cases could occur in areas where there are no network in-
frastructures; for example where the BS is destroyed as a result
[26]

of a disaster. D2D should incorporate other network technologies

•

•
•

such as unmanned aerial vehicles and movable deployable resource

[25]

units to connect such affected areas to ‘healthy’ unaffected ar-

•
•

eas [13,54,55]. Typical applications of D2D are cellular offloading

[17]

(where D2D is used to offload traffic from the BS [40]), multicas-

•

ting, video transmission and M2M communication (Fig. 2). Others

include gaming, public safety/national security, vehicle-to-vehicle
[14]

(V2V) communication and Internet-of-vehicles (IoV) [1,13,26].

3GPP has considered using LTE to connect vehicles and road-
[12]

side infrastructure (RSI) in vehicular communication [13]. A num-

Scope of challenges discussed in this survey compared with previous related surveys.

ber of cases considered by 3GPP for the LTE-based broadband

[11]

service and proximity service (i.e. LTE V2X) include V2V, vehicle-
•

•
•

•
•

to-device (such as devices carried by pedestrians, passengers and

[7]

drivers) and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications [56]. Proac-

•

tive caching for improving users quality of experience (QoE) as

[6]

well as mobile cloud computing are other typical applications

•
•

of D2D communication. Asides the aforementioned, D2D can be

References

[4]

used for proximity services such as proximity-based advertisement

•

•
•

where access points detect D2D users and send enticing advertise-
[1]

ment messages [6,13,57].

•

•
Energy Consumption
Resource Allocation

2. D2D classification
Energy Harvesting
Device Discovery
Mode Selection
Management

UAV-assisted
Social-aware
Interference

Several classifications of D2D communication is possible [1]. For

Challenges

Modelling

mmWave

In C-RAN
Relaying
Mobility

In UDNs

instance, D2D communication can be classified based on the spec-

Security

HetNets

Caching
In Edge
SWIPT

In Fog
MIMO

trum accessed by device users, duplexing, number of hops, and

CSI

level of control. Figs. 3(a) and (b) show a typical classification and
spectrum partition model, respectively based on Refs. [1,4,9,10].
Emerging
Classical

2.1. D2D communication modes

Table 2

As regards the spectrum usage, D2D communication is referred

to as inband in the licensed spectrum while it is outband in the
unlicensed spectrum. The inband consists of underlay and overlay
modes [1]. When devices cannot communicate in D2D mode, com-
munication is done via the BS as it occurs in traditional cellular
networks i.e., cellular mode.
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
Fig. 3. (a) D2D classification and (b) spectrum partition model.
2.1.1. Inband D2D
In inband D2D, the resource allocation could be centralized
or distributed. For a centralized scheme, the eNodeB controls re-
source allocation while D2D users allocate resources in distributed
resource allocation [13]. A driving force for the utilization of in-
band D2D is the high control of licensed spectrum. D2D shares the
same radio resources with cellular users in underlay inband while
they are allocated dedicated cellular resources in overlay commu-
nication. Like wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) and LTE, devices require two
wireless interfaces for overlay D2D [6]. The interference caused by
D2D to cellular UE and cellular UE to D2D is the major drawback of
inband D2D. Mitigating this interference may require complex re-
source allocation schemes which increases the computational over-
head of D2D user or BS. Inband D2D has the following merits
[4,6,13]:
• Spatial diversity can be exploited by D2D underlay to increase
spectral efficiency. The underlay mode can use uplink or down-
link similar to overlay. A benefit of this is that the reuse factor
in underlay is higher than a cellular or overlay mode.
• Inband D2D can be supported by any cellular device since out-
band frequencies are not usually supported by the cellular in-
terface.
• Cellular spectrum can be fully managed by the BS which makes
it easier for QoS management.
• Since the D2D communication is controlled by the cellular net-
work, sophisticated resource allocation and interference mitiga-
tion techniques can be used for guaranteeing QoS within the
network.
Inband D2D has a number of demerits including the following
[12,13]:
• Cellular resources could be wasted in overlay mode.
• In underlay mode, managing interference poses serious chal-
lenges.
5
• Power control and interference management techniques are
usually characterized by high complexity resource allocation so-
lutions.
• Simultaneous D2D and cellular transmission cannot be per-
formed by a D2D user.
• Resource utilization and spectrum efficiency are less in overlay
mode.
2.1.2. Outband D2D
Eliminating the interference that occurs between cellular and
D2D links is the motivation for outband D2D [4]. Thus, the unli-
censed spectrum is used to zero-down the interference between
cellular and D2D users. TV white space is an example of an un-
licensed spectrum which can be used by cellular users for short-
range D2D communication. It is advantageous because it is energy-
efficient and D2D can enjoy higher transmission range. This is
because it has better propagation characteristics when compared
with 2.4 and 5GHz unlicensed band. Asides the aforementioned,
outband D2D scheduler does not have to put time, frequency and
geographical location into consideration, which makes resource al-
location less complex [13]. Outband D2D can be controlled or
autonomous when the radio interface is BS-coordinated or user-
coordinated, respectively. Outband D2D schemes are prone to be-
come more popular in the coming years when smartphones are
equipped with multiple wireless interfaces [4]. On the other hand,
outband D2D has a number of demerits [4,13] some of which
are:
• BS does not control interference in unlicensed spectrum.
• Outband can only be used by cellular users possessing two in-
terfaces.
• Power consumption by devices may be high due to inefficient
management of power between two interfaces.
• As protocols used by different radio interfaces are not the same,
packets (header at least) have to be encoded and decoded.
• QoS cannot be fully guaranteed since interference is beyond eN-
odeB control.
6 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
• Similar to Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, the discovery process and setup
connection in outband D2D is complex because it requires user
intervention.
• Operating in ISM band, interference of outband D2D will affect
existing technology such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
2.2. D2D control
A network can have full, partial or no control of the device
tier. This impacts on the level of signalling exchange, implemen-
tation complexity and how much modifications has to be made
to support D2D functionality [1]. In full network control, the net-
work takes care of D2D communication, radio resource manage-
ment, and power allocation. This way, individual transmissions can
be prioritized. Similarly, harmful interference between cellular and
device users can be mitigated. It can assist in device discovery as
it has a global knowledge of the approximate location of devices
intending to communicate. However, this may come at the cost of
an increased signalling overhead. For instance, the channel state
information (CSI) of all the links has to be known by the eNodeB
to apply proper interference avoidance techniques as assumed in
[58].
On the other hand, in a loose D2D control, devices can commu-
nicate autonomously between each other with very little network
intervention [59]. Resource allocation is basically handled by D2D
users. In other to make this approach more feasible, unlicensed
spectrum can be used such that the frequency is shared with Wi-
Fi or Bluetooth [59]. Autonomous D2D discovery has the potential
of reducing energy and interference associated with D2D discovery
by utilizing the knowledge of the network layout [60]. In a hybrid
D2D control [61], a good trade-off could be achieved by operators
by setting restrictions on the maximum transmit power at the side
of D2D devices. Also, resource allocation can be done on a large
time scale. D2D UEs can distributively and autonomously schedule
transmission, ‘set’ power control and handle resource management.
This could help to guarantee QoS at the expense of a reasonable
overhead [1].
2.3. Duplexing
Time Division Duplexing (TDD) and Frequency Division Du-
plexing (FDD) are two different modes by which resources can
be accessed by D2D underlaying cellular network. Research on
full duplex D2D communication is also ongoing. Devices can di-
rectly communicate using resources originally assigned for uplink,
downlink, or both. Reuse of uplink resources is the most common
approach used in the literature. This has the advantage that it is
majorly underutilized as compared with the downlink [1]. This is
because most cellular transmissions occur in the downlink since it
is more common that devices download rather than upload data.
This provides an opportunity to reuse the uplink resources which
can improve the spectral efficiency [11].
It is imperative to note however that the interference between
D2D pairs still needs to be handled. Radio resource management
techniques should be efficient and adaptive, considering interfer-
ence and traffic patterns in the uplink and downlink. They should
also be easy and inexpensive to deploy [11]. Since eNodeB is the
sole ‘victim’ of D2D interference, it is much easier to resolve inter-
ference in the uplink. However, interference in downlink is a ‘sig-
nificant’ obstacle. The use of an appropriate TDD frame may par-
ticularly address the underutilization of uplink resources [1].
When UEs transmit and receive signals over the same frequency
at the same time, they are using full duplex (FD). This is advan-
tageous because it can double the spectral efficiency. However, it
has problems of self-interference which affects its practicality. An-
other issue in the deployment of FD transmission is as a result of
the discrepancies in its transmit and receive signal powers having
a rating of over 100dB. A significant approach towards alleviating
self-interference is reducing its transmit power. A reconfigurable
topology of D2D connection can be facilitated by FD user equip-
ment in cooperative D2D networks [62].
Self-interference cancellation is a potential solution to improve
the performance of FD users. The efficacy of FD self-interference
cancellation can be enhanced by optimizing the link topology for
improved transmission and reception. This would help to boost
network coverage and throughput. In D2D networks, clusters of FD
mode can be configured to form a cooperative relay network. Se-
lecting appropriate relays, FD or half duplex mode, and power con-
trol could help to improve energy efficiency and throughput. Half
duplex (TDD or FDD) is preferred for direct connection of source
and destination. However, this may come at the expense of spec-
tral efficiency as compared with FD [62].
3. Interference
Usually, to establish a direct link between D2D users, the mini-
mum signal-interference-to-noise ratio (SINR) requirements in the
network should be met. In this respect, the interference experi-
enced by cellular users due to D2D users should be less than the
required threshold to ensure the network performance is balanced
[2]. Co-tier interference affects this SINR in orthogonal frequency-
division multiple access (OFDMA) systems when the same set of
resource blocks are allocated to a number of UEs. Regardless of the
direction of resource reuse, interference is always generated by the
D2D transmitter to D2D receiver (see Fig. 4). Hence, a proper pair-
ing of devices and frequency allocation can be effective to mitigate
co-tier interference at the D2D receiver as a result of neighbouring
D2D transmitters.
Interference can occur between D2D and cellular links in in-
band communication. This is one of the most critical issues since
D2D shares the licensed spectrum with cellular users [4]. A key
question is who interferes with whom within the network? Inter-
ference can occur from D2D to cellular network when the cellular
user and D2D links use same frequency resources in the uplink.
A typical D2D transmitter causes interference to eNodeB while a
cellular user transmitting in the uplink might also cause interfer-
ence to the D2D receiver. On the other hand, interference can occur
from the cellular network to D2D users when they reuse downlink
resources of a licensed band. In this case, the eNodeB interferes
with D2D receivers while D2D transmitters interfere with cellular
downlink users [1].
Fig. 4. An illustration of transmitting — uplink (left) and downlink (right) -and in-
terfering signals.
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938 7

The use of several interference mitigation techniques to reduce
the effects of interference when D2D and cellular networks coex-
ist (i.e., when D2D is introduced to cellular network) is referred
to as interference management in D2D-enabled cellular networks.
When interference cannot be controlled, the problem is that the
QoS of the network deteriorates [6]. As compared with the unli-
censed band, interference in the licensed band can be easily con-
trolled since the eNodeB is involved in the licensed spectrum. The
eNodeB can dedicate more resources which could be used by D2D
users in the overlay. However, this comes at the expense of lower
spectral efficiency. Also, if transmissions overlap in time and fre-
quency, interference can occur between the D2D users [1].
In the unlicensed band, interference management helps to en-
sure that other communication technologies such as Bluetooth and
Wi-Fi are not adversely affected by D2D transmission [12]. The cel-
lular users are catered for while allocating frequency resources,
by considering interference mitigation among neighbouring UEs
[1]. Interference from eNodeB also greatly affects D2D commu-
nication [63] as it reduces energy efficiency. It becomes more
challenging when other tiers are added to the network such as
femtocells.
Near-far effect and co-channel interference depend on power
allocation to cellular users and device users. To mitigate the inter-
ference in D2D communication, the transmit power threshold of
D2D users can be set subject to specific QoS target for the cellular
links. This is important as the quality of cellular communication
should also be maintained. Thus, interference from D2D to cellu-
lar users in inband D2D can be reduced when transmission power
is well managed. This may require D2D users to properly regulate
their power to meet the SINR requirements [6,64]. Proper control
of power levels of D2D UEs can help improve the system capacity,
coverage and power consumption [2].
Although a wider coverage and better signal quality can be
achieved when a higher transmit power is assigned to D2D users,
it can cause interference to cellular network at the same time.
Also, managing interference using power control may not be the
most efficient approach for managing cross-tier interference be-
tween D2D pair and cellular network as it leads to a degradation
in the cellular network performance [2]. In some cases, the power
of the eNodeB in the downlink could be lowered as long as the
performance of cellular users is not degraded. This is to ensure the
transmission rates of D2D users would improve the overall sum-
rate of network devices [14]. Other techniques for mitigating in-
terference include optimum resource allocation and proper mode
selection [6]. Asides the aforementioned, major approaches to in-
terference management and mitigation include interference avoid-
ance techniques using orthogonal time-frequency resource alloca-
tion and interference cancellation techniques [6].
Heuristics could be used to develop simple interference avoid-
ance/reduction schemes. To achieve better performance and higher
gain, advanced mathematical techniques such as game theory and
non-linear programming can be used. However, this is usually at
the expense of increased complexity and computational overhead.
Thus, both complexity and performance (in terms of gain) should
be considered when proposed schemes are compared. Stochastic
optimization or non-linear programming may not be the perfect
choice to improve the performance of applications that are delay
critical (time-stringent) and have a limited computational capac-
ity. Nevertheless, these schemes can derive sub-optimal solutions
which can improve the performance of such systems [4].
4. D2D design aspects
In this section, we present design guidelines and important
issues to be considered with respect to (w.r.t.) interference man-
agement such as mode selection, power control, and resource allo-
cation. We also discuss some of the recent developments in this re-
spect. Tables 3–6 summarize some of these advancements in terms
of application, model, method and metric considered. We note that
the categorization of the papers reviewed in this section is not per-
fectly orthogonal. For instance, Refs. [76,79–81] could be catego-
rized under both mode selection and resource allocation and the
works in Refs. [82–87] are common to power control and resource
allocation.
4.1. Mode selection
To achieve different network performance objectives, devices
could switch between different modes (such as cellular/D2D and
unicast/multicast modes). Mode selection plays an important role
in D2D communication. It affects the resource usage in the net-
work and the overall network performance [1]. Although these

Table 3
Recent advances of D2D mode selection: aspects, applications, models, methods and metrics.

Aspects References

[65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [46]

Application Social   
Content Sharing     
Video-Streaming 
Physical Layer Security 
Caching  
Model Mobility-Aware  
Social-Aware  
Energy Harvesting
mmWave 
Relay-Assisted   
Multicast  
Method Stochastic Geometry 
Game theory  
Optimization       
Scheduling 
Artificial Intelligence 
Metrics Energy Efficiency   
Fairness 
Spectral Efficiency  
Throughput/Capacity/Data-rate  
Average Secrecy Capacity 
 8
Table 4
Some recent advances of D2D resource allocation: aspects, applications, models, methods and metrics.

Aspects References

O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
[97] [99] [110] [144] [122] [121] [131] [179] [140] [116] [137] [135] [111] [136] [129] [47] [134]

Application Social  
Content sharing 
Vehicular  
Caching 
Crowd sourcing 
Real-time 
Advertisement 
Model Edge 
Social-aware 
Energy Harvesting   
Wireless Powered 
massive MIMO 
UAV-assisted 
Underlay NOMA  
Underlay WPCN  
Relay-assisted  
Selfish nodes 
Clustered 
Joint UL/DL 
Multicast 
Method Game theory 
Optimization           
Graph Theory 
Metrics Energy Efficiency 
Spectral efficiency  
Delay/Latency   
Reliability 
Network Utility 
Throughput/Capacity/Sum-rate      
Table 5
Some recent Advances of D2D Resource allocation: aspects, applications, models, methods and metrics (continued).

Aspects References

[76] [118] [117] [126] [142] [146] [150] [151] [152] [157] [160] [80] [154] [158] [161] [162] [165]

Application Fog  
Vehicular 
Security 
Model C-RAN   
Social-aware 
RN-assisted 
Multi-cell  
Multicast 

O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
Method Game theory    
Optimization            
AI/Heuristics   
Game Theory 
Graph Theory   
Metrics Energy-Efficiency  
Fairness 
Delay/Latency   
Secrecy Capacity 
Throughput / Capacity/ Sum-rate         

Table 6
Recent advances of D2D power control: aspects, applications, models, methods and metrics.

References
Aspects
[67] [113] [110] [173] [130] [169] [82] [140] [159] [124] [170] [174] [176] [177] [178] [183]

Application Social 
Video Streaming 
Vehicular  
Model Cognitive D2D 
UAV 
Small cells 
Energy Harvesting 
mmWave 
massive MIMO     
Underlay NOMA  
C-RAN 
Multicast  
Full duplex 
Method Game theory  
Optimization       
Scheduling  
Artificial Intelligence   
Metrics Energy Efficiency     
Spectral Efficiency   
Throughput/Capacity  

9
10 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
§4.1.1 Caching
Mode Selection
§4.1.2 Social aware D2D
§4.1.3 Content sharing
§4.1.4 Relay-assisted D2D
§4.1.5 Physical layer security
Fig. 5. Recent advances in mode selection discussed in this paper.
devices can communicate directly, they could also communicate
with the BS.1 This calls for proper resource management tech-
niques and methods to reduce network overload [40]. D2D under-
lay cellular networks can occur in different modes when commu-
nication is to occur between two UEs in the same cell [14,88]. De-
vices could switch between these modes depending on the net-
work conditions. They could communicate in silent mode when
resources are not enough to accommodate D2D communication re-
quest, or as a result of very strong interference due to primary cel-
lular users.
Similarly, mutual device communication may take place in the
non-orthogonal sharing mode in situations where interference oc-
curs between cellular and D2D users. The task of interference man-
agement may become complicated when several D2D pairs share
the same resources. On the other hand, it is possible to have D2D
communication with ample resources such that no interference
occurs between D2D and cellular users. However, when multiple
D2D pairs share the same resources, interference is prone to occur.
This is the case with orthogonal sharing mode where dedicated re-
sources are allocated to device users that are orthogonal to cellular
users.
In addition, D2D UEs could communicate through the eNodeB
similar to traditional cellular users. Mode selection may be based
on several decision metrics such as CSI. SINR could be used to
maximize the system capacity, reduce transmission power and im-
prove energy efficiency. A number of factors such as mobility and
signalling overhead impact on mode selection and should be con-
sidered in network design [12]. Distances between D2D pairs are
also essential considerations as recently studied in [73]. It is im-
portant to note that depending on the network design objectives,
novel mode selection schemes can be derived to include mode
switching condition that takes advantage of different modes. An
example of such is Guo et al. [72] which proposed a novel mode
selection scheme while aiming at a fairness-aware and energy-
efficient resource allocation for D2D networks. Some of the recent
advances in mode selection are discussed below as organized in
Fig. 5.
4.1.1. Caching
One approach by which the congestion of multimedia files
can be managed in 5G networks is through caching of popular
files [89]. In this approach, no additional infrastructure is needed
[67]. Also, the extra cost of using the cellular bandwidth is saved
since files are retrieved from neighbouring devices having a locally
cached file [90]. Caching has been explored to facilitate the sharing
of non-real time content dissemination and has been widely stud-
ied due to its merits in terms of data offloading [69,91]. The idea
of offloading is intuitive as mobile devices surrounding a user can
function as ‘thin remote servers’ to execute offloadable tasks which
reduces the execution time, packet loss, communication delay and
1
Note that devices can also communicate via relays.
as well improve energy consumption [92]. Considering a social di-
mension, caching could further promote offloading capability of
D2D communication, especially when transmit-receive pairs are
nearby. Nevertheless, attention should be given to which content
to be cached and which UE should be seeded2 [93].
It is essential to solve caching problems to accommodate D2D
content delivery and its QoS requirements [95]. Also, since content
caching and delivery help to facilitate content provisioning at the
edge [96], putting the diverse factors necessary for accurate net-
work modelling is prime in the design of effective content dissem-
ination. For instance, characterizing content dissemination speed
to improve its performance [57]. Studying the problems associated
with content delivery in D2D networks when deployed for caching,
Xu et al. [67] concentrated on mode selection (w.r.t. unicast or
multicast modes) and examined the energy-efficiency of these two
modes. According to the authors, when there is a large density of
transmitters, there would be more devices to cater for content re-
quests. However, much more energy would be consumed to offset
the level of interference as a result of these transmitters.
Effective caching is also important to deliver data in an ultra-
reliable manner. For example, in the course of the survey and in-
spection in industrial automation, IoT devices can produce heavy
sensor data as well as moving high-definition video. Thus, reliable
and high-rate radio links augmented by intelligent caching and de-
livery mechanisms are required to transport massive content to the
edge network infrastructure and the remote human operator. In
such circumstances, Orsino et al. [69] focused on content dissemi-
nation in such factory settings by using machines to assist in D2D
caching. The authors put forward a new approach which uses the
anticipated conditions of the radio link to predict mode selection
techniques. Development of ‘pragmatic’ incentive-aware D2D relay-
ing and mode selection schemes for industrial IoT applications are
identified as potential future directions.
4.1.2. Social aware D2D
Social aware D2D networks have recently attracted the atten-
tion of researchers studying D2D communication. The idea is to
consider the natural inclination of human beings to share interests.
For instance, people with like passions tend to share content espe-
cially when they are in proximity. In this case, users having strong
social ties could share files with those within their communica-
tion range using D2D communication. Note that even in the same
social community, people have a diverse interest which also influ-
ences the variety of content they are interested in [97,98]. In this
context, Yang et al. [79] studied the problem of stimulating cellu-
lar users to devote links for D2D communication, and how to fur-
ther allocate these links to D2D pairs. Li et al. [99] selected specific
users and designed an algorithm for distributed caching optimiza-
tion to solve the cache allocation problem in D2D underlay cellu-
lar networks with social awareness. Also, Cai et al. [77] proposed
a social-aware scheme for content downloading by constructing a
framework which takes physical transmission and social network-
ing domains into consideration. In this respect, they designed a
social-aware algorithm for mode selection which involves trans-
mission either through the BS, other devices (i.e., D2D) or multiple
collaborating D2D links.
4.1.3. Content sharing
Content sharing using D2D communication has the potential to
support local services as well as the increasing needs for file shar-
ing. For example, a user who needs popular files can get them di-
rectly from another device using D2D communication [65]. Typi-
cal use cases of content sharing also include teamwork requiring
2
Seeding means to proactively push (‘seed’) content to specific users before it is
requested by them [94].
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
files to be synchronized among members, a teacher distributing
course contents to students, and traffic control information shared
by the police [97]. Wu et al. [78] introduced the concept of a
‘social-aware rate’ which merges ‘social selfishness’3 with link rate.
Note that the the physical link performance of devices embodies
the link rate. They investigated the problem of matching providers
and requesters of user content considering the random location of
content, the limitation of device storage, and users’ selfish or al-
truistic behaviours. They developed a best-effort distributed algo-
rithm framework having the potential to cater for various practical
‘needs’.
Reference [65] proposed a social-aware mode selection scheme
for content sharing by studying the problems associated with op-
timally matching devices that can likely provide these files to
those who demand them. According to the authors, the proposed
sharing mode selection can be further studied under diverse QoS
constraints (such as real-time constraints) and different popular-
ity distribution. In the same vein, Wu et al. [68] presented a
content sharing framework with cache-aided D2D communication
and proposed a ‘sharing mode selection’ mechanism. The proposed
mechanism considers the use of incentives to motivate devices to
take part in content sharing while also maximizing social welfare.
However, joint optimal solutions involving resource scheduling,
provider-requester matching and content caching were not consid-
ered. Zhou et al. [66] investigated the problems associated with
content dissemination in the internet of vehicles (IoV) paradigm
by considering both the physical and social layers of communi-
cation w.r.t. connection probability and tightness of social rela-
tionship. They formulated and solved a joint optimization problem
consisting of peer discovery, power control, and channel selection,
but did not consider multihop vehicular-to-vehicular communica-
tion as well as content caching and dissemination optimization.
4.1.4. Relay-assisted D2D
Attaining efficient resource sharing within the D2D-enabled cel-
lular network can be quite challenging especially when devices
could communicate directly, through the eNB, or using relays.
Thus, a highly critical issue is how to effectively select the com-
munication modes for multiple D2D pairs in a cell while maximiz-
ing the cell capacity. With this in mind, Chen et al. [75] address
the problem of efficient spectrum management when the cellu-
lar user equipment (CUE) channels are reused by DUEs. Particu-
larly, efforts were directed at obtaining the optimal modes of mul-
tiple D2D pairs functioning in cellular, direct D2D, or relay-assisted
D2D modes. The objective was to improve the total system capac-
ity, therefore, achieving fairness was not considered. This implies
that D2D links with poor channel quality would not be assigned
radio resources. Along the same line, Ma et al. [74] proposed a
model to enhance the capacity of relay-enabled cellular assisted
D2D communication where relay-assisted and ‘local route’ (i.e., de-
vices communicate using BS as a relay station) D2D were consid-
ered. Through simulations, they showed that the proposed solution
is effective for improving the traffic offloading capacity of D2D ca-
pable UEs in LTE-A cellular systems.
4.1.5. Physical layer security
Physical layer security techniques are promising security tech-
niques for future generation wireless systems. They exploit the in-
herent uncertainties of the wireless channel and noise which help
to achieve a stronger level of security. For instance, artificial noise
from helper devices could help to create a channel superior to
that of eavesdropping nodes. In this case, interference is consid-
ered beneficial since the interference from underlay D2D can serve
3 4
Social selfishness captures the selfishness of users and it is obtained based on
the knowledge of social ties [78].
11
as artificial noise to protect cellular users from eavesdroppers. Nev-
ertheless, different density of D2D pairs in underlay and diverse
spectrum partition setting affects physical layer security perfor-
mance of CUE and D2D pairs [46].
Earlier works prior to Zhang et al. [46] focused on in-band D2D
from physical layer security perspective without considering mode
selection and spectrum partition4 . In this respect, [46] show the
possibility of flexibly controlling the physical layer security per-
formance of CUE and D2D pairs. For instance, the secrecy outage
probability of CUEs can be reduced when more spectrum is allo-
cated to CUE with a trade-off on outage probability of D2D pair.
They show that the impact of mode selection of D2D on the phys-
ical layer security of cellular users and D2D reliable communica-
tion performance is complex as it heavily depends on the settings
of spatial distribution of users in the network and spectrum parti-
tion. However, only one CUE and one D2D pair was assumed which
makes the considered scenario a very simple case.
4.2. Resource allocation
Spectrum allocation is a critical aspect of resource allocation.
It could either be centralized or distributed [12]. In centralized
spectrum allocation, the eNodeB assigns spectrum to connect links
within the network. This requires the eNodeB to have channel
quality information (CQI) of all these links which may come with
an extra control overhead due to the periodic reporting of the CQI.
For the distributed spectrum allocation scheme, UEs allocate spec-
trum for D2D communication. This is characterized by very low
complexity, flexibility and high adaptability as D2D pairs can au-
tonomously select frequency resources [12]. However, the global
knowledge of the network is not available, which implies it may
not perform as good as a centralized scheme.
To improve the spectral efficiency and capacity, the D2D users
could reuse CUEs resources as well as D2D resources. However, in-
terference management becomes a crucial concern. Underlay mode
has higher spectral efficiency and higher frequency reuse factor.
The question of whether D2D users reuse the uplink or downlink
impacts the level of interference in the system. To manage interfer-
ence, it is better for D2D users to communicate whenever they are
close to each other, otherwise, they use the cellular mode. When-
ever the uplink is reused and the D2D devices are closer to the
eNB, there could be considerable interference to cellular commu-
nication. In such cases, it is better to use traditional cellular com-
munication. The same applies when the transmitting cellular users
are very close to D2D users. Therefore, underlay mode should be
used when the D2D users are at an appropriate distance from cel-
lular users and the eNB. In the downlink, when the D2D users are
too close to the cellular users, the shared mode would be affected
by mutual interference between these two systems, hence the cel-
lular mode or dedicated mode is better in this case.
Several metrics could be studied w.r.t. radio resource alloca-
tion. These include energy efficiency, spectral efficiency, fairness,
and system throughput [6]. D2D communication is targeted at us-
ing existing cellular infrastructure for achieving better energy and
spectral efficiency. Energy efficiency is quite important in D2D net-
works as users are usually concerned about the battery life of their
devices [1]. Important factors affecting energy-efficiency are inter-
ference from cellular users, device mobility and transmission dis-
tance. Spectral efficiency is low in a pure cellular mode (when D2D
is not enabled) but when dedicated resources are assigned for D2D
users, the spectral efficiency may vary from medium to high [13].
Another metric associated with resource allocation is fairness.
It is decided by the fairness-index [6]. In D2D communication,
Spectrum partition in this context refers to how the spectrum of the system
should be partitioned between cellular and overlay D2D [46].
12 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938

§4.2.1 Vehicular application ming technique. A noteworthy feature in the considered scenario is
that it is more spectrally efficient as a result of the reuse of cellular
§4.2.2 Video streaming spectrum.
As recent advances in wireless networks will tremendously
§4.2.3 Guaranteeing Quality of Service contribute to the improvement of vehicular networks, advances
in computing will also have significant impact. In view of this,
§4.2.4 Advertisements Cui et al. [111] proposed a multi-platform intelligent offloading
resource allocation algorithm that can organize the computing re-
§4.2.5 Real-time applications sources dynamically to improve the performance of next genera-
tion vehicular networks. The authors deployed the k-nearest neigh-
§4.2.6 Artificial intelligence
bour algorithm to select a task offloading platform which may be
any of cloud, mobile edge or local computing. However, the to-
§4.2.7 Energy Harvesting
tal energy consumption in the studied model can be further op-
Resource Allocation

§4.2.8 Non-orthogonal multiple access timized using a richer set of optimization indicators [111]. Simi-
larly, resource allocation problem in multi-mobile edge computing
§4.2.9 Graph theory for vehicular communication server and multi-local computing were left for future work.

§4.2.10 Game theory 4.2.2. Video streaming

§4.2.11 D2D Multicast
§4.2.12 Cloud radio access networks
§4.2.13 Fog-Radio Access Networks
§4.2.14 Fog computing
§4.2.15 Crowdsourcing
§4.2.16 Resource optimization
§4.2.17 Secrecy
Fig. 6. Recent advances in resource allocation discussed in this paper.
one approach to defining fairness is the ability to provide equal
throughput to all cellular users [100]. Details on fairness issues,
measures, and challenges in wireless networks are discussed in
[101]. The system throughput (measured in bits/sec) is an indicator
of successful transfer of information within the network. A higher
throughput indicates a better system or algorithmic performance.
D2D user capacity is the number of D2D users that a specific set
of cellular users in the network can accommodate with regards
to the maximum data constraint. For a given resource allocation
scheme, a higher user capacity is preferred [6]. Other metrics could
be considered for D2D communication [4,7]. These include relia-
bility [102], coverage [103] and secrecy rate [104]. Some develop-
ments in resource allocation are discussed below as organized in
Fig. 6.
4.2.1. Vehicular application
Intelligent vehicular communication powered by 5G is receiv-
ing more research attention [105]. D2D communication is expected
to be one of the forerunners towards supporting diverse applica-
tions in the future intelligent transportation systems (ITS) [106].
Among others, ITS supports intra-vehicular and inter-vehicular in-
teractions as well as interactions between vehicles and their en-
vironments [107]. Vehicular communication has applications w.r.t.
safety and traffic optimization and as such been on the research
spotlight [108,109]. When vehicular communication underlays cel-
lular network, it has the potential to improve the spectral effi-
ciency of the network at the cost of interference with cellular links.
On this subject, Liu et al. [110] focused on addressing the interfer-
ence that occurs between cellular and V2V transmission in V2V-
underlay massive MIMO cellular networks by formulating and solv-
ing an optimal power control problem using geometric program-
Nowadays, social media conversations accessed using real-time
video streaming have become very common. Interviews, businesses
and news sharing are typical use-cases [112]. The requirements of
emerging video streaming in future 5G cellular networks stimulate
the need for D2D communication support [113]. On this subject,
Vo et al. [113] put forth an optimal rate allocation scheme for video
streaming with the objective of attaining energy-efficiency and re-
ducing mutual interference between D2D pairs. The proposed so-
lution is capable of supporting high-performance video stream-
ing in a dense 5G network with D2D communications. Similarly,
Li et al. [76] considered a joint mode selection and resource allo-
cation mechanism for interference mitigation in order to improve
the experience of video subscribers. They focus on achieving a scal-
able video multicast transmission by using greedy and heuristic al-
gorithms. It was assumed that the eNB can perfectly obtain real-
time channel state information which may not be easy to achieve
in practice as this requires very accurate channel estimation.
As the variety of algorithms proposed for multimedia services
over D2D networks put signal-to-noise ratio into consideration
while ignoring temporal requirements, the authors in [114] pro-
posed a framework for cross-layer D2D link control. The scheme
can guarantee the QoE required in live video streaming applica-
tions. Similarly, diverse priorities and delay constraints for such
video streaming applications were taken into consideration. They
showed that the proposed approach outperforms other methods
with respect to average mean time to failure, average peak signal-
to-noise ratio and energy consumption.
4.2.3. Guaranteeing Quality of Service
Effective admission control and resource allocation play cru-
cial roles in managing interference between cellular and D2D links
in D2D-enabled cellular networks. This way, the applicable QoS
requirements can be attained. In this respect, Cicalò and Tralli
[115] studied a joint admission control and resource allocation
strategy aimed at providing a lasting QoS support to both cellular
and D2D links within the network. Similarly, Guo et al. [116] stud-
ied the possibility of using standby D2D devices which neither re-
quest cellular nor D2D connections to improve the sum rate of
multi-cell cellular users. Nevertheless, the paper assumed that only
one relay node helps an active user at the same time and each user
has a single receive antenna.
Reference [117] proposed optimal and suboptimal resource
sharing schemes for D2D-enabled cellular networks to optimize
channel allocation and power control while guaranteeing the QoS
of cellular users. However, scenarios of DUEs with multiple an-
tennas were not examined. Other performance objectives such as
energy-efficient resource reuse in a D2D underlaying multi-channel
cellular network can be studied in the future [117]. Employing joint
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
mode selection, admission control and resource allocation, Orakzai
et al. [118] proposed an energy-efficient radio resource manage-
ment scheme for D2D-assisted communication. Similarly, Gandotra
and Jha [119] proposed an adaptive resource allocation scheme us-
ing a hidden Markov model to adaptively allocate resource blocks
to D2D devices within a three-sectored cell architecture aiming at
achieving resource-efficiency and energy efficiency. The idea of di-
viding the cell into sectors was to effectively manage the interfer-
ence within the ultra-dense 5G scenario considered. Future work
can study other metrics such as fairness and secrecy [119].
4.2.4. Advertisements
The harmony between social-commerce and D2D communica-
tion can produce a tremendous effect. This is because voluntar-
ily, D2D users can relay advertisement messages to neighbouring
users to get a lot of discounts on products which could provide
benefits for users based on purchase conditions. This could moti-
vate D2D users to broadcast data to neighbouring users [120]. An-
other opportunity is getting revenue, which is one of the concerns
of commercial service providers. D2D provides an opportunity in
this regard as devices can use the underutilized spectrum of ser-
vice providers [121].
Among the existing feasible economic models, Kaliski and Wei
[121] deployed a localized advertisement coalition-based service in
which spectrum can be leased and reused. Thus, D2D UEs pro-
viding this service would form a coalition. Using game theory,
the authors designed an incentive-compatible ‘resource determina-
tion mechanism’, and modulation and coding scheme-based auc-
tion where ‘localized advertisers’ vie for resources. According to
Kaliski and Wei [121], a potential drawback is that the channel
model used, the consistency of prediction parameters and channel
coherence duration all affect the SINR prediction. Furthermore, the
proposed modulation and coding scheme auction is more applica-
ble when there are more resource block sets demanded.
4.2.5. Real-time applications
Real-time D2D communication has several applications in IoT
and ITS [122]. Real-time traffic management is quite significant in
the context of smart cities as it could help to reduce congestion
and ensure ‘timeliness’ of emergency information [123]. For a suc-
cessful real-time packet transmission in D2D communication, the
throughput and delay are vital metrics to judge the performance
of the systems. Xu and Guo [122] studied resource allocation of
real-time D2D communications with the aim of maximizing the to-
tal packet utility to guarantee the required packet deadline.5 The
proposed resource allocation mechanism takes care of both slot
assignment and channel allocation. However, the additional delay
due to the complexity of the proposed system was not considered
[114].
4.2.6. Artificial intelligence (AI)
Owing to the interference experienced by cellular communi-
cation due to D2D devices, Takshi et al. [124] proposed a ge-
netic algorithm-based approach to improve the spectral efficiency
as well as minimize the interference in D2D-enabled cellular net-
works. They consider a ‘minimum’ SINR for cellular links due to
the SINR degradation caused by D2D underlaying cellular net-
works. The genetic algorithm is particularly interesting as it can
evolve to a global maximum by its effective concurrent search
through the search space. This proposed algorithm shows better
performance when compared with a prior genetic-based resource
5 [127].
In this case, cellular users have a high throughput requirement while D2D users
have real-time hard deadlines.
13
allocation mechanism [125]. The model considers a single cell sce-
nario, thus interference from other cells can be considered in fu-
ture work.
For use in vehicular communications, Ye et al. [126] developed
a resource allocation mechanism based on reinforcement learning
where V2V links are helped by an agent which autonomously de-
cides on the optimal sub-band and power levels for transmission.
Using this decentralized solution, the authors show that stringent
latency constraint in V2V communication can be met. Also, the in-
terference existing between vehicle-to-infrastructure links can be
reduced. Although the use of reinforcement learning is quite ben-
eficial and has gained attention of recent6 , note that problems
in wireless optimization generally have constraints and trade-offs
to be balanced. Nevertheless, learning problems have a structure
which is quite similar to wireless optimization problems. In fact,
wireless resource allocation can itself be regarded as a statistical
learning problem [127]. Asides the aforementioned, the considera-
tion of quantum computing and machine learning is another po-
tential direction for resource allocation especially with respect to
ultra-reliable low latency applications [128].
Seamless communication can be achieved by appropriate sig-
nal sensing and processing of tightly-coupled channels. Also, a
proper balance in channel allocation and selection bridges the
gap between signal processing systems and communication sys-
tems. In this vein, Al-Makhadmeh and Tolba [129] optimally allo-
cate and select channels for mobile users engaged in D2D com-
munication by deploying an intelligence-based recurrent learn-
ing scheme that selects a delay-controlled channel to satisfy the
data rate and power control requirements. Results show that the
intelligence-based recurrent learning scheme improves the reliabil-
ity and throughput performance of the network in terms of delay,
outage and transmit power requirements.
4.2.7. Energy Harvesting
Energy harvesting has the potential to facilitate green commu-
nications because it provides an alternative supply of energy. D2D
devices could harvest energy from downlink cellular transmission
to facilitate D2D communication. In this respect, Kusaladharma and
Tellambura [130] studied energy-harvesting schemes consisting of
single-slot, multi-slot, n-slot7 and a hybrid scheme. However, the
authors did not consider interference on primary cellular users
from D2D transmissions. Kuang et al. [131] also considered an en-
ergy harvesting model where CUEs downlink spectral resources are
multiplexed by D2D user. They formulated and solved a resource
allocation problem to maximize the energy-efficiency of D2D links
while considering the D2D users’ energy harvesting constraints and
maintaining the QoS of cellular users. We find that energy arrivals
were modelled as a Poisson process and only one spectrum re-
source block is allocated to D2D links.
Wang et al. [179] studied how unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) can be used to provide radio frequency energy to several
D2D pairs powered by energy harvesting modules. They used a
harvest-transmit-store model as opposed to their previous work
[132] where a harvest-then-transmit model was deployed. They in-
dicated that future work could examine UAVs as mobile sources
of energy while putting their trajectories into consideration. The
authors in [47] proposed an efficient resource allocation mecha-
nism that concurrently addresses issues related to energy and in-
terference in an energy harvesting-assisted underlay D2D commu-
nication scenario. A deterministic model was proposed where DUE
harvest energy only when needed. The resource allocation scheme
jointly allocates resources and transmit power to devices within
6
It is has been used in wireless optimization for diverse unconstrained problems
7
where a typical D2D node harvests energy for n-slots before transmission.
14 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
the system. Yu et al. [47] pointed out that an energy harvesting-
assisted D2D heterogeneous model, as well as mobility, can be
considered in future as fading changes with time in such models.
Also, other works could consider multiple wireless energy harvest-
ing transmitters within the coverage of the cell and its impact on
D2D communication.
Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer (SWIPT)
is a key technology that would play a fundamental role in energy-
efficient communication systems in the future. One of the unique
motivations of SWIPT is the challenges associated with replacing
batteries in scenarios such as wireless sensors inside the human
body. Using this technology, devices can capture ambient radio fre-
quency (RF) signals and thus harvest energy from their environ-
ment [133].
Wirelessly powered D2D communication can improve network
capacity and prolong network lifetime. To achieve efficient con-
tent dissemination in a wireless powered D2D communication
network with ‘self-interested’ nodes (which include D2D transmit-
ters and power stations), [134] studied a dynamic resource allo-
cation scheme aided by an incentive mechanism. Using stochas-
tic optimization, they aim to keep the average network utility
maximized under constraints such as data buffer, energy capac-
ity, and incentives. Furthermore, they proposed an online two-
timescale resource allocation algorithm to encourage cooperative
content transmission and energy transfer among self-interested
nodes, and a satisfactory long term network performance. The au-
thors in [135] also studied resource allocation for D2D communica-
tion which underlays wireless powered communication networks.
The consideration of both uplink and downlink resource allocation
would further improve on the total spectrum utilization in this
scheme as only the downlink was considered [136].
4.2.8. Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA)
Kim et al. [137] proposed a NOMA-based D2D aided cooper-
ative relaying scheme to improve the spectral efficiency of both
D2D and D2D-assisted cooperative communication. This scheme
improves on Kim and Lee [138] where a cooperative relaying sys-
tem using NOMA was developed. The proposed scheme improves
the achievable rate of the network regardless of whether NOMA is
present or not. A key contribution of this work is that the maxi-
mum sum capacity of the proposed scheme is log (SNR) while in
conventional systems, it is 23 log(SNR ). The paper assumes perfect
successive interference cancellation (SIC) receivers, thus, imperfect
channels at the SIC receivers can be later considered. Furthermore,
Kim and Lee [137] indicated that practical constraints such as a
minimum data rate and fairness constraints can be used to find
suitable parameters for the power allocation coefficients. Also, the
consideration of different relay selection schemes and user pairing
techniques are other potential directions for improving the perfor-
mance of the proposed scheme.
With the aim of optimizing the total transmit power of all users
in a NOMA-based D2D cellular network, the authors in [139] per-
formed a joint subchannel assignment, user pairing and power
control. From the results obtained, they show that subchannel as-
signment and user pairing play vital roles in reducing the net-
work’s total transmit power which serves both cellular and D2D
devices. Different from Pan et al. [140], the authors in [141] studied
resource allocation for NOMA users where power allocation and
user clustering were mainly considered within the framework of
D2D underlay cellular networks. A particular assumption here is
that NOMA reuses the spectrum with D2D pairs which poses extra
constraints on the minimum SINR requirements.
4.2.9. Graph theory for vehicular communication
Graph theory is an efficacious and widely accepted tool for
modeling network interactions. A practical use of graph theory can
be found in the modeling and analyzing of interference [142,143].
Liang et al. [144] studied resource allocation in D2D-based ve-
hicular communication. They used graph partitioning algorithms
to separate the interfering links into clusters in order to reduce
their mutual interference. An array of resource allocation algo-
rithms were proposed to improve network performance. Particu-
larly, they proposed baseline ‘graph-based’, greedy, and random-
ized algorithm to address trade-offs in performance complexity.
The authors further studied the resource allocation problem where
vehicular networks reduce signalling overhead by adapting to slow
fading CSI.
Zhao et al. [142] proposed a novel interference graph chan-
nel assignment algorithm to improve network capacity and fair-
ness among devices. However, the size of the frequency assign-
ment considered is small when compared with that of cellular net-
works [145]. Authors in [146] also employed a graph colouring ap-
proach for resource sharing in full duplex D2D cellular networks
to effectively solve a joint resource block assignment and transmit
power allocation optimization problem with reasonable complex-
ity. The consideration of a secrecy-based resource allocation is a
potential research direction for future research. The security of CUE
and D2D pairs also have to be put into consideration [147].
4.2.10. Game theory
Game theory presents a set of mathematical tools which are
suitable for modeling and investigating the resource allocation
problem of D2D communication. Specifically, it can be used to get
solutions for problems such as channel assignment, cooperation
enforcement, and power control [148]. The high energy consump-
tion of battery operated devices is a limiting factor for the success
of future networks. Game theoretical approach can be used with
optimization techniques to investigate optimal strategies for D2D
wireless technologies. In this regard, low complexity heuristics are
required [149].
For D2D underlaid cellular networks, Yuan et al. [150] studied
an iterative matching-Stackelberg game model for channel-power
allocation to maximize the throughput of D2D pairs while simul-
taneously reducing the interference of cellular links. The proposed
scheme was shown to have a low overhead. Asheralieva et al.
[151] also deployed game theory with a focus on distributed re-
source sharing in multi-cell D2D underlaid cellular network. In this
respect, they presented a novel evolutionary Bayesian coalition for-
mation game. The proposed game is applicable when the rational-
ity of the players are bounded by the tractability of the channel de-
cision problem and in resource sharing problems with incomplete
information. Hu et al. [152] studied joint interference management
and resource allocation problem in D2D-enabled cellular networks
using an overlapping coalition game to improve the sum-rate of
D2D while maintaining the required cellular and D2D QoS.
The authors in [153] formulated a dynamic Stackelberg game to
address the basic problem of flexibility for application-driven dis-
tributed resource allocation. The results show that significant im-
provements can be achieved on D2D user QoS and cellular net-
work reliability. Furthermore, using this approach the D2D user
data rate, energy consumption and resource block allocation were
optimized. In a nutshell, a multi-criteria/multi-objective Stackel-
berg game having no scalarization across objectives was used to
achieve an increase in throughput, reduction in transmit power
and the ‘best’ D2D social welfare and satisfaction. Also, Mach et al.
[154] proposed a novel resource allocation scheme to maximize
the sum capacity of D2D communication where multiple D2D pairs
reuse multiple channels.
4.2.11. D2D Multicast
Multicasting facilitates an efficient data transfer via a single
transmission and can yield significant performance for content
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
distribution [155]. In order to cope with the increasing traffic of
local content sharing (such as the request for a ‘viral’ media file),
device-to-device multicast (D2MD) is being considered within the
5G cellular framework. The benefit of this paradigm is that traffic
can be offloaded from base stations to the device tiers, which in-
volves devices communicating with each other in a D2D fashion.
This improves spectral and energy efficiencies of the network as
well as user experience. However, the performance of the D2MD
model is affected by the social attributes peculiar to mobile users
and the interference which occurs between cellular and D2MD
tiers [97]. On this subject, Feng et al. [97] developed a D2MD
scheme which takes care of both the physical and social attributes
of mobile users w.r.t. cluster formation in D2D underlay cellular
networks. They jointly optimized power and channel allocation for
D2MD clusters. Potential directions include content caching and
content sharing mode selection. Moreover, incentives can be con-
sidered to encourage users to participate in content sharing [94].
Note that this work assumes a single cell and as such, interference
from other cells was not considered.
4.2.12. Cloud radio access networks
C-RANs is one of the enabling technologies which is anticipated
to improve on the cellular network performance towards the ef-
fective running of 5G networks. It is also expected that this tech-
nology would reduce both capital and operation expenditure. The
merger of C-RAN and D2D communication will further impact 5G
through the coexistence of different devices, communication pro-
tocols, and services [156]. In fact, when D2D links are established
using C-RAN, gains can be achieved in terms of spectral efficiency
and reduction of energy consumption. In C-RANs, the baseband
unit (BBU) pool does centralized baseband signal processing which
lowers the costs of hardware and improves resource allocation per-
formance [157]. However, in heterogeneous C-RANs, ensuring ef-
ficient resource allocation is quite challenging and not much has
been done in this regard [109].
In C-RAN architectures, it is necessary to reduce the transmis-
sion power of cell edge users, considering that a centralized al-
gorithm is used in the BBU pool. Reducing interference of devices
at the cell edge would require centralized interference mitigation
to be run frequently on the BBU pool which could make it over-
loaded. Thus, when D2D underlays cellular C-RANs which is char-
acterized by dense deployment of distributed RRHs (and conse-
quently a high spectral reuse), strong intra-cell interference and
inter-cell interference become problems which greatly affect the
energy efficiency and QoS performance of the system. In order to
address this, Gui et al. [158] proposed an energy efficient mecha-
nism for channel selection and power allocation. This was achieved
by the introduction of a relay-assisted inband D2D communica-
tion mode and the use of a non-cooperative game to model the
resource allocation problem. The introduced scheme lowers the
transmission power of CUEs at the cell edge.
Motivated by the need to allocate resources to maximize utility
and mitigate interference when D2D shares spectrum with cellular
users, Alamouti and Sharafat [157] considered resource allocation
in a multi-cell scenario using the centralized baseband processing
in C-RANs. The authors maximized the total number of active D2D
pairs and minimized the total transmit power of cellular users and
D2D pairs while maintaining their QoS. Sun et al. [159] proposed
a distributed mode selection and resource allocation scheme for
uplink D2D-enabled C-RANs8 . According to the authors, reinforce-
ment learning can be deployed for optimizing the latency perfor-
mance. As such, utility functions related to latency could be stud-
ied in future works. The convergence of the developed distributed
8
In this context, mode selection in C-RANs means that a pair of potential D2D
UEs can communicate directly or use the C-RAN to transmit the traffic.
15
learning process could also be improved to handle the dynamic na-
ture of user devices’ state. Also, joint uplink and downlink (UL/DL)
optimization of the system performance was identified as a poten-
tial future direction.
Mo et al. [160] examined the use of D2D communication to al-
leviate the burden of the fronthaul in C-RANs, thus reducing the
transmit latency. They considered dynamic traffic arrival and time-
varying channel conditions. Zhang et al. [109] studied how D2D
pairs and remote user heads of the heterogeneous C-RAN architec-
ture are assigned sub-channels having different bandwidths. They
proposed algorithms which improve the system performance in
terms of throughput, fairness, and number of admitted users.
4.2.13. Fog-Radio Access Networks (F-RANs)
This technology has emerged as a promising evolution for 5G
networks and is aimed at satisfying the increase in demand for
high speed data services and massive device access. D2D commu-
nication compliments this technology as it brings benefit in terms
of high transmission rate. However, two fundamental issues re-
quire proper consideration with regard to resource allocation in
this context [161]. Firstly, how mobile characteristics and social re-
lationships can be utilized among users for improving the through-
put. Secondly, how limited resources can be allocated to effectively
guarantee user satisfaction. With the above in mind, the authors
in [161] presented a dual-link enhanced communication model for
improving D2D and CUE throughput simultaneously. Using users’
social relationship and mobility characteristics, they formed and
solved an optimization problem aimed at maximizing user satis-
faction under the constraint of the limited available spectrum re-
sources.
4.2.14. Fog computing
Fog computing or mobile edge computing provides computation
and storage capabilities at the edge to reduce energy consumption
of wireless devices as well as computation latency. In the context
of D2D and Fog, Xing et al. [162] studied a novel D2D-enabled
multi-helper mobile edge computing system. In that system, a local
user selects wireless devices nearby to ‘help’ execute cooperative
computation. The authors identified a number of issues to be con-
sidered in future research as follows: The work assumes that all
wireless devices are located at fixed positions having static wire-
less channels. In this regard, mobility should be well incorporated
and accounted for because, in reality, wireless channels fluctuate
with time as a result of such mobility which may adversely af-
fect the D2D connections. Subcarrier allocation design for OFDMA
and joint message decoding for NOMA are other issues that can be
studied in the future. Similarly, a multi-user multi-helper mobile
edge computing model through an appropriate design of multi-
users scheduling and sophisticated incentive-based collaboration
schemes can be studied since the helpers were assumed to ‘agree
to cooperate’ in computation offloading [162].
4.2.15. Crowdsourcing
Crowdsourcing is a new model for collecting and processing
information. In this model, tasks such as ideas, solutions, ser-
vices and data are outsourced to a large group of ‘generators’.
Applications of crowdsourcing include monitoring traffic conges-
tions, pollution measurement and tracking a crime suspect. Al-
though crowdsourcing is not dependent on any particular net-
work architecture, D2D can find its place when the one initiating
the process cannot reach the generators of the data directly. An
example of such is when infrastructure-based networks (such as
Wi-Fi) is unavailable, crowdsourcing may deploy D2D communi-
cation to demand and transport data. In this respect, Han et al.
[163] fomulated and solved an optimal traffic allocation problem
16 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
while considering network resource constraints and delay sensi-
tivity for a D2D-based mobile crowdsourcing application. The pro-
posed scheme is able to achieve near-optimal performance with a
reasonable computation complexity.
4.2.16. Resource optimization
D2D communication is one of the forerunner technologies for
the realization of 5G requirements. In this regard, researchers have
considered centralized schemes with a focus on improving spec-
trum utilization and maximizing the network capacity for resource
allocation optimization. One major problem with centralized re-
source allocation schemes, however, is the high level of signalling
overhead since DUEs will have to continuously report interference.
This motivated the authors in [80] to propose a novel probabilistic
integrated resource allocation strategy as well as a quasi-convex al-
gorithm based on channel probability and statistics. The objective
was to solve the problem of mode selection and resource optimiza-
tion under the joint ‘resource allocation mode’ targeted at the 5G
communication network. Thus, maintaining a balance between the
channel resource utilization and user experience is a natural ex-
tension of this work [80].
Lu et al. [164] studied D2D underlay cellular networks over
the Nakagami-m fading channel. In this context, they investigated
the sum-rate maximization of CUE and D2D pairs in a resource-
abundant setting. In such scenarios, the number of CUEs is more
than D2D pairs, therefore, they considered the joint optimization
of SINR and CU-D2D pairing. An interesting future direction relates
to the consideration of the resource allocation to reduce energy
consumption in a time-variant channel. This requires putting the
transmit power into consideration in the optimization procedure.
Furthermore, they highlighted that channel diversity characteristics
of subcarriers could be further examined.
4.2.17. Secrecy
Another way by which interference can be beneficial is in phys-
ical layer security. This can be achieved without using heavy cryp-
tographic techniques by (purposefully) creating interference to the
channel when DUEs access the cellular band. This makes it difficult
for malicious eavesdroppers to listen to the channel. Rudenko et al.
[165] identified that communication security has not been well
considered in system design for resource allocation optimization
to improve spectral efficiency. The authors thus, take the secure
resource allocation problem into consideration with the focus on
assigning resources to cellular and D2D users to maximize system
security. The authors show through simulations that the method
proposed can effectively improve system performance compared to
existing schemes.
4.3. Power control
It is important to ensure that the transmit power of D2D de-
vices is well managed. For instance, to achieve better D2D link
quality, the power should not be too low [166]. Power control
is very crucial to achieve energy efficiency in wireless networks.
Power control is essential in inband D2D to avoid interference be-
tween D2D users and cellular users. This interference problem is
non-existent in outband D2D. However, when the ISM bands be-
come more occupied, it becomes necessary to avoid congestion,
collision and mutual interference between coexisting systems [4].
Several objectives of interference mitigation and energy efficiency
are based on transmit power minimization [12,58,167]. The main
weakness associated with power control is that its deployment can
pose restrictions on the power transmission levels which might
imply that D2D communication cannot be enabled always [1].
Power control could either be fixed or dynamic. A fixed setting
may be through a target signal-to-noise ratio while a dynamic set-
§4.3.1 Multicast
§4.3.2 Non-orthogonal multiple access
Power Control
§4.3.3 Cognitive D2D
§4.3.4 Massive multiple input multiple output
§4.3.5 Full duplex D2D
§4.3.6 UAV-assisted D2D
Fig. 7. Recent advances in power control discussed in this paper.
ting could be in the form of open loop power setting (OLPS) or
close loop power setting (CLPS) [2,168]. In OLPS, the transmission
power of the D2D user is adjusted based on pre-determined sys-
tem settings or its measurement result. Meanwhile, in CLPS, the
adjusted transmission power is based on coordination with eN-
odeB [2]. In designing power control schemes, different cases of
interference have to be considered. For example, it is not appropri-
ate to pose power restrictions to cellular users in the uplink. On
the other hand, adapting eNodeB transmission is not a convenient
option in the downlink because the network coverage may be ad-
versely affected [1].
The applicability of power control depends on the mutual dis-
tance between D2D pair, the distance from a cellular user to D2D
pair (when the downlink is reused), and the distance from D2D
pair to the eNodeB (in case of uplink reuse) [1]. For example,
whenever the mutual distance between D2D pair is very large and
the D2D pair is close to eNodeB, a further decrease in the trans-
mission power of device users could cause significant QoS degrada-
tion or prevent the functionality and usage of D2D communication.
Thus, device users can only apply simple power control when they
are significantly close to cellular user or eNodeB. Another option
is using radio resource allocation techniques when power control
cannot be used. Next, we discuss some recent advances in power
control as organized in Fig. 7.
4.3.1. Multicast
In order to broadcast data to a group of users requesting the
same file from a local content holder, multicast transmission is an
efficient approach for data dissemination, especially when these
devices are within close range [97]. When facilitated by D2D com-
munication, multicast service is an effective approach towards ef-
ficient management of data traffic. Particularly, when the data rate
becomes increasingly high, the energy consumed by enabling tech-
nologies such as mmWave also becomes high. In an attempt to
mitigate this high energy consumption, Niu et al. [169] presented a
multicast scheduling scheme using simultaneous transmissions of
directional links (which promote spatial re-use) to achieve energy-
efficiency in mmWave small cells with D2D communication. The
scheduling scheme identifies a multihop path for transmitting D2D
data. The authors also used a proposed power control algorithm to
regulate and adjust the transmit power of these devices. The use of
a multilevel codebook for improving the performance of the net-
work was a suggested future work.
4.3.2. NOMA
Although D2D has been identified as one of the enabling tech-
nologies for future 5G wireless systems, one of the main research
concerns is managing the interference it poses. This could be miti-
gated by optimal power control and resource allocation. When net-
work resources are scarce, NOMA positions itself as a novel multi-
ple access technology for achieving energy and spectral efficiencies
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
within the network. Specifically, NOMA uses superposition coding
at the transmitter and successive interference cancellation at the
receiver [170]. In the quest to improve the sum rate of D2D pair
in D2D underlay NOMA cellular networks, Pan et al. [140] inves-
tigated the power control and channel assignment problem while
considering the successive interference cancellation decoding order
constraints. Joint optimization of power and channel allocation was
not considered for both cellular and D2D users [171].
The authors in [170] studied the concept of sectorization in
NOMA enabled-D2D communication. They introduced the concept
of multiple interference cancellation which involves optimal re-
source allocation and facilitates the cancellation of ‘interference
levels’ within the network. The scheme shows promising results in
terms of gains in total energy-efficiency, sum rate and fairness fac-
tor. The potential of multiple interference cancellation to achieve
a reduction in latency and the evaluation of energy consumption
in future ultra-dense scenarios can as well be considered [170].
We note that only a single-cell scenario was considered in this pa-
per. In other words, a natural extension to this work is to consider
the case involving inter-cell interference. Furthermore, cellular and
D2D pairs were assumed to be uniformly distributed within the
cell sector investigated. The fact that D2D users exhibit social rela-
tionships and can function in scenarios with other spatial configu-
rations makes other distributions (which capture the social dimen-
sion) considerable.
4.3.3. Cognitive D2D
A potential solution to enhance the resource utilization effi-
ciency and facilitate proper interference management amongst cel-
lular and D2D users in in-band D2D-enabled cellular networks is
the use of cognitive spectrum access [172]. Cognitive D2D commu-
nication using the LTE-A macro BS is a new direction studied by
Karunakaran and Gerstacker [173]. They show that when devices
are not too far apart, cognitive D2D is a feasible option through
proper power control, synchronization and the use of guard bands.
4.3.4. Massive multiple input multiple output (MIMO)
D2D communication and massive MIMO are two auspicious
technologies for improving network performance in future genera-
tion wireless networks [174]. This symbiosis brings benefits such as
improved capacity, reduced latency, and enhanced spectral and en-
ergy efficiencies as it uses a large number of antennas per base sta-
tion [175]. It thus has the potential to tackle issues associated with
D2D underlay cellular communication such as D2D-to-cellular in-
terference. When massive MIMO is underlaid with D2D communi-
cation, improvements can be achieved w.r.t. total channel through-
put and spectral efficiencies [176]. Considering pilot reuse among
D2D pairs, Xu et al. [82] proposed a scheduling and power con-
trol algorithm with the criterion to minimize the sum mean-square-
error of channel estimation of device-to-device links. The intuition is
that this makes it feasible for devices which are far apart to share
the same pilot for channel estimation. This way, pilot reuse over-
head is reduced.
Ghazanfari et al. [177] propose a power control and pilot al-
location scheme for D2D underlaid multi-cell massive MIMO net-
works. In each cell, the cellular users fully reuse orthogonal pi-
lots while another set of orthogonal pilots are shared by D2D
pairs. They show that the proposed algorithm enhances the sum
spectral efficiency for multi-cell massive MIMO system. Reference
[174] investigate the issues associated with BS precoder design and
power allocation for D2D in the downlink of a single-cell network
with massive MIMO, while Ghadyani and Shahzadi [176] propose
a compressive sensing power control for managing interference in
D2D underlaid massive-MIMO systems. The proposed approach im-
proves the energy efficiency and collision avoidance of D2D under-
laid MIMO networks. The paper assumes uplink for spectrum shar-
17
ing while the downlink was not considered. Furthermore, all UEs
were assumed to have a single antenna.
4.3.5. Full duplex cellular networks with D2D and small cells
Full duplex cellular and D2D communications have the poten-
tial to meet the mobile traffic demands in urban small cell deploy-
ments. In such small cell networks, an intelligent resource schedul-
ing algorithm helps to achieve an increase in capacity and spectral
efficiency of small cell networks. Thus, the authors in [178] pro-
posed two heuristic user selection and power assignment algo-
rithms where more simultaneous transmissions can occur in the
presence of D2D links. In the latter, they show that the throughput
performance obtained is better than that of half-duplex when full
duplex BS operates at maximum power with 65db self-interference
cancellation. The power control mechanism in the heuristics re-
duces the consumed energy when compared to the case of a full
duplex base station operating at maximum power.
4.3.6. UAV-assisted D2D
UAV has proven to be quite beneficial for enhancing the per-
formance of D2D communication networks. For instance, UAV can
provide energy for energy harvesting D2D devices [179]. Also, UAV
infrastructures can be flexible to meet the QoS requirements of
D2D links [180]. For caching and content sharing applications,
UAVs can function as local content servers thus forming a D2D net-
work which supports these data sharing applications [180]. They
can provide service in areas without infrastructure [181] or in dis-
aster scenarios when network infrastructure is damaged [182]. In
such situations, they help to improve the network performance
when the traditional BS is not available [183]. UAV can assist ter-
restrial networks such as D2D and can improve their reliability
while also exploiting the associated transmission diversity [16]. It
can enhance network coverage and capacity and on-demand com-
munications. A single UAV can provide downlink support for sev-
eral users within a geographic domain [184].
Not only is UAV beneficial to D2D communications, D2D can
also benefit UAV communications. For instance, D2D has the po-
tential to reduce the capacity requirement of UAV backhaul. D2D
can help to support ubiquitous coverage in UAV-assisted commu-
nication [185] and accommodate more users [182]. Coverage ex-
tension can be achieved using multi-hop D2D [186] assisted UAV
communication. Both D2D and UAV mobility can be used to en-
hance information dissemination to several ground nodes [185].
However, to achieve wide coverage and high throughput perfor-
mance, proper power control and power allocation are essential.
The power control must be designed to achieve the required data
rates [181].
In this regard, Wang et al. [183] studied power control opti-
mization for a D2D underlay UAV-assisted ‘wireless-access’ system.
In the model, multiple users are served by UAV-enabled BS and the
UAVs assist other DUEs in a D2D pair to communicate with each
other. A power control algorithm characterized by low complexity
was designed while bearing in mind the energy and computational
limits of UAVs. Using simulations, the authors show that the pro-
posed algorithms improve throughput performance of the system
significantly. Huang et al. [187] maximize the data rate of D2D pair
in a downlink UAV-assisted wireless system. They perform a joint
optimization of UAV and D2D transmit powers while putting the
ground user bandwidth as well as the location and altitude of the
UAV into consideration.
4.4. Joint resource allocation and power control
Many joint resource allocation and power control schemes have
been proposed for D2D communication. Here, we focus on some of
18 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938

these schemes studied very recently while emphasizing the met-

Interference Management
rics measured.

Mode Selection
4.4.1. Throughput
To address the problem of power control and resource alloca-
tion with multiple relay selection in dense CUEs and DUs scenar- Resource allocation
ios, Gao et al. [87] investigate joint resource allocation and power

Classical Challenges
control in cooperative D2D heterogeneous networks where D2D Device Discovery
users multiplex CUEs in the downlink network. The objective is
to develop an algorithm with universality where diverse system Relaying
parameters can be optimized. The proposed resource allocation
scheme allocates spectrum resource blocks and selects idle users to Mobility
relay data for D2D links. Similarly, power control helps to reduce
interference and improves QoS. A quantum coral reef optimization
Channel State Information
then guarantees QoS of CUEs by obtaining an optimal joint re-
source allocation and power control solution. This was shown to
perform excellently for different network scenarios studied. Energy Consumption
Sun et al. [83] deployed a coalition formation game for re-
source allocation in D2D uplink cellular networks to maximize D2D Modelling
throughput. They proposed a coalition initialization method based

D2D Challenges
on a priority sequence to reduce the number of switching op- Security
erations. The system was shown to have a near optimal perfor-
mance. Xu et al. [84] studied interference in D2D-enabled cellular Heterogeneous Networks
networks using a particle swarm optimization-based bio-inspired
power control and channel allocation mechanism for different sce-
Social-aware D2D
narios9 to maximize the network capacity and coordinate the mu-
tual interference of D2D communication. The authors provide effi-
cient fitness values to guarantee the feasibility of the solution. The
Ultra-Dense Networks
proposed algorithm jointly assigns channels and power for CUE
and D2D pairs. Emerging Challenges MIMO

4.4.2. Fairness target Millimeter Wave

Efforts have been made to study power and resource allocation
with the aim of improving the spectral efficiency, energy efficiency Edge-Computing
and data rate in wireless networks. However, researchers either as-
sume fixed power allocation or no power control without the con- SWIPT/Energy Harvesting
sideration of fairness in the overlay. To cater for this, Elsherief et al.
[85] propose a new resource and power allocation scheme for D2D
D2D-assisted C-RANs
overlaying cellular networks to achieve rate fairness among DUEs
in D2D overlaying cellular networks. This attains a higher level of
D2D-assisted Fog
fairness when compared with other ‘rival’ algorithms proposed in
the literature. Note that fixed distance was assumed for every D2D
pair, and Rayleigh flat fading was assumed at every sub-carrier for UAV-assisted D2D
all D2D users.
Caching
4.4.3. Energy-Efficiency
Liu et al. [86] propose a two-stage energy efficient approach to Fig. 8. Classification of D2D challenges.
jointly perform power control and channel allocation in D2D com-
munication. They focus on the maximization of energy with the
technologies for facilitating the next generation cellular networks
QoS constraints of both cellular and D2D links in mind. The pro-
are classed as ‘emergent’ while traditional challenges are catego-
posed algorithm guarantees not only the transmission rate of CUEs
rized as ‘classical’. Other D2D challenges requiring due attention
but also improves the D2D energy efficiency. However, only one
include standardization since it is essential to standardize several
D2D pair can reuse the channel resource of one cellular user (at
of its intrinsic facets such as device discovery, interface design, pri-
most).
vacy and security [14]. In the unlicensed band, issues relating to
connection establishment and poor service continuity also need to
5. D2D challenges: an overview be addressed.

D2D communication comes with several challenges, many of
which are related to interference management and their associ-
ated techniques. We attempt to classify the challenges discussed in
this paper as ‘classical’ and ‘emergent’ in Fig. 8. Challenges associ-
ated with the co-existence of D2D and other future ‘sister’ cellular
9
i.e. one CU/one D2D, once CU/ multiple D2D pairs, multiple CU/multiple D2D
pairs.
5.1. Classical challenges
5.1.1. Interference mitigation
Interference is a crucial challenge as the cellular networks
should deal with new interference challenges associated with
D2D communications. This includes issues relating to mode se-
lection, power control, and resource allocation. Managing collision
and congestion issues is also required [6,12]. Interference can be
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
experienced in different regions within the cell. Thus, all devices
within the cell and at the cell edge would require interference mit-
igation techniques [40]. The use of fractional frequency reuse (FFR)
is a potential approach to concurrently solve the interference be-
tween D2D and cellular users. The challenge of FFR is that only
a fraction of the entire bandwidth is assigned to a particular user
and this is not resource efficient. Furthermore, the location of users
should also be estimated which makes it less spectral efficient [1].
Approaches to resource management in the literature include
the use of game theory, graph theory and linear optimization [40].
Game theory is an advanced technique for interference mitigation
between cellular and D2D users. It is essential to note that the per-
formance of this technique may be at the price of complexity in
terms of the number of bidders and allocated sub-bands. It may
be more advisable to deploy suboptimal and less complex algo-
rithms. Proposed techniques for interference mitigation should also
not use overly simple scenarios such as one cellular user and one
(or very few) D2D pair(s) [1]. Considering a more versatile scenario
would help to reveal the insights required for more practical use-
cases. In the social domain, both spectrum management and power
control are required for different social relationships and ties to
achieve effective resource allocation [11].
5.1.2. Mode selection
It is essential to study the trade-off between the optimal mode
(for different configurations and mode selection criteria) and the
generated signalling overhead. The time scale where these deci-
sions are made is also essential regardless of whether the mode
selection mechanism is initiated by the D2D users or the net-
work [1]. Also, mode selection in varying channel conditions where
some D2D links are established and others have to switch to cellu-
lar modes deserves further investigation [12]. Furthermore, mode
selection schemes which consider distance as the key parame-
ter for determining the selected mode should ensure an accurate
choice of distance. The use of very realistic network settings dur-
ing the design and optimization of mode selection strategies would
help to achieve full utility of the benefits of D2D communication.
For instance, many works put limitations to the priority of D2D
transmissions, UE status, resource sharing strategy and the num-
ber of UEs or antennas [188].
Mode selection can be achieved using a carrier sensing thresh-
old to manage interference among D2D pairs. This carrier sensing
threshold would directly impact on the density of D2D pairs which
consequently affects the interference among them. This approach
is distributive and has a less signalling overhead, therefore, it is es-
sential to study different D2D device distributions in this respect.
One challenge with mode selection is its associated overhead due
to channel estimation and control signalling. Minimizing this over-
head has the potential to improve the battery life of the devices
within the network [40].
5.1.3. Resource allocation
Allocation of spectral resources is regarded as a fundamental
(research) problem since multiple D2D links can spatially reuse a
resource block [189]. Therefore, the network should be designed
such that nearby UEs do not share the same resources. This would
help to achieve proper resource allocation to cellular UEs. Besides,
using robust optimization techniques are required. Special atten-
tion should be given to the use of mixed integer non-linear pro-
gramming. Note that its complexity and practicality in real de-
ployment settings should be borne in mind. Resource allocation
schemes should also consider the ‘stochastic nature of the gains
of links’ and accommodate the varying number of D2D and cellu-
lar links. For the schemes aiming to consider joint radio resource
allocation and power control algorithms for guaranteeing the QoS
of cellular users, D2D users can reuse CUE resources. However, it is
19
essential that even for large-scale networks, the complexity is kept
as low as possible. Resource allocation schemes must not only con-
sider the QoS of D2D users but also the cellular users [12].
For joint scheduling power and resource allocation algorithms,
it is essential to find the appropriate trade-off between effec-
tively high system performance and low algorithmic complexity
[1]. Proper deployment of interference cancellation technology and
its inherent techniques to enhance the capacity of cellular net-
works is required to mitigate interference in D2D-enabled cellular
networks. This also poses its own challenges which include issues
related to robustness, and the definition of parameters and mod-
ulation schemes, to achieve maximum recovery [12]. Asides the
aforementioned, the investigation of scenarios where multiple D2D
pairs share resources are required to be incorporated in studied
models for resource sharing/reuse [1]. Also, improving data rate,
spectral and energy efficiencies, and reducing the transmission de-
lay of proximity-aware devices [12] are all required.
D2D is one of the potential technologies for achieving ultra-
reliable low latency communication (URLLC) requirements in fu-
ture networks as it can help to reduce the number of links on
LTE. D2D can reduce end-to-end latency and thus improve relia-
bility since devices communicate within a short range [190]. In or-
der to effectively improve the performance of URLLC, highly effec-
tive resource allocation techniques are required to achieve the high
availability and reliability requirements of URLLC. D2D-inspired ra-
dio resource allocation could also be studied to facilitate collabo-
rative human in the loop networks where several users can col-
lectively interact in a shared remote environment. Such a radio re-
source allocation mechanism should be able to support ultra-low
latency communication which facilitates haptic human-in-the-loop
communication [191].
5.1.4. Device discovery
Asides locating other devices in proximity to communicate
with, devices have to identify the basis for communication in
terms of services to be offered. They could exchange signalling
messages to inform others of their presence and also choose
whether to communicate or not. In order to find other devices to
connect with, they would need to broadcast beacons which con-
sume time and energy. Devices may also have to exchange control
information with the BS to initiate peer discovery [8,17,192]. Device
discovery protocols thus play a crucial role in achieving energy-
efficiency in D2D communication. These protocols should be de-
signed such that the devices will not need to wake up too often
to listen to the pairing request or transmit discovery messages [4].
This is because when D2D devices monitor channels for peer and
service discovery, a considerable amount of energy is consumed.
Another challenge of D2D discovery is related to designing ef-
ficient, less complex and inexpensive solutions [8]. The BS is more
computationally intensive and could assist the D2D users so that
these devices do not lose considerable energy through the random
channel sensing procedure [4]. It is important to note that the fre-
quency of discovery and device synchronizations are typical chal-
lenges that should be well-addressed [40]. These call for appropri-
ate radio resource management techniques [1]. For socially-aware
D2D communication, the choice of a suitable D2D peer is a typi-
cal challenge to be addressed for link admission. Realistic mobil-
ity models should be incorporated into investigations on socially
aware peer discovery proposals [11].
5.1.5. Relaying and multihop D2D
More research are required to fully investigate multihop con-
nections in D2D networks. For instance, the throughput enhance-
ment in multihop D2D architecture using network coding can be
attempted. Study on synchronization at the cluster and global
levels, group communication in public safety applications, group
20 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
management, and network densification are also open for future
research considerations [14]. Channel selection, next hop selec-
tion and reducing end-to-end delay also poses challenges to relay-
assisted D2D communication [9]. Another main challenge in relay-
assisted D2D is to convince users to function as relays [11]. This is
because it comes at the cost of losing their battery energy as well
as limiting their capacity. Thus, convincing users to serve as relays
and providing an incentive to them is an active research direction
[1,11]. Furthermore, security concerns are another major obstacle to
the use of relays. Studies on multihop socially-aware D2D commu-
nications should investigate the impact of different mobility pat-
terns [11].
5.1.6. Mobility and handover
The consideration of user mobility is a vital aspect of D2D
communication research. Consider a scenario where a file is only
partially transmitted due to disconnection as a result of mobil-
ity. Such a file can be deemed useless [193]. This clearly shows
that user mobility could have a non-trivial impact on the efficiency
of D2D communication. Thus, mobility and handover management
is a matter of concern, since mobile D2D devices within a cell
have to handover links to cellular users. Determining the condi-
tions for efficient handover especially in scenarios with high mo-
bility is an open research aspect [40]. For networks such as vehic-
ular D2D applications with high mobility and frequent handovers,
it is important to ensure effective handovers and interference mit-
igation are simultaneously handled. This is due to the control and
signalling frequencies associated with vertical handovers which
could generate interference and deteriorate the instantaneous SNR
[40].
Traditional cellular communication can effectively accommo-
date mobile nodes even at high speeds. This can be considered
for the communication of single and multiple D2D pairs. The 3GPP
mobility models recommended for D2D is a good start [4]. Admis-
sion control schemes designed for D2D communication should be
able to admit as many D2D links as possible when compared to
a traditional random model where devices are admitted randomly
[4]. With this in mind, it is necessary to study the impact of di-
verse mobility patterns on network performance metrics such as
coverage or throughput. Furthermore, there is a need for analyti-
cal models to study the velocity of mobile devices in applications
such as vehicular D2D communications which support energy har-
vesting, and characterize an accurate hand-off criteria for efficient
transfer of energy [194].
5.1.7. Channel state information
A typical challenge in D2D communication is the CSI feedback
requirement especially when there is an increased number of D2D
and interfering links [197]. This is necessary as the device must
know the channel information of its neighbours [100]. We recall
that a characteristic of autonomous D2D control is that resource al-
location and power control are taken care of by D2D users. The key
advantage of this approach is that the signalling overhead is less.
However, the disadvantage is the amount of interference posed to
traditional cellular users [1]. Determining an optimal number of
D2D nodes in the network, exploiting common interest and a well-
synchronized transition between D2D and cellular modes are also
required to achieve efficient device communication [10].
In cases where the control of the network is centralized, the BS
is usually assumed to be computationally intensive. In such sce-
narios, proposed schemes should not leave the BS with too much
computation overhead [4]. The main disadvantage of this full con-
trol is that the eNB needs to have knowledge of the exact CSI of all
links involved, which generates signalling overhead. On the other
hand, loosely controlled D2D has a lower signalling overhead and
hence it is meritorious in this regard. However, the key challenge
is that the network operator loses control of the management of
the network [1].
5.1.8. Energy consumption
As D2D is considered a key component of future cellular net-
works, prolonging the battery of mobile devices remains an is-
sue of concern [195]. Thus, the reduction of power consumption
for D2D communication requires further investigation [14]. This is
important as more energy is consumed in traditional direct com-
munication technologies leading to battery drain of devices [6].
Improvement of energy-efficiency should be tackled wholesomely
and not restricted only to radio communication since the energy
consumption of a device does not solely depend on radio com-
munication [1]. An approach to reducing the power consumption
(at the UE) is the joint optimization of mode selection, resource
allocation and power assignment. However, proposals using this
technique should ensure minimal complexity [1]. Implementation
of complex resource allocation techniques for mitigating interfer-
ence between cellular and D2D communication could be feasible
for consideration. However, it is characterized by higher computa-
tion overhead and complexity at the eNB [40].
It is also essential to minimize the energy in the downlink and
the eNB especially when devices are far from the eNB, and a lot
of power is consumed in the network. The transmission power
of devices can be decreased significantly if D2D users are close
to each other. It is also important to note that, the more in-
terference is experienced from the cellular transmission, the less
energy-efficient the system becomes. Thus energy-efficiency should
be studied with mode selection and interference mitigation. How
the data to be relayed are multiplexed with the data of the re-
lays should also be considered when studying the potential of re-
lays for extending the battery life of devices [1]. Thus, minimizing
power consumption of relay nodes is a challenge of relay-assisted
D2D communication [196]. Investigation of energy-efficiency is also
of paramount concern in social-aware D2D communication when
devices are sharing the wireless medium [11] and their social in-
teractions are taken into account. Finally, low-cost RF energy har-
vesting modules could be considered for charging D2D user [40] to
improve the energy-efficiency and throughput of the network.
5.1.9. Modeling
The dynamic mobile network will require sophisticated tech-
niques and advanced algorithms when adopting D2D technol-
ogy [1]. Similarly, modeling UEs to support relay functionality is
paramount. For network models which assumes clustering, co-
interference between clusters should be studied. Generally, mod-
els deployed for D2D communication should employ a more re-
alistic dynamic traffic flow as opposed to the full buffer assump-
tion [1,4]. The existing D2D channel measurements and models are
currently insufficient to properly describe their peculiar and di-
verse channel characteristics with adequate accuracy when all di-
mensions put into consideration. Realistic mobility models should
be incorporated into investigations on socially aware peer discov-
ery proposals. Studies on multihop socially-aware D2D communi-
cations should also investigate the impact of different mobility pat-
terns [11].
Considering the aforementioned, it is apparent that general, re-
alistic, and easily deployable models are sought for D2D scenar-
ios. For many of the schemes reviewed in this paper, optimization
techniques are widely deployed. Artificial intelligent techniques are
also gaining popularity among researchers. These techniques could
be used to realize a joint mode selection, power control and re-
source allocation for single and multiple D2D pairs targeting real-
time and ultra-low latency applications. In such scenarios, mobility,
clustering, caching and social characteristics of users could also be
factored in. It is important to mention that asides mathematical
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
modeling of different aspects of D2D communication, more test
bed and realistic settings are encouraged to further reveal the
practical design challenges which may not be captured otherwise.
These settings should take into account the diverse use-cases of
D2D communication [4]. Scenarios, where D2D users are located in
different cells require further consideration [1] and accurate mod-
elling.
With regards to experimentation and test-beds, some of the
previous works in this area ([198–202] for example) have fo-
cused on video/multimedia streaming application while Aoude
et al. [203] looked into the design of a social-aware android-based
crowdsourcing application using data obtained from the univer-
sity campus. Experimentation on the expected delays using Wi-Fi
direct is also presented in [204]. More experimental models are
required to incorporate new technologies (such as mmWave and
massive MIMO) while considering the social nature of human be-
ings in terms of willingness to relay and forming groups/clusters.
5.1.10. Security
Security is a fundamental issue in wireless communication. This
is because it is necessary to guarantee the confidentiality and in-
tegrity of transferred information in a channel. Also, the receiver
should be able to affirm that the data received is indeed trusted
and coming from the right source.
Users privacy can be ensured by using anonymity techniques
to protect their identity. Similarly flexible authentication and non-
repudiation schemes for devices joining or leaving the network is
essential. Security schemes should also be put in place such that
malicious devices do not feign information to the BS which may be
detrimental to the security of the network [40]. The consideration
of suitable cryptographic techniques for D2D in LTE is an issue that
should be well studied. Realistic scenarios and accurate cryptanal-
ysis are required for such investigation [1]. Physical layer security
techniques using imperfect CSI estimation is somewhat practical.
However, it is essential to study such techniques with a density
suitable for consideration in practical deployments [29].
5.2. Emergent challenges
5.2.1. Social-aware D2D
Socially-aware D2D communication has unique applications in
places like the event centre and university campus where users
have a common interest. Investigations on socially-aware D2D
communication should be directed at such scenarios. When de-
vices share the wireless medium, the interactions in the social
domain comes to play and the energy-efficiency in such circum-
stances should be investigated. The transmission duration for so-
cially enabled D2D communication is an important attribute that
should also be tackled [11].
5.2.2. Ultra-dense networks
Ultra-dense networks involve the dense deployment of a large
number of small cells to satisfy seamless coverage in 5G cellular
networks [205]. In lay terms, it means bringing the BS and access
points close to the end user. Network densification is expected to
increase the network performance as it exploits spatial re-use as
well as the proximity of the BS to end users. Similarly, network
densification has the potential to increase throughput. How the
spectrum sharing improves the performance of the network is a
critical question to be answered in this respect [206]. Furthermore,
resource allocation is challenging in ultra-dense networks consid-
ering that devices are massive in number and randomly located.
The position of such devices tend to change frequently as a result
of their movements which makes it imperative to design schemes
to achieve efficient resource allocation while guaranteeing the QoS
of traditional network users [207].
21
In the context of a smart city, D2D communication would be
able to play a key role in ensuring a more reliable transmis-
sion of real-time data which applies to vehicular traffic manage-
ment [123]. Thus, proper resource allocation in real-time applica-
tions should be considered [122]. Since D2D communication and
network infrastructure densification are considered notable ways
of improving future cellular network performance, it is important
that proper methods of mitigating interference in such settings
are studied. Furthermore, the constructive use of interference such
as RF-energy harvesting should be considered to improve network
performance. In UAV-supported ultra-dense networks [208] coex-
isting with terrestrial D2D communication, proper spectrum reuse
using advanced spectrum sharing techniques is necessary. In this
respect, efficient power control schemes are also required to max-
imize the benefits of UAV technology [209].
5.2.3. MIMO
One of the most significant technologies for 5G is MIMO as
it offers huge performance improvements in terms of energy and
spectral efficiencies [210]. The fact that D2D also brings spectral
efficiency and energy efficiency gains makes the interplay between
MIMO and D2D interesting. MIMO uses a large number of anten-
nas at each BS which helps to achieve gains in multiplexing and
‘spatial interference suppression’ for cellular users. When D2D un-
derlays is considered in MIMO-based cellular networks, the lat-
ter helps to mitigate extra interference of D2D communication,
however, several problems emerge. For instance, interference oc-
curs when D2D reuse uplink resources of CUE in a D2D-enabled
MIMO system which makes pilot signal overhead reduction crucial
in such circumstances [210]. The problem occurs because orthogo-
nal pilots are usually transmitted by CUEs to obtain channel state
information. The introduction of D2D means that each D2D trans-
mitter uses orthogonal pilots to estimate the channel and this in-
creases the pilot overhead significantly. Also, cellular to D2D inter-
ference ensues even though using MIMO supports the transmission
of multiple users on the same time-frequency block [82].
The large number of spatial degrees of freedom which MIMO
offers can be used to facilitate D2D/CUE coexistence. However, con-
trolling the parameters becomes challenging due to the compli-
cation and the interference dynamics of such networks.10 On the
other hand, this is needed to estimate/determine the rates of data
transmission [211]. In such scenarios, novel learning techniques
are needed for rate adaptation of massive MIMO cellular down-
link with underlaid D2D networks. Rate allocation/scheduling is
very important especially under coordinated and uncoordinated
channel estimation schemes. Also, how D2D interference affects
the downlink cellular performance in MIMO system having an in-
creasing number of multiple D2D transmit antennas is an issue
[212]. Another problem relates to interference coordination in full
dimension-MIMO with D2D underlay. It is essential in such scenar-
ios that CSI feedback be reduced and D2D to CUE interference be
mitigated. As such, effective interference coordination techniques
are required to also mitigate interference at D2D pairs due to CUEs
[213]. Mitigating interference effect of pilot contamination is an-
other new area. Pilot contamination refers to interference among
the same pilot sequences which are usually assigned to CUEs and
DUES. This requires effective pilot reuse schemes. Optimal pilot as-
signment schemes are thus needed [214].
5.2.4. Heterogeneous networks
This involves operator-owned short range and low-power de-
vices/nodes which are meant to improve the average capacity
10
For example, before transmission begins, it might be difficult to know the in-
terference statistics or interference power levels at the transmitters.
22 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
performance in cellular networks [215]. Heterogeneous cellular
networks involving D2D, macro and micro base stations (such as
femtocells and picocells) deserve further research and investiga-
tion for interference management and resource allocation [12]. Al-
though femtocells provide benefits for cellular networks, it could
pose interference challenges which adversely affect system perfor-
mance when D2D also coexist in such networks [29]. Basically, cel-
lular users can be prioritized while at the same time maximiz-
ing the range of D2D users [12]. Similarly, D2D devices should be
able to coordinate with other base stations for interference man-
agement [12,14].
New schemes to mitigate this interference in heterogeneous
networks should study use cases where both femtocells and the
eNB share the channel. This is more realistic as opposed to when
they use dedicated channels [1]. Interference cancellation tech-
niques could be used to mitigate the interference of small cells in
Heterogeneous Networks (HetNets). However, prior knowledge of
the channel information is required [40]. For architectures which
involve data offloading by sending data to the cloud, the advantage
is a reduction in the latency associated with the computation in
the cloud. However, it is also imperative to consider the energy ef-
ficiency in such architectures since data would be periodically sent
to the cloud [11].
5.2.5. mmWave-based D2D
The microwave spectrum below 3GHz is currently used by most
wireless systems today. However, the recent surge of the demand
for data makes this spectrum very crowded and thus it experi-
ences a shortage. A potential solution of this problem towards the
realization of 5G systems is the consideration of millimeter wave
(mmWave)-band11 . mmWave can bring benefits in terms of high
gigabit-per-second user data rates. However, it comes with techni-
cal challenges which include coverage holes, limited non-line-of-
sight range, and weak diffraction and reflection. D2D has the po-
tential to solve these problems as it deploys short-range wireless
links to connect devices [163].
The use of mmWave-based D2D communication has huge
prospects and can create several opportunities. Specifically, fea-
tures of mmWave such as high pathloss require directional beam-
forming which makes it very suitable for D2D communication as
this directional transmission reduces interference and facilitates
spatial spectrum sharing. High bandwidth mmWave gives room for
D2D communication with high throughput performance without
interfering with traditional cellular users. Furthermore, the short-
range links help to improve the capacity which is adversely af-
fected by the high density of D2D devices [216]. It also has the
potential to enhance the capacity of future generation D2D com-
munication. However, it is important to investigate how compati-
ble this technology is to current resource management techniques.
Another challenge with this technology is managing peer dis-
covery since mmWave based communication has limitations in
terms of range. Furthermore, it is necessary to offload traffic from
one frequency to another when the mmWave coexists with tradi-
tional cellular network. Changes in the hardware design of existing
handheld devices would also be imperative and as such, effective
interface design is required to support both D2D and cellular com-
munication.
5.2.6. D2D-assisted edge computing
To facilitate task offloading which has received much atten-
tion in recent times, mobile cloud computing has been studied to
help mobile users offload computationally intensive tasks to the
remote clouds which are richer in resources. However, challenges
11
At frequency range of 30 - 300 GHz.
arise when this service is to be deployed for real-time applications
where timely interactive responses are required. To address this
problem, mobile edge computing is emerging as a promising solu-
tion. It uses several devices at the network edge and can leverage
on the ‘network-assisted D2D collaboration’ for facilitating commu-
nication and computation. The advantages include low latency and
agile computation for mobile users. One of the prime objectives in
such scenarios is to ensure tasks are assigned in an energy-efficient
manner [217].
To achieve energy-efficient edge computing for the massive
number of data-hungry applications, a major constraint is the low
computing capacity of devices. Similarly, the power supply poses
concerns as well as the nature of wireless resources. In such
scenarios, D2D offloading architecture may be propitious. Relay-
assisted D2D could also produce further improvement especially
when multi-cell scenarios are considered [218].
5.2.7. SWIPT-enabled D2D communication
SWIPT is a key technology recently proposed to further achieve
energy-efficient communication in wireless systems. Smart devices
can harvest radio frequency energy from their energy access point
using this technology [219]. One of the advantages is that device
lifetime can be prolonged as wireless devices can ‘scavenge’ en-
ergy while receiving data. Also, transmission efficiency in SWIPT is
enhanced when compared with traditional TDD mechanism. More
interestingly, interference could be used in the course of energy
harvesting, and thus kept under control. For example, when there
is high transmission power which traditionally leads to a higher
SINR, this increase in transmit power gives room for more energy
to be harvested. However, determining the most appropriate trans-
mission power in this setting is quite challenging. Other challenges
with regard to modeling SWIPT-enabled D2D are the time-varying
channel conditions and node mobility which affects CSI availabil-
ity. Thus, robust beamforming techniques are required to cope with
the mobility issues [133].
The consideration of full-duplex D2D communication and
SWIPT techniques is also another open direction [220]. Although
wirelessly powered D2D communication can improve network ca-
pacity and prolong network lifetime, it is not bereft of its typical
challenges which include [134] (i) reluctance of the autonomous
power station to transmit its own power resource to D2D transmit-
ter without getting any benefit. This requires incentives to encour-
age D2D transmitters to engage in cooperative transmission and
energy trading between the power stations and D2D transmitters.
(ii) wireless link for D2D transmissions may be inversely affected
by fading. This requires dynamic resource allocation which jointly
performs rate adaptation, transmit power control and energy trans-
fer. The constraints, in this case, include the energy capacity, incen-
tives and limited data buffer. (iii) resource stations of D2D changes
in a much slower manner than fading which warrants the need for
two-time scale network decisions for coordinating different time-
scale network states.
5.2.8. D2D-assisted C-RANs
C-RAN is considered one of the potential 5G solutions. Some of
its attractive features are the ability to achieve a higher system ca-
pacity and reduced power consumption since remote radio heads
(RRHs) are brought closer to the user and long distance propaga-
tion are not required. Furthermore, interference can be more easily
mitigated since the BBU is centralized. This is because cooperative
processing can be adopted to mitigate interference. It is also more
energy and cost efficient because it can leverage resource pooling
and statistical multiplexing gain. As a sequel, the computing re-
sources of each traditional BS do not require dimensioning based
on peak load conditions [221]. One of its problems, however, is the
burden on the fronthaul which negatively impacts on the capacity
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
and time-delay performance. In this respect, D2D communication
can be introduced to facilitate direct communication between D2D
devices within proximity without passing through the RRH [222].
A key merit of D2D is its ability to improve the fronthaul de-
lay in C-RANs. The merger of D2D and C-RAN will change the cur-
rent communication landscape paving the way for future 5G sys-
tems [156]. Although D2D can reduce the burden of fronthaul and
also improve latency performance, the dynamic traffic pattern and
time-varying channel conditions require proper resource allocation
techniques. D2D in C-RANs has problems with inter and intra-tier
interference which could diminish the benefits produced by D2D
communication in this context [160]. For instance, when D2D is
incorporated into heterogeneous cloud radio access networks (H-
CRANs), interference management becomes very challenging as the
H-CRAN architecture is different from traditional cellular networks
and HetNets. This is because the dense deployment of RRHs poses
severe interference [109] to the network. In this respect, proper
mode selection and resource management techniques are required
to make the most benefit of these technologies.
5.2.9. D2D-assisted Fog
Fog has revolutionized a lot of mobile applications. In mobile
crowdsourcing, for example, task dissemination and data collection
can be deployed as services in fog nodes [223]. Fog enables IoT de-
vices to communicate using application device on a proximate fog
node. Mobile fog nodes will move with IoT devices which will re-
quire D2D communication to keep their connections intact. In this
regard, there is a need to study how D2D can be used to facilitate
the connection of fog and IoT devices and reveal the challenges
involved (one of which is the additional support required to al-
low fog nodes preserve D2D links). D2D is also ideal to support
M2M communication within fog clusters. It is important that effi-
cient transmission schemes are designed to offload traffic from the
backhaul of new servers [224]. As shown in [225], network cod-
ing can be used in D2D cooperative fog data networks to achieve
this.
Fog computing is a ‘promising’ technology which can provide
cheaper and lower latency services. In those applications, devices
can offload computationally intensive tasks to other devices with
idle resources for computation purposes [226]. Using multicast
communication, D2D can be used to support fog computing in
LTE/LTE-A networks [224]. A problem arises when only devices
within the proximity of the offloading device (i.e., its neighbors)
can offer the computation task where there may be other devices
that do such tasks more effectively. In such settings, mechanisms
to inform other devices should be put in place to encourage non-
neighbor devices to perform such computational tasks. However,
this requires the provision of incentives to neighbor devices to en-
courage them to inform other devices while also relaying their true
prices. Pricing is essential here as the tasks of computation and of-
floading consume energy and storage [226]. Pipeline transmission
policies in F-RAN D2D can facilitate content delivery, as such, it
is essential to characterize latency reduction when D2D links are
used for modern F-RAN [227].
5.2.10. UAV-assisted D2D
The coexistence of UAV and D2D comes with its peculiar chal-
lenges. For instance, the fact that UAV altitude is adjustable means
the channel characteristics will differ from that of traditional cel-
lular BS [187] which poses new research challenges. For a glimpse
into such challenges, note that in some cases establishing D2D
links would highly depend on the connection between UAV and
a ground user which makes user association complex [182]. How-
ever, traditional fading channels are not fit for UAV-assisted com-
munication as UAV links are air-to-ground links which are charac-
terized by LOS and NLOS links [183]. Furthermore, user association
23
is important (and may be highly challenging) especially in dam-
aged regions with high D2D user density [182]. Particularly, it is
necessary to determine whether a user is associated with a UAV or
a UAV-served user or such users should be left without coverage
to cater for other users having better conditions [182].
Another major challenge is the nature of interference that re-
sults from the coexistence of terrestrial devices and the flying
UAVs. For example, when D2D and UAV share the same spec-
trum, interference in such scenarios is intricate [180] considering
that it experiences frequent changes in topology [183]. The prob-
lem of interference is even more critical when UAV underlays het-
erogeneous networks with D2D communication [181]. Managing
interference in such cases requires highly efficient resource allo-
cation techniques which are quite demanding. Furthermore, effi-
cient resource allocation requires proper channel resource utiliza-
tion [180]. Parameters to be optimized include power, altitude, lo-
cation and bandwidth. The altitude of UAVs must neither be too
high nor too low as this affects the performance of UAV-aided net-
works in D2D underlay [187].
It is important to reiterate that the mobility of UAVs fur-
ther poses challenges [184] due to their diverse trajectories which
might involve an infinite number of variables [179]. In highly dense
network deployments requiring clustering, efficient clustering algo-
rithms are needed to improve the short-range communication of
D2D devices. Node clustering, path planning, coding and D2D file
sharing can all be jointly optimized [185] in such cases. Issues re-
lating to energy efficiency and fairness are other potential research
directions in UAV-assisted D2D networks [182].
5.2.11. Caching and content sharing
One of the motivations for caching data is the threat to cellu-
lar network capacity from the emergence of high popular contents
in diverse mobile applications. Caching facilitates content shar-
ing among mobile devices [228] and can naturally be facilitated
by D2D communication. The major issues associated with caching
data relate to how rational criteria can be set to characterize the
relationship between the content provider and the ‘downloader’.
Also selecting the proper downloading modes and candidates to
provide content [77], and providing incentives to users to provide
content [229] are challenging issues. Similarly, properly satisfying
requests for contents and effective message exchange between de-
vices is of prime concern [90]. In this respect, distributed caching
(e.g [91]) could play a key role in crowded regions where there
is a massive demand for online content. Also, social IoT and D2D
caching can be studied to exploit the benefits of the two paradigms
bearing download latency and successful delivery probability in
mind [230].
In a scenario where there is a heterogeneous preference for
content, the preference of a serving user and a neighbouring in-
terfering user might differ. Storing both requested and interfering
content could pose a new research question since enhancing the
requested signal is not always equal to reducing interfering signal
[231]. Also, there is a need for a joint design of caching policy and
cooperative distance. Incorporating self-caching with D2D-caching
and the trade-offs involved should be revealed [232]. Motivating
UEs to cache, relay and share data even when they would have
to sacrifice their energy is another open problem to be addressed
[233].
Caching has traditionally been used to facilitate the delivery of
non-real time data (such as on-demand video) [69]. Another typ-
ical scenario of content sharing is D2MD communication which
leverage on broadcast communication. In this context, shared con-
tents are delivered to multiple receivers in tandem. This is ad-
vantageous as it helps to offload traffic from the BS. However, to
fully maximize the benefit of this communication paradigm, the
interference between the D2MD groups and cellular users have
24 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
to be properly addressed since the D2MD links reuse the cellular
spectrum [97]. Other challenges related to D2D communication in
cache enabled networks are discussed below.
Limited caching capacity: This is basically due to the storage con-
straints in mobile devices which puts limitations to the amount
of content that could be cached in such devices. Considering the
limited caching capacity constraints, popular contents are mostly
cached despite the fact that some users may require unpopular
contents [234]. This calls for a proper and accurate caching deci-
sion since it is not possible that all contents are cached due to the
limited caching capacity of users [235]. Moreover, when using an
edge server to determine important contents to be cached at the
BS, cached replicas need to be constantly updated [236].
As a result of limited cached content, complete caching may
have to be done over several connections, especially for very large
files [234]. Therefore, the limited battery capacity of devices should
be considered as devices may not be willing to help other devices
due to such energy constraint among other reasons [237]. Although
not all UEs will be willing to participate in caching and content de-
livery [238], interested UEs could help to provide content diversity
as two helpers close to each other can cache different contents and
duplicate the caching of unpopular contents [238]. In this case, ap-
propriate content placement especially when devices cannot store
all content is crucial [239].
Content popularity: This is one of the primary considerations for
designing efficient cache-enabled D2D networks for improving 5G
performance. It is used to statistically characterize the interest of
file requesters, however, it does not capture diverse users’ inter-
ests in a variety of content [234]. Content popularity and deter-
mining contents to cache play key roles to improve the hit prob-
ability of users at the edge, reduce power consumption and alle-
viate the burden of the backhaul [233]. Content popularity models
can either be static or dynamic. The static models do not reflect
the time-varying property of content popularity. In reality, con-
tent popularity varies with time and it is not known a priori. This
makes it necessary that it be tracked and estimated [240].
Mobility modelling: Mobility constitutes some of the D2D big
data features12 which could facilitate accurate network modelling
[250]. Hence proper consideration of helper selection and mobil-
ity model can be used to effectively distribute content to con-
sumers/users [241]. With the knowledge of user trajectories, DUEs
can be provided contents by other users along their trajectories.
Thus, user mobility has the potential to improve the cache hit ra-
tio [234]. Although mobility can enhance throughput performance,
practical assumption such as randomness has to be considered in-
stead of overly idealistic assumptions [242]. It is important to bear
in mind that user mobility varies over time and thus affect the
content sharing scenarios since the topology becomes dynamic.
Also, CSI changes due to mobility which can lead to incomplete
transmission of content as time passes [234].
Implementing real-life scenarios require social patterns and
well descriptive mobility models which may be very challenging.
Also, mobility aware analyses that capture realistic scenarios with
more than two file portions [243] and variation in contact du-
ration during content delivery would be needed [244]. However,
channel and user mobility profile predictions need user mobility
interaction [245]. Hence, investigation of heterogeneous distribu-
tion of contact and inter-contact time is important [234]. This is
because both contact duration and contact rate have to be consid-
ered in mobility-aware caching research to improve the hit per-
formance [244]. It is prime to consider appropriate mobility mod-
els that provide the proper performance characterization of cache-
12
Other D2D big data features include content size, interest, time-varying popu-
larity and social relationships.
enabled D2D networks. The mobility models should capture user
behaviours in different scenarios with social considerations [242].
For example, using comprehensive mobility models which take
into account interference from other transmitting nodes is neces-
sary for scenarios such as multicast clustering [57].
Clustering Clustering is beneficial in the context of caching and
content sharing. In each cluster, cluster heads can perform cache
allocation [238] and popular files can be cached within the cluster
[240]. Cluster-users can be grouped based on content similarities
[246] and user preferences to satisfy users request [247]. In clus-
tered networks, machine learning algorithms can be deployed to
learn and extract information from user data (such as search key-
words) and service request. The request patterns can be learned
to predict users future interests [247]. Also, each cluster can have
helpers which are directed at serving common users thereby pro-
viding content diversity and higher hit probability [238]. However,
choosing the devices which would cache the most important and
popular files is challenging [248]. Proper cluster maintenance is re-
quired as mobile users and helpers change frequently [238]. Fur-
thermore, reliable clustering techniques should be developed to
improve clustered D2D for traffic offloading such as a proactive ap-
proach which takes preventive measures during cluster formation
[232]. Reactive mechanisms aimed at either recovering from fail-
ures or minimizing failures dynamically after clusters are formed
are also necessary [249]. Robustness and failure recovery are es-
sential for D2D communication networks as moving devices can
disrupt active D2D communications especially in very dense and
busy ‘urban’ areas.
6. Conclusion
With the aim of presenting a primer on the fundamental is-
sues and design guidelines for D2D communication in line with
recent research trends, we: introduced D2D communication and
its applications; presented a classification of D2D communication
based on spectrum partition, level of control, duplexing and num-
ber of hops; and discussed interference and the design aspects of
D2D communication such as mode selection, power control and re-
source allocation. We further highlight very recent research works
in this respect to bring the reader closer to the current trends.
Amongst others, the application areas covered by these works in-
clude vehicular communication, content sharing, video streaming,
social applications, real-time applications, and advertisements. The
techniques and models used, and their metrics were also sum-
marized. Finally, we described the challenges highlighted in sev-
eral portions of D2D literature while giving very recent technolo-
gies special attention. This paper positions itself as a precursory
material discussing the fundamental concepts, design issues and
challenges in D2D research. In line with the research advance-
ments in D2D communication, future surveys could focus more on
new developments associated with the interplay between D2D and
other emergent technologies discussed in this paper such as MIMO,
mmWave, edge-computing, SWIPT, and UAV. Furthermore, tutorials
on methods (such as game theory, stochastic geometry, graph the-
ory, and artificial intelligence) for modeling and addressing practi-
cal design problems in D2D communication research could also be
put forward.
Acknowledgment
We would like to appreciate everyone who provided valuable
suggestions and support to improve the content, quality, and pre-
sentation of this paper. This work has been supported by the
Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education under the Malaysian In-
ternational Scholarship scheme.
 O.A. Amodu, M. Othman and N.K. Noordin et al. / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101938
Conflict of interest
None.
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Oluwatosin Ahmed Amodu received his Bachelor of
Technology degree in Electrical Electronics Engineering
from the Federal University of Technology Akure, Nige-
ria, in 2012. He completed his master’s degree in Com-
puter Science with a specialization in distributed comput-
ing at Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2016. He is currently
pursuing a Ph.D. Program in Wireless Communication and
Network Engineering. His research interests include sen-
sor networks, machine-type communications, device-to-
device communication, spectrum sharing networks, and
stochastic geometry.
Mohamed Othman received his Ph.D. degree (Hons.)
from the National University of Malaysia. He is currently
a professor in computer science with the Department of
Communication Technology and Network, Universiti Pu-
tra Malaysia (UPM). Prior to that, he was a Deputy Di-
rector of the Information Development and Communica-
tion Center, where he was in charge of UMPNet network
campus, uSport Wireless Communication Project, and the
UPM DataCenter. He is also an Associate Researcher and
a coordinator of high-speed machines with the Labora-
tory of Computational Science and Informatics, Institute
of Mathematical Science, UPM. In 2017, he received an
Honorable Professor from Silkway International University
(SWIU), Shymkent, Kazakhstan, and was also a visiting professor with South Kaza-
khstan State University, Shymkent, and L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University,
Astana, Kazakhstan. He has published in more than 300 International journals and
330 proceeding papers. His main research interests are in the fields of computer
networks, parallel and distributed computing, highspeed interconnection networks,
network design and management (network security, wireless and traffic monitor-
ing), consensus in IoT, and mathematical modeling in scientific computing. He is
a senior member of IEEE, and a life member of the Malaysian National Computer
Confederation, and Malaysian Mathematical Society. He was a recipient of the Best
PhD Thesis in 20 0 0 by Sime Darby Malaysia and Malaysian Mathematical Science
Society. He has also filed six Malaysian, one Japanese, one South Korean, and three
U.S. patents.
Nor Kamariah Noordin received her B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering with a
major in telecommunications from University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA, in 1987,
a master’s degree from University Teknologi Malaysia, and a Ph.D. degree from Uni-
versity Putra Malaysia (UPM). She has been with UPM since 1988 and was ap-
pointed associate professor in 2006 and professor in 2012. During her tenure, she
has been the head of department, deputy dean of academics, director of corporate
strategy and communication of the university and now the dean of faculty of engi-
neering. During her more than 25 years with the university, she has published more
than 200 journals and conference papers and had secured more than 30 research
and consultancy projects.
Idawaty Ahmad received the bachelor’s and master’s degrees in information sci-
ence from Saga University, Japan, and the Ph.D. degree in computer networks from
University Putra Malaysia, where she has been a Lecturer with the Faculty of Com-
puter Science and Information Technology, since 20 0 0. She specializes in the areas
of real-time systems, network protocols, and simulation/modeling which are core
areas in computer science.